Philippa Lalor says bulimia has stolen the past 15 years of her life.

She was 19 years old and studying medicine in Aberdeen when too much partying saw her fall behind in her studies.
Feeling alone and unsure of her future, she started regulating her food to regain a sense of control.
She says her eating-disorder thoughts literally appeared on one date: 5 November 2002.
"From that day until now, I have counted every calorie I've eaten," she says.
"It was like on that day in November, everything suddenly changed."
What developed was an all-consuming obsession that has since ruled her life.
It has been a "full time, seven day a week, constant battle," she says.
As part of her condition, she hoards food until its way past its use-by date.
In her kitchen, there are cupboards full of spoiled food.
"There's food that's been in here for years.," she says.
"I've probably got enough if there's ever a nuclear explosion."
She hoards food out of fear of being hungry.
But she would never actually consume any of it, as she only ever eats white fish and vegetables.
And, without fail, she weighs everything she eats.
She has three sets of scales.
Two are precise and electronic, which she uses to compare measurements.
And the third, which does not require batteries, is there to provide back-up - but only in the most desperate of circumstances.
"It makes me absolutely terrified," Ms Lalor says.
"Even if it means going on a bus to the 24-hour Tesco to get a battery, I'm going to get a battery."
She says the condition has left her isolated and made it almost impossible to maintain friendships.
"At times it's been very difficult to be social because every social situation has food - even a coffee," she says.
This cycle of food obsession and social isolation was something she struggled to break, but new research from King's College London is providing a sense of hope.
Conducted by Maria Kekic for her doctorate, it involves using electricity to stimulate a part of the brain known as the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex.
Located toward the front of the brain, it is associated with impulsivity or self-control.
Participants, including Ms Lalor, were shown videos of food, and their urge to binge eat was measured.
Electrical impulses were then applied to their brains, via small electrodes placed on their foreheads.
Those who received the signals to the brain area, rather than the placebo, then demonstrated less urge to binge and greater self-control in subsequent tests.
But it is a long way from being prescribed as a treatment.
"It is important to remember that this trial is very early days in the research," says Ms Kekic.
"It was just a single session, so we're only looking at the temporary effects of brain stimulation
"The next step would be to carry out, over the course of several weeks, daily sessions to see if this has long-lasting effects on symptoms."
What is encouraging is that the stimulation has already proven effective in treating related conditions such as depression, schizophrenia and substance abuse disorders.
And Ms Lalor found it worked for her, even if only for a few hours.
"I just came out and my brain felt completely differently," she says.
"It was like something had switched and it was back into being how I remember it, when I was an early teenager."
And perhaps most importantly, taking part in the programme has alleviated some of her shame about having a mental illness.
"This treatment was the one time, the only time, that I've been genuinely able to believe that this was part of my brain," she says, "that it is not just me being lazy.
"And even that is enough to change my whole perception of myself, my self-confidence and my self-esteem."


Junior doctors are to take part in three more strikes and launch a judicial review as part of their fight against the government's decision to impose a new contract in England.

The government condemned the announcement by the British Medical Association, which comes two weeks after ministers said they would force the changes on doctors from the summer.
Ministers say the contract will improve services, and strikes are unnecessary.
The BMA says the contract is unfair.
The latest move marks a further escalation in the long-running dispute, which is fast becoming the most bitter breakdown in relations between the government and medical profession since the NHS was created.
The three strikes in March and April will each last 48 hours, although emergency cover will be provided.
The stoppages will be held on:
Two strikes have already been held this year - one in January and one in February. Both lasted just 24 hours.
BMA junior doctor leader Dr Johann Malawana said he had spent the last two weeks consulting with members and they had given a "resounding message" that they "cannot and will not accept" the imposition, which includes paying doctors less to work Saturdays.
"The government must put patients before politics, get back around the table and find a negotiated solution to this dispute," he added.
The BMA also believes it has found legal grounds for a challenge.
Under the Equality Act 2010, there is an onus to show "due regard" to equalities issues, typically through carrying out an equality impact assessment.
This would look at issues such as whether access to services could be compromised by a change in policy.
The BMA said the government has failed to provide evidence such an assessment has been done and so will challenge the government in the courts over it.
A Department of Health spokesman said: "Further strike action is completely unnecessary and will mean tens of thousands more patients face cancelled operations - over a contract that was 90% agreed with the BMA.
"We urge junior doctors to look at the detail of the contract and the clear benefits it brings.
The news comes hours after the government's former patient safety adviser said ministers were wrong to impose the contract.
Prof Don Berwick, who led a review for government on safety three years ago, said there should be a three-year moratorium on the imposition of the new contract and called on the government to "apologise".
He said the NHS had a "demoralised" workforce and needed to find another way out of the "mess", the Health Service Journal reported.
Speaking at an event in London at the King's Fund think-tank, Prof Berwick, who has also acted as a health adviser to US President Barack Obama, said: "You cannot achieve excellence in combat with your future workforce, it makes no sense at all."
The Prime Minister's spokeswoman said the freshly announced strikes were "regrettable", but she was sure discussions would continue.
And Danny Mortimer, chief executive of NHS Employers, which has been negotiating with doctors on behalf of the government, added the move was "disappointing" as the majority of the BMA's concerns had been addressed in the final contract offer.
"This disruption to patient care is unnecessary. I strongly believe that the final contract is safe, fair and reasonable. For the sake of the NHS, and patients I urge all junior doctors to take a look at the contract in detail before taking part in any future action."
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Notts County Ladies survived Liverpool Ladies' fightback to earn a first win of the Women's Super League One season.

The hosts led 2-0 after Ellen White's opener and Jess Clarke's curler.
Liverpool's Caroline Weir then placed a penalty over the bar and White punished that miss with Notts' third goal.
Katie Zelem pulled one back for Liverpool from the spot after Amy Turner fouled Emma Lundh in the area and Zelem fired in her second to give the Reds hope but Notts held on to win.
Victory lifted Rick Passmoor's side up to fourth, above Liverpool on goal difference.
Both sides are three points behind third-placed Arsenal.
Leaders Manchester City Women thrash Doncaster Rovers Belles
Reading Women and Sunderland remain winless after draw
Notts County striker Ellen White: "We're delighted to get the three points, we've been yearning for that first league win.
"We played some really nice stuff and got some good goals, especially the one Jess scored - it was an absolute screamer.
"But it was disappointing for us not to keep a clean sheet. Those last few minutes must have been exiting for the spectators, but not for us.
"If you take away those two late goals we conceded though, it was a great team performance."
Liverpool captain Gemma Bonner: "We're very disappointed. We started the game well and created a couple of good chances, but in the end we gave ourselves too much to do.
"Going three goals behind meant we had a mountain to climb, but we can take some positives from the last 15 minutes when we pulled two goals back.
"We lost to Chelsea at home last week, but we performed really well and even their manager said we deserved a draw. So we'll go down there next week knowing that we can compete with them, and we'll hopefully come back with three points."


There has only been one time when I've been forced to remain indoors in the evening whilst covering a sporting event.

Only one occasion when the hotel door was physically barred from the inside and the management told us to stay put.
That was not in some far flung corner of the world. It was in Birmingham.
The summer of 2011, when a Test match was played at Edgbaston in the context of urban unrest, with the riots across England. We did what we were told, but it felt wrong.
So far in Ghent, host to Britain's first Davis Cup final for 35 years and a city of stunning architectural settings, nothing has felt threatening.
In sport security often becomes the story. The 'to go or not to go' dilemma is shared by competitors, journalists and spectators.
Occasionally there are direct instructions, but more often than not the decision is ultimately left to the individual. We all have to answer the fundamental question, 'is it safe?' That isn't easy.
In my experience there are two differing approaches to security at events considered to be a risk; the deliberate display of strength and the discreet deployment.
The most memorable example of the first strategy I've experienced was in India in December 2008 when the England cricket team returned to the country after the Mumbai attacks.
Even at the first training session in Chennai there were armed security men around the boundary. Every time a batsman walked from the ground back into the changing room there were soldiers or police around him. Always with guns.
The cricket ground in Mohali is traditionally favoured when there is a heightened need for security in India - the modern grid pattern of the wide surrounding streets makes it easier to close off.
That is where England played India in the second Test in 2008 and is also where India played Pakistan in the 2011 World Cup.
On both occasions the display of weaponry and manpower was extraordinary. I can remember a raised, sand-bagged machine gun point close to the ground and so many different uniforms it was hard to distinguish which regiment or department each group of security personnel belonged to.
A sense of safety is not always created by sheer numbers. In Ghent, so far, we've experienced the other approach.
The International Tennis Federation made it clear very early on that spectators would face additional security checks. In essence, fans won't be able to bring anything into the venue - we are told there will be lockers provided for bags.
There is certainly a big area designated for refreshment (to buy) before you reach the courts, turn left for  'Belgian cafe' or right for 'British pub'. The facilities are all being constructed around us.
The multi-purpose hall is essentially a blank canvas for whatever event comes next and dozens of contractors are hammering, attaching, fixing and adjusting. There is no sense of tension nor restriction.
Naturally, bags are searched as the media come in, but it's all done quickly and with a sense of courtesy. There is no panic, no aggression.
Take a step back when the players move around between practice and media sessions and you can spot the men who are there to watch out for anything unusual.
But if anyone is carrying a gun then they are doing it discretely.
One of the most impressive bits of sporting security I've experienced came at the Ryder Cup, at the K Club in Ireland in 2006.
Hovering by the 16th green as the victory celebrations began I spotted Bill Clinton watching. I asked him a question, he responded. I tried another, he answered. Just as I began the third question an arm came down between us - "enough". The spectator in the regulation baseball cap and pink polo shirt was the former president's security man and he'd been watching all along.
Whenever there is sport and security the forbearance of the public is critical. Patience during bag searches is now commonplace and most spectators in Ghent will be aware that it is going to happen and are sanguine about the necessity.
It's unlikely there will be many repeats of the behaviour I witnessed from a spectator at the 2012 Paralympics, who fiercely objected to having his watch put through a scanner at the entrance to the equestrian competition.
"I want to speak to your lieutenant!" he shouted at the soldier who was supervising security. Certainly sir, although that will be a little tricky as my lieutenant is currently on a tour of Afghanistan."
Petulance put in place, everything put into context.
For those of us fortunate enough to report on sport for a living we are doing our job by going to events. Maintaining the status quo is perhaps the only meaningful way we can react when horrible things happen in the world.
Let's remember that the Davis Cup has been running since 1900, with the only interruptions coming when Europe was at war with itself.
Sport is a function and symptom of a positive and peaceful world.


A group of German-speaking parents in northern Italy are so angry about a new requirement to get their children vaccinated that they plan to seek asylum in nearby Austria.

The 130 families live in Alto Adige - also known as South Tyrol - a region that was part of Austria before 1919.
Last month the Italian government ruled that children must be vaccinated against 12 common illnesses before they can enrol for state-run schools.
Cases of measles have risen in Italy.
The highly-contagious sickness is fatal in some cases. Some other European countries, including France and Romania, have also seen more measles cases this year.
In some parts of Europe, including Italy, vaccination rates have dropped below those recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO).
The leader of the South Tyrol protest, Reinhold Holzer, said the group had sent protest messages to Italian President Sergio Mattarella, Austrian President Alexander Van der Bellen, and the UN Human Rights Council in Geneva.
"We won't allow our children to be poisoned. Asylum is claimed not just by people fleeing war, but also by people whose rights are being violated," said Mr Holzer, quoted by Austria's Der Standard daily.
Trentino-Alto Adige, a mountainous Alpine region, is reported to have one of the highest vaccine refusal rates in Italy.
In an interview with Radio SÃ¼dtirol Mr Holzer alleged that some chemicals in vaccines were risky, and said parents should have a free choice about child immunisations, as in Germany, Austria and Switzerland.
However, Germany recently announced plans to fine parents who failed to get medical advice about immunising their child.
Mr Holzer voiced concern about Thiomersal (or Thimerosal), a mercury-based preservative used in some vaccines, and about genetically engineered vaccines.
The UK National Health Service says Thiomersal is not used in child vaccines - and adds that it poses no risk anyway.
Conspiracy theories about the health risks of certain vaccinations - largely based on one discredited paper - have spread on the internet, prompting some parents to shun immunisation.
Scientific studies have debunked an alleged link between vaccines and autism, as the US Centers for Disease Control point out on their website.


Interactive photographs in which still objects can be manipulated have been developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).

MIT said its algorithm analysed video of a still object to detect "tiny, almost invisible vibrations" that determined how it moved.
The technique, called interactive dynamic video (IDV), does not require any special cameras.
It could be used to create special effects in video games or films.
"This technique lets us capture the physical behaviour of objects, which gives us a way to play with them in virtual space," said Abe Davis, a PhD student at MIT's Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory.
Demonstration footage showed a wobbling wire mannequin, playground climbing frame, and a shrub that swayed when virtually tugged.
One potential application for the technology could be to improve the realism in augmented reality games such as Pokemon Go, the research team said.
Pokemon Go superimposes virtual monsters over a live view of the world from a smartphone's camera, although the Pokemon do not interact with real-world objects.
The MIT team has released a video showing how the likes of Pikachu and Snorlax could interact with other real-world objects, using the IDV technique.
Doug James, a professor of computer science at Stanford University, said IDV could also be a useful alternative to traditional animation processes used in the film industry.


A man has been arrested on suspicion of terror offences after he drove a van into a group of worshippers close to a mosque in north London.

One man, who had taken ill before the attack began, died and nine others were taken to hospital, some of whom were critically injured.
The terror attack happened shortly before 00:20 BST on Monday, 19 June, when the vehicle mounted the pavement outside Muslim Welfare House - which is also a community centre - on Seven Sisters Road.
Here is what we know so far.
A number of worshippers from Muslim Welfare House and nearby Finsbury Park Mosque were on the streets at the time, having just taken part in evening prayers after breaking the Ramadan fast.
A group were helping an elderly man who had fallen down in Whadcoat Street - a short road off Seven Sisters Road - as they waited for their next set of prayers.
It was then that a white van came down the street, mounted the pavement and drove into people.
Calls were made to the emergency services at about 00:20 BST. A police van arrived within one minute and a cordon was raised around the area within 10 minutes.
The man who was driving the van was restrained by people at the scene, and an imam stopped some of the crowd from attacking the suspect.
More than 60 medics went to help the injured, including ambulance crews, advance paramedics, specialist response teams, and a trauma team from London's Air Ambulance.
Prime Minister Theresa May said the attack was "declared a terrorist incident within eight minutes" of the first emergency call being received.
As a result, officers from the local borough are being supported by armed police and the Territorial Support Group, which is deployed to events that may involve public disorder. The Counter Terrorism Command is leading the investigation.
Police confirmed early on Monday that the elderly man who was receiving first aid before the attack had later died.
He has not yet been named, and police said they were still investigating whether he died as a result of the attack or something else.
The London Ambulance Service said nine people were being treated in three hospitals in the capital, with some in a serious condition.
Two other people were treated at the scene for minor injuries.
The police confirmed that all the victims were Muslims.
Witnesses reported seeing one man giving CPR to a victim in the street, while another man's head injury was treated with a makeshift dressing.
The BBC understands Darren Osborne, a 47-year-old man from the Cardiff area, was initially arrested on suspicion of attempted murder. He grew up in Weston-super-Mare in Somerset and has four children.
He was later also arrested for the commission, preparation or instigation of terrorism.
Immediately after the attack he was detained by members of the public as they waited for police to arrive on the scene.
Eyewitness Abdul Rahman told the BBC: "When the guy came out from his van he wanted to escape, run away, and he was saying 'I want to kill Muslims. 'I want to kill Muslims.'"
Police said he was taken to hospital as a precaution. Security minister Ben Wallace said the man was not known to the police or security services, and it is thought he acted alone.
Some witnesses said there was more than one person involved in the attack, but a statement from the police said there were no other suspects.
Forensics officers are now examining the white van, which has Pontyclun Van Hire - a firm from Rhondda Cynon Taff in Wales - written on it.
A residential address in the Cardiff area is being searched in relation to the terror attack.
Mr Osborne's family released a statement, which said: "We are massively in shock, it's unbelievable. It still hasn't really sunk in.
"We're devastated for the families, our hearts go out to those who've been injured.
"It's madness, it must just be complete madness."
Mrs May said the incident was a terror attack. She said the man arrested on suspicion of carrying out the attack "targeted the ordinary and the innocent going about their daily lives".
She reiterated remarks that were made after an attack near London Bridge, saying "there has been far too much tolerance of extremism over many years."
She added that there would be nowhere left for extremism to hide.
Labour leader and local MP Jeremy Corbyn said on Twitter that he was "totally shocked" by what had happened.
"I've been in touch with the mosques, police and Islington council regarding the incident. My thoughts are with those and the community affected by this awful event."
Mayor of London Sadiq Khan promised additional policing to reassure communities, especially those observing Ramadan. He has also asked people to "remain calm and vigilant".
"We don't yet know the full details, but this was clearly a deliberate attack on innocent Londoners, many of whom were finishing prayers during the holy month of Ramadan," he said.
"While this appears to be an attack on a particular community, like the terrible attacks in Manchester, Westminster and London Bridge, it is also an assault on all our shared values of tolerance, freedom and respect."
Imam Mohammed Mahmoud, who protected the alleged attacker from an angry crowd, said: "This demonisation of the Muslim community at the hands of people with ulterior motives... have succeeded to some extent [by] influencing the vulnerable and the impressionable.
"It's on a par with the London Bridge attack... and we just hope that in times of tragedy people come together and unite.
"The fabric of this society is not torn but we have to continue to keep the fabric of this society intact, and come together."
General secretary of the Finsbury Park mosque Mohammed Kozbar said: "An attack on one faith is an attack on all faiths and communities.
"They will try to divide us... they will not succeed."
The secretary general of the Muslim Council of Britain (MCB), Harun Khan, tweeted that the van had "intentionally run over worshippers" and that he was "shocked and outraged".
In a statement, the MCB added that it was a "violent manifestation of Islamophobia" and called for extra security around mosques.
Communities Secretary Sajid Javid spoke briefly to concerned residents before being led through the police cordon as he visited the scene. He said "the attacker will not succeed in his efforts to divide British society".
The Jewish Community Council of North London called the attack "barbaric" and tweeted that members shared their "thoughts and prayers with our friends and neighbours".
Speaking on his first state visit as Irish prime minister, Taoiseach Leo Varadkar said: "I think pretty much everyone in Ireland has somebody who lives [in London] who's a relative or a close friend.
"And when there's an attack on London, we feel in Ireland that it's almost an attack on us as well."
Police have asked witnesses or anyone with information to call them on 101 or contact them via Twitter @MetCC.
Information can also be provided anonymously by calling Crimestoppers on 0800 555 111 or visiting its website.


A foam factory in Merthyr Tydfil has announced it will close with the loss of 80 jobs.

Japanese-owned chemical firm Sekisui Alveo said production at its Merthyr Tydfil Industrial Park plant will end by March 2018.
The plant will be decommissioned in four stages over the next three years, the company said.
It is part of a move to relocate production to Roermond in the Netherlands, it added.
Alan Gunter, manufacturing director at the Merthyr Tydfil site, said the decision to decommission the plant had "not been taken lightly".
"I am immensely proud of our highly professional workforce and I would like to thank them all for their commitment and dedication," he said.
"We are aware that this is a difficult time for employees at the Merthyr Tydfil production plant and we will do everything to support them and their families during and after the plant's staged decommissioning.
"We will also continue to collaborate with the local authorities in the coming months."


Captain Ashley Williams says he has not enjoyed this season, despite Swansea City seemingly winning their battle to avoid Premier League relegation.

Saturday's vital 1-0 win over Aston Villa means Swansea are now 10-points clear of the bottom three with just seven games remaining.
However, Williams says he will be pleased when the campaign ends.
"This season has been a grind and the Villa game summed it up. It has not been enjoyable, to be honest," he said.
Williams admits the season has been unsettling, with Swansea sacking manager Garry Monk and appointing Francesco Guidolin, who has since suffered health problems.
"There has been a lot of changes, with the manager for example, so it is not ideal," Williams reflected.
"It is the kind of season you want to get out the way.
"Get safe, see where you finish and try and put everything right before next season.
"We will have a review at the end of the season and this one is an important one.
"For whatever reason, we've got it wrong this season.
"It is unacceptable for a club like Swansea to have a season like this, I believe."
Williams feels Swansea can get back to their best next term and ensure they get back to a more comfortable position, having finished ninth, 12th and eighth in their three previous Premier League campaigns.
"With the players we've got, at such a good club, we need to do better next season so there is a lot of talking to be done in the summer," he said.
"The pleasing thing is we've got through it.
"There are many reasons why (Swansea have underperformed) and we will all have to do a lot of reflecting, looking at ourselves.
"There has been a lot going on.
"The pressure is off us now a little bit. We shouldn't be content to be done with 36 points.
"We need to finish as strongly as we can and then it all looks a little bit better."


A 10-year master plan for a North Yorkshire spa town has gone on show.

The report and drawings will be exhibited at St Peter's Church on Cambridge Road until Saturday.
Plans could include a five star hotel and spa, outdoor cafes, improved public transport, pedestrianised areas and a casino.
Harrogate Councillor Michael Harrison said the public view would be taken into account so the drafts could be refined.
Planning consultants from Peter Brett Associates will be at the exhibition on Friday 16 and Saturday 17 January to answer questions.
The proposal has been put together based on a survey of 100 town centre businesses and 300 shoppers who were asked how it could be improved.
A six-week public consultation is to be held later in the year.
Mr Harrison said a redevelopment strategy was essential to Harrogate's success.
"We've got a tourist and a conference offering but we need a leisure offering," he said.
"It's how those things sit together, and what could be done to connect the railway station with different parts of the town centre."
Harrogate District Council's principle planner James Langler said improving the area around the train station was a "long-term aspiration" for the council, as was a more usable public square.
A council spokesperson said there were no costings for the project because it was at an early stage in the process.
"We will not be able to produce an accurate estimate of costs until the master plan and strategy has been developed further," the council said.


Manchester Thunder's postponed game against Netball Superleague leaders Hertfordshire Mavericks has been rescheduled for 25 April.

Thunder have been fined by the league for failing to provide a safe playing surface for the match.
Umpires halted the round 11 game, with the hosts leading 14-9 after the first quarter, because of water on the court.
Mavericks are level on points with Thunder at the top of the table, but have a superior goal difference.


Chinese authorities say they have jurisdiction over a group of Taiwanese who were taken from Kenya in a high-profile diplomatic incident.

State council and security officials said the Taiwanese were part of a telecom fraud ring who cost mainland victims billions of yuan.
It is the fullest explanation from China since the furore began this week.
Taiwan has protested at the move, calling it "extrajudicial abduction" and demanding the group's release.
China has praised Kenya for supporting its "one-China policy".
Beijing views Taiwan - self-ruling since 1950 - as a breakaway region that must be reunited with the mainland.
It insists that other countries cannot recognise both China and Taiwan, with the result that Taiwan has formal diplomatic ties with only a few countries. Taiwan does not have formal diplomatic relations with Kenya.
China's public security ministry said the group of 45 Taiwanese people were arrested in Kenya in 2014 and earlier this year, along with a number of Chinese citizens, for conducting telephone scams.
Kenyan officials had decided to hand them over to Beijing for investigation.
Eight of the Taiwanese were among the first group of suspects sent to China on Saturday.
The remaining 37 were sent on Tuesday, with Taiwan claiming that they were forced on board a plane by Kenyan police wielding rifles and tear gas.
The public security ministry said, in comments (in Chinese) reported by state news agency Xinhua, that it had opened an investigation as the fraud ring's victims were all mainland citizens.
It added that "according to our country's laws and rules, our legal departments have jurisdiction over the above criminal suspects", including the Taiwanese.
It said it welcomed Taiwan's co-operation in its investigation.
Separately An Fengshan, a spokesman from China's body in charge of Taiwan relations, told reporters that the group of swindlers had cost losses of "tens of billions of yuan".
"Many Taiwanese suspects have been freed as soon as they are transferred to Taiwan. They soon start defrauding mainlanders through their dens in other countries.
"Situations like this have made it difficult to stop telecom swindles and to recover the economic losses cause," he said.
Taiwan says it will send a delegation to China to discuss the incident.
The minister of its mainland affairs council. Andrew Hsia, was quoted by CNA News as saying that China's deporting of the Taiwanese was "rude and savage".
Authorities previously said China's actions amounted to an "uncivilised act of extrajudicial abduction" which represents a "gross violation of basic human rights."
Taiwan is also lodging a suit against Kenyan officials for "forcefully detaining" its people and ignoring an earlier court decision which cleared some of the suspects.


(Close)US stocks closed only a fraction lower on Thursday but American Express helped the Dow Jones Index after a strong set of results.

Shares in the credit card firm rose 9% after it raised its 2016 profit forecast and reported better-than-expected third quarter revenue.
Overall, the Dow Jones was 40 points lower at 18,162, while the wider S&P 500 was flat down 2 points at 2,144.
The tech-focused Nasdaq slipped by 4 points to 5,241.
On the downside, Ebay tumbled more than 10% after forecasts for the current quarter, the crucial holiday season, disappointed investors.
Verizon fell nearly 2.5% percent after the company posted weak revenue for the third quarter, having added fewer than expected new subscribers.
It also indicated it is considering renegotiating its $4.8bn (Â£3.9bn) deal to buy Yahoo Inc.
The company's chief financial officer said they were working on the basis that the security breach at Yahoo earlier this year which involved 500 million email accounts could affect the transaction.
Yahoo's shares fell 0.8% percent.


Nick Clegg has blamed the rise of the SNP - rather than his own leadership - for his party's devastating general election defeat, in an LBC interview.

The former Lib Dem leader said voters had "played safe" by backing the Tories to prevent a Labour/SNP government.
He said he would have quit as leader a year before polling day if he thought it would have made a difference.
And he had "no regrets" about coalition with the Tories, in his first interview since standing down as leader.
Mr Clegg said he feared David Cameron was undoing much of what his party achieved in coalition and that the Conservative Party had also been "gobsmacked" by the election, which he said they had not expected to win.
The Lib Dem leader said his first reaction on seeing the exit poll predicting the near-wipe out of his party, was to reach for a cigarette for the first time in months.
His initial disbelief at the poll's predictions quickly turned to despair and a "grim realisation that this was going to be an absolutely terrible night".
He worried first about whether he would retain his own seat before realising he had to "take responsibility" and began to call close colleagues, such as Danny Alexander and David Laws, to discuss the results and how badly the pollsters had got it wrong.
He said it had been a "strange" election campaign and although the party had not remotely expected to do as badly as it did they felt the Conservative strategy of talking up the prospect of Labour/SNP government was having a big effect in England.
"Ten days before the election day all of us really felt a Labour government dancing to the tune of the SNP really chilled the English heart," he told presenter Nick Ferrari.
Asked about reports in The Guardian that he had considered quitting as leader a year earlier, after his party's disastrous results in local and European election results, he said he did not believe "changing personnel at the top of the party " would have changed the general election result.
The former deputy prime minister denied he had destroyed his party, which saw its number of MPs reduced from 56 to just eight, insisting it would bounce back.
But he said they had paid the price for "putting country before party" in 2010.
Asked what the party had achieved in government, he said: "We had a strong and stable government, anchored in the centre ground for five years at a time of outright economic peril."
But he was concerned the Conservatives were now pursuing an "illiberal, punitive" approach to issues like child poverty and protecting the poor from welfare cuts.
He had been most proud of figures suggesting the "attainment gap" in schools was closing, with poorer pupils doing better, something he claimed was a direct result of Lib Dem policies such as "the pupil premium".
And the thing he most missed about being deputy prime minister was "making decisions" that would improve the country.
Asked a question suggested by former sparring partner Nigel Farage - if he regretted winning his Sheffield Hallam seat - Mr Clegg said he wanted to serve his constituents for the next five years and play an active role in the debate on Europe and other issues he cared about.
But, as for his future, he said would "take it one Parliament at a time".
Mr Clegg had to be persuaded to carry on as Lib Dem leader a full 12 months before the general election, according to The Guardian.
But was talked in to staying on by Lord Ashdown and Tim Farron, who is now bidding to be the party's next leader.
Mr Farron told The Guardian that when he spoke to Mr Clegg after the 2014 local and European polls he found him "just distraught about everything" and "he felt personally every single loss".
"I just thought this could end up in a bloodbath and we're far better off sticking with the captain who has done nothing to deserve this," he said.


Albania says it will reward its national footballers with diplomatic passports for having beaten Romania 1-0 at the Euro 2016 tournament.

The country has never played before in a major football competition. But it is not yet clear whether Albania will qualify for the next round in France.
The team will get €1m (£770,000; $1.1m) in extra funding as well as the new passports, the government said.
Albania lost their other two matches, coming third in their Euro 2016 group.
Albanian Prime Minister Edi Rama captured the nation's excitement on Sunday by tweeting "Goooooooooool...." when Armando Sadiku headed the winning goal against Romania in the first half.
The award of diplomatic passports is mainly symbolic, as many of the Albanian players are already with clubs elsewhere in Europe and Albanians enjoy visa-free travel to the EU.
They will not enjoy diplomatic immunity, as that is reserved for official diplomats, but they will benefit from easier international travel.
The win sparked big celebrations in the streets of Albania's capital Tirana and in Pristina, capital of neighbouring Kosovo, where most of the population are ethnic Albanian.
Fans waved Albanian flags, let off fireworks, honked car horns for hours and danced to folk music.
The European football body Uefa has launched disciplinary proceedings against the Albanian and Romanian football federations because of crowd trouble at the match.
Some supporters let off smoke bombs, hurled objects and invaded the pitch. One French-Albanian man hid a banned flare in his rectum to smuggle it into the stadium, prosecutors said.
Uefa has now opened disciplinary actions against eight countries in the tournament because of hooliganism by fans.


Australia and New Zealand will meet in cricket's first day-night Test match later this year.

Starting on 27 November, the final Test of their three-match series will be under lights in Adelaide, with a pink ball and both teams wearing whites.
Cricket Australia chief executive James Sutherland said he hoped the idea would increase interest in the game.
The New Zealand Cricket Players' Association said its members were "nervous" about the experiment.
NZCPA chief executive Heath Mills indicated concerns about the difficulties of playing Test cricket under varying light and of dealing with the pink ball.
He said: "It's uncharted territory and because of that there will be uncertainty and apprehension."
Mills added that, despite their reservations, the players could see the "greater good it brings to all levels of the game".
The pink ball is designed to be visible under floodlights, while still allowing players to wear traditional whites.
Cricket Australia has carried out tests during domestic competitions in an attempt to allay concerns that the ball behaves differently to its red equivalent.
New Zealand Cricket agreed to the day-night match as part of a lucrative financial package secured by arranging their first Test series against Australia since 2011.
Sutherland said: "One of the global challenges with Test cricket is that most of the matches outside holiday periods are played on weekdays, in the middle of the day when people are at work and kids are at school.
"By shifting the playing times, each day's play can go into the evening and allow people to come in after work or after school to attend the last few hours of play."
He added it would also allow people "in other parts of the world or other parts of the country" to watch more television coverage of the match.
As part of the break with tradition, the intervals between sessions - traditionally lunch and tea - will be renamed tea and dinner.


Officials at Aberdeenshire Council have raised concerns over the impact of Aberdeen FC's proposed new stadium.

The stadium and training facilities would be built at Kingsford, close to the Aberdeen bypass, near Westhill.
Although the planning application is a matter for Aberdeen City Council, Aberdeenshire is a statutory consultee.
A report to councillors next week says there are a number of issues which have not been fully addressed.
However, it says the stadium development could bring significant benefits to the area.
The ground would have a capacity of 20,000. The club believes the new stadium is vital if it is to achieve a sustainable future.
There has been some local protest to the plans.


Small businesses are "easy pickings" for hackers, the Scottish Business Resilience Centre (SBRC) has warned.

The body, responsible for cyber security in Scotland, urged small businesses to take pre-emptive action to limit the threat of cyber attacks.
They recommended a series of measures that a business can take to protect itself from hackers.
The warning follows the recent cyber attacks on TalkTalk and a Scottish hairdressing salon.
SBRC director Mandy Haeburn-Little said that there was a belief that cyber attacks only affected large businesses but that in reality small firms face the greatest threat from hackers.
She said that small businesses' information was often not as well protected as that of large businesses and that small companies still tended to have lots of valuable information.
Because of this, small businesses are viewed as "ripe and easy pickings for cyber criminals", Ms. Haeburn-Little said.
Small businesses tend not to report cyber attacks for fear of reputational damage, according to the SBRC.
Ms Haeburn-Little said that if small businesses took basic steps to protect themselves against cyber attacks then hackers would quickly "move on to a more vulnerable target".
She added that businesses could enlist the help of the SBRC's "ethical hackers" to test and improve their resistance to cyber attacks.
The tests include cyber security and digital footprint assessments as well as testing how resilient the business's suppliers are to hackers.


A care company is under scrutiny after it left a 92-year-old woman alone on the floor when she fell.

1st Grade Care in Barry is accused of ordering a carer to leave Doris Jones to go to another call before an ambulance or relative arrived.
The care worker told BBC's Week in Week Out she had challenged the order, but was told "it's just the job".
Ist Grade Care said it was investigating the case. The care inspectorate is inspecting the company.
The case from 2013 was brought to the local council's attention by the programme.
The care worker, who did not want to be named, said: "I rang the paramedics straight away and all the time she's on the floor. I then rang the office to say my lady is on the floor and was told to leave the call within the time I was allocated and go to my next call.
"I asked if somebody could do my next call for me because I didn't feel happy leaving her, and I was told no. I had to leave her and to leave the door open for the paramedics."
Mrs Jones's son said the family had had many concerns with 1st Grade, including missed and shortened calls.
When the pensioner came out of hospital she was placed with another care company at the family's request. Mrs Jones died last year.
1st Grade Care was set up in 2011 by former property developer Michael Poole. It also operates in Cardiff and Pembrokeshire.
In a report published by the Care and Social Services Inspectorate for Wales (CSSIW), the company was said to be putting service users in the Vale of Glamorgan in "unnecessary and significant risk to their health, safety and wellbeing due to a lack of sufficient training for a high percentage of staff".
The company was also served with a non-compliance notice and the CSSIW has been back to re-inspect. It is expecting to publish a new report by the end of the month.
Marie Perry, from Pembroke, Pembrokeshire, has Parkinson's disease. Her husband, George, said she needed help to go to the bathroom four times a day but care visits were regularly late or missed.
This meant Mr Perry, who has undergone major heart surgery, has to lift his wife and take her himself.
He says he is angry over the experience and does not understand why the authorities have not investigated the company earlier.
"I don't know how much control the local authority has over them," he said.
"It's not being properly policed otherwise they would have lost their contract some time ago."
1st Grade Care said: "We accept that we had areas to improve on especially in time management. We've worked hard over the last few months to put systems and procedures in place.
"We have introduced added monitoring of rota systems in offices from head office. There has also been investment in a better call monitoring system - to closely monitor arrival and departure of care workers."
Week in Week Out, Tuesday 22:35 BST, BBC1 Wales.


Doncaster Rovers staved off relegation from League One for another week with an impressive win over Coventry.

Tommy Rowe made it 1-0 with his second goal in as many games when he headed in Gary McSheffrey's inswinging corner.
Andy Williams headed in Nathan Tyson's back-post cross to double their lead.
A draw or loss could have seen Rovers relegated if Fleetwood and Shrewsbury had won, but the win leaves Darren Ferguson's side three points from safety with two matches left to play.
Rovers now have two wins and a draw from their last three games and travel to bottom side Crewe next Saturday before a final-day match against automatic promotion contenders Burton Albion.
Coventry manager Tony Mowbray told BBC Coventry & Warwickshire:
"I feel as disappointed as I've been in the team all year. Where is the team that we saw beat Gillingham 4-0, Millwall 4-0, Wigan 2-0?
"Maybe it's a bit too much for a few young players. I'm really disappointed for the supporters who've come out for them.
"In my mind the promotion push was over quite a while ago, while mathematically you could still do it and you keep going but I don't think it was realistic to think that we were going to do that."


The decision to force South Yorkshire Police chief David Crompton to resign was a mistake which will be "corrected in the High Court", the Chief Inspector of Constabulary has said.

Sir Tom Winsor said Police and Crime Commissioner Dr Alan Billings' decision was based on three "misunderstood" words in a press release.
Mr Crompton was suspended after the Hillsborough inquest verdicts in April.
He said the PCC's decision was wrong and he will be taking legal action.
Mr Crompton - who was due to retire in November - was suspended the day after the Hillsborough inquests concluded police conduct contributed to or caused the deaths of 96 Liverpool fans in 1989.
A statement he issued on 27 April, included the phrase "these [police] failures had to be put into the context of other contributory factors".
Dr Billings said the words "other contributory factors" showed insensitivity to the victims of the disaster.
Following the suspension, Dr Billings instigated dismissal proceedings against Mr Crompton under Section 38 of the Police Reform and Social Responsibility Act, which required him to consult others on the proposal - among them, Sir Tom.
Speaking to the Today programme Sir Tom said: "Dr Billings is firing the chief constable for nothing other than three words in a press release which could not fairly mean anything other than he was not blaming the fans."
He said the PCC's interpretation of the statement was "mistaken and the High Court will correct him".
"The Police and Crime Commissioner cannot fire the chief because people have misunderstood what was said and, let's remember, the PCC was shown the statement before it was made an he did not say 'Do not issue that statement'."
In published documents relating to the dismissal proceedings Mr Crompton claims he took the statement to Dr Billings on the morning of 27 April but was told the PCC could not advise on it.
According to Dr Billings, Mr Crompton was told it was "unwise" to make a comment seeking to justify the force's legal stance at the inquests.


An uneasy calm has been reported across the divided Syrian city of Aleppo after a partial truce came into effect.

Some residents said they had ventured on to the streets for the first time in days after the 48-hour "regime of calm" began early on Thursday.
However, state media and monitors said one person had died in shelling by rebels overnight.
Fighting in Aleppo has threatened a nationwide cessation of hostilities aimed at bolstering peace talks.
Nearly 300 people have died in the past two weeks as pro-government forces and rebels battled for control of Syria's second city.
"The general command of the Syrian army declared a period of calm in Aleppo for 48 hours starting from one o-clock in the morning on Thursday (22:00 GMT Wednesday)," Syrian state TV reported.
US Secretary of State John Kerry, who helped to broker the latest truce with Russia and the UN, called for all parties, "the regime and the opposition alike", to abide by the agreement.
He has also urged rebel fighters to distance themselves from the al-Qaeda-affiliated al-Nusra Front which, along with so-called Islamic State (IS), is not included in the cessation agreement.
In other developments on Thursday:
The UN envoy for Syria, Staffan de Mistura, has warned that a failure of the overall cessation of hostilities would be "catastrophic" and could send 400,000 more people heading for refuge at the Turkey border.
Jordan has reported a surge of refugees fleeing violence in Aleppo in recent days.
Residents in several war-torn districts of Aleppo reported a sense of calm returning on Thursday.
"From last night it was positive and my wife went out to shop, and shops opened and people breathed," said trader Sameh Tutunji.
"We did not hear the shelling and bombing we had become accustomed to. Enough of this daily killing after more than 10 days," he added.
Another resident said military planes had been heard overnight but there had been no bombardment.
The Syrian army, however, accused rebels of shelling government-held areas while UK-based monitoring group the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights said one person had died when rebels shelled the Midan district overnight.
A spokesman for the main opposition umbrella group, the High Negotiations Committee (HNC), said it supported the latest deal but wanted a cessation of hostilities that would cover all of Syria, not just Aleppo.
Late last week, the Syrian army announced "regimes of calm" covering Damascus and some of its suburbs and parts of the north-western coastal province of Latakia.
However, those unilateral truces excluded Aleppo and the recent violence there has been the most intense for more than a year.
The Syrian Observatory said rebels had advanced into government-held western districts on Tuesday night but were pushed back by Wednesday morning.
On Tuesday, Mr Kerry warned Syrian President Bashar al-Assad against trying to "carve out Aleppo and carve out a section of the country".


Three-time world champion Giles Scott won silver in the Finn class on the final day of the Trofeo Princess Sofia in Palma de Majorca.

Scott, whose victory chances were hit by a mechanical failure in the second race on Friday, came fourth in the medal race to claim silver overall.
Tom Squires won RS:X windsurfing gold after coming second in the final race.
Olympic silver medallist Luke Patience finished fourth in the men's 470 with new crew Chris Gruber.
Patience, who won silver at London 2012 with Stuart Bithell, needs to re-qualify for this summer's Olympic games in Rio de Janeiro after first-choice partner Elliot Willis was forced to withdraw from the squad to undergo treatment for bowel cancer.
New Zealand's Josh Junior claimed Finn gold after defending champion Scott, 28, who won the opening race in Palma, fell out of contention after his rudder pinned on the first lap of the second race.


Computer code that can turn almost any device that connects via USB into a cyber-attack platform has been shared online.

Computer security researchers wrote the code following the discovery of the USB flaw earlier this year.
The pair made the code public in an attempt to force electronics firms to improve defences against attack by USB.
One of the experts who found the flaw said the release was a "stark reminder" of its seriousness.
Details of the BadUSB flaw were released at the Black Hat computer security conference in August by Karsten Nohl and Jakob Lell.
Their work revealed how to exploit flaws in the software that helps devices connect to computers via USB. The biggest problem they discovered lurks in the onboard software, known as firmware, found on these devices.
Among other things the firmware tells a computer what kind of a device is being plugged into a USB socket but the two cybersecurity researchers found a way to subvert this and install attack code. At Black Hat, the BBC saw demonstrations using a smartphone and a USB stick that could steal data when plugged into target machines.
Mr Nohl said he and his colleague did not release code in order to give firms making USB-controlling firmware time to work out how to combat the problem.
Now researchers Adam Caudill and Brandon Wilson have done their own work on the USB flaw and produced code that can be used to exploit it. The pair unveiled their work at the DerbyCon hacker conference last week and have made their attack software freely available via code-sharing site Github.
"We're releasing everything we've done here, nothing is being held back," said Mr Wilson in a presentation at DerbyCon.
"We believe that this information should not be limited to a select few as others have treated it," he added. "It needs to be available to the public."
Mr Wilson said cybercrime groups definitely had the resources to replicate the work of Mr Nohl and Mr Lell to produce their own attack code so releasing a version to the security community was a way to redress that imbalance.
Responding to the release of the attack tools Mr Nohl told the BBC that such "full disclosure" can motivate companies to act and make products more secure.
"In the case of BadUSB, however, the problem is structural," he said. "The standard itself is what enables the attack and no single vendor is in a position to change that."
"It is unclear who would feel pressured to improve their products by the recent release," he added. "The release is a stark reminder to defenders, though, that BadUSB is  - and always has been - in reach of attackers."


Marlon James, Tom McCarthy, Chigozie Obioma, Sunjeev Sahota, Anne Tyler and Hanya Yanagihara are the shortlisted authors for the 2015 Man Booker Prize for Fiction.

It is the second year that the prize is open to all authors writing in English, regardless of nationality.
This year's shortlist features two authors from the UK, two from the US and one each from Jamaica and Nigeria.
Here is a brief guide to the six books.
By Marlon James (Jamaica)
Published by Oneworld
About the book:  Exploring the attempted assassination of Bob Marley in the late 1970s, events unfold over three decades through the lives of drug barons, MPs,  gunmen, beauty queens, journalists and even the CIA.
About the author:  Born in Kingston, Jamaica, in 1970, James's debut novel was John Crow's Devil. His second, The Book of Night Women, won the 2010 Dayton Literary Peace Prize and was a finalist for the 2010 National Book Critics Circle Award.
The judges said: "The title misrepresents its heft and its body count. This vast fictional history which spirals out from the politics and gang violence of 1970s Jamaica is exhilarating in its range of voices and registers: swaggering, brutal, elegiac, sardonic, humorous, tender and profane. And what a story - it knocks your socks off."
The reviews said: "Seven Killings resembles James Ellroy's LA Quartet in its blistering violence, multiple voices and its determination to redo history 'from the gutter to the star', to borrow a phrase used by Ellroy." The Telegraph
By Tom McCarthy (UK)
Published by Jonathan Cape
About the book: Set in contemporary London, Satin Island tells the story of U - a "corporate anthropologist" working for an elite consultancy who embarks on a data-gathering project to help "decode and manipulate the world around them".
About the author: McCarthy was born in 1969 and grew up in London. His books include Remainder (2006), Men in Space (2007), and C (2010) - which was shortlisted for the Man Booker Prize. In 1999, he created the International Necronautical Society (INS), a "semi-fictitious organisation" that combines literature, art and philosophy.
The judges said: "Satin Island offers an elegant, desperate and funny account of what might well be the world of tomorrow if it weren't already the world of today."
The reviews said: "It provokes and beguiles and, at the point of revelation, it withholds. On finishing it, you will have the powerful urge to throw it across the room, then the powerful urge to pick it up to read again." The Telegraph
By Chigozie Obioma (Nigeria)
Published by One
About the book: Four young brothers in a small Nigerian town take advantage of their father's absence to go fishing at a forbidden river. But there they encounter a madman, who makes a prophecy that the eldest will be killed by one of his brothers.
About the author: The Fishermen is Chigozie Obioma's first novel. Born in 1986 in Akure, Nigeria, Obioma's short stories have appeared in Virginia Quarterly Review and New Madrid. He has lived in Nigeria, Cyprus and Turkey, and now in the US.
The judges said: "Obioma's The Fishermen is the captivating tale of the tragic unravelling of a family in modern day Nigeria. He imbues the story with a compelling sense of deep-rooted and unstoppable inevitability, writing with striking maturity for a young first-time writer."
The reviews said: "The Fishermen is an elegy to lost promise, to a golden age squandered, and yet it remains hopeful about the redemptive possibilities of a new generation - what I like to call the 'post-nationalist generation', described as 'egrets' in the book: harbingers of a bright future." The Guardian
By Sunjeev Sahota (UK)
Published by Picador
About the book: A group of immigrant Indian labourers share a dilapidated house in Sheffield in search of a new life.
About the author: Sahota was one of is a Granta's Best of British Novelist 2013.  Born in 1981 in Derbyshire, his debut novel was Ours are the Streets, published in 2011.
The judges said: "As much sorrow and damage as there is in these lives, no-one here is asking for pity. These characters are genuine seekers on the lookout for second chances in a world which seems at times to offer not even one chance."
The reviews said: "This novel captures the growing realisation for new arrivals in Britain that life here can be just as hard - if not harder - than the one they left behind." The Independent
By Anne Tyler (US)
Published by Chatto & Windus
About the book:  A saga that unfolds through three generations of middle-class Baltimore family the Whitshanks.
About the author: This is Tyler's 20th novel.  Born in Minneapolis, Minnesota, in 1941, her first  book, If Morning Ever Comes, was published in 1964. She won the Pulitzer prize for Breathing Lessons (1988).  Her novel The Accidental Tourist (1985) was adapted into a film starring William Hurt, Kathleen Turner, and Geena Davis.  A Spool of Blue Thread was also nominated for this year's Baileys Women's Prize for Fiction.
The judges said: "She demonstrates once again her supreme powers of observation, and the stylistic brilliance that have marked her work through 50 extraordinary years."
The reviews said: "Tyler never mocks her characters. Even when she's having fun with their weird peculiarities and transparent short-sightedness, she's usually a benevolent goddess. And yet it's her surprising brutality that kills off any germs of sentimentality in her work." Washington Post
By Hanya Yanagihara (US)
Published by Picador
About the book: The story of four college friends who have moved to New York seeking fame and fortune. At the centre of the tale is the enigmatic Jude, an orphan with a painful past.
About the author: Born in Los Angeles in 1975, Yanagihara is the author of The People in the Trees, which was shortlisted for the PEN/Robert W Bingham Prize for debut fiction. She is an editor-at-large at Conde Nast Traveller and lives in New York.
The judges said: "A Little Life is a work of lasting emotional impact, often larger than life itself, as [Yanagihara] delicately balances the horrors of a traumatic childhood with the story of selfless enduring tenderness and devotion."
The reviews said: "Somehow, against all the odds, just like its protagonist, this book survives everything its author throws at it - and if it doesn't quite triumph, it has far outplayed the odds." The Guardian


US Democrats are up in arms about secretive Senate Republican efforts to repeal Obamacare, with no sign of a bill a week before a crunch vote.

President Donald Trump's party has been busily crafting a behind-closed-doors healthcare bill without holding any public hearings.
A Republican leader says he will present a draft bill on Thursday.
The legislation affects affect tens of millions of Americans and a fifth of the US economy.
Senators are writing their own version after their colleagues in the House of Representatives passed Obamacare repeal legislation six weeks ago.
Democrats say Republicans are keeping the legislation under wraps until the last minute so it can be rammed through with just a few hours of floor debate.
To highlight what they see as a lack of transparency, three Democratic senators on Tuesday filmed their failed effort to obtain a copy of the bill from the Congressional Budget Office.
On Monday, Democrats brought Senate business to a standstill with a five-hour "talk-a-thon" to express outrage at Republican tactics.
"Republicans are drafting this bill in secret because they're ashamed of it, plain and simple," said Senate Minority Leader Chuck Schumer.
Republicans argue that Obamacare needs to be replaced because it has failed to prevent premiums and other health costs from skyrocketing.
Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell aims to have the legislation passed by 30 June, but few details have emerged.
He has said the party leadership will unveil a "discussion draft" of the bill on Thursday.
All that most lawmakers and the public have to work on is the House version. A non-partisan congressional review predicted that version would leave 23 million fewer people insured over the next decade.
The House bill would also cut some $800bn (Â£633bn) from Medicaid - a government health programme for the poor.
This clandestine approach to legislating has been seen in recent years, including the 2009 economic stimulus bill and the 2013 so-called fiscal cliff bill.
However, the upper chamber traditionally votes on major new legislation only after it has been crafted and revised by members of both parties.
When the Senate writes a bill, it usually circulates draft versions and holds public hearings for expert testimony before scheduling a vote.
The Senate healthcare bill is being crafted by one senator - Mitch McConnell, along with a coterie of aides.
Former President Barack Obama's 2010 Affordable Care Act was passed only after months of public committee hearings.
A number of Republican amendments to Obamacare were incorporated by Democrats at committee stage.
Current Republican House Speaker Paul Ryan said in 2009: "If you rush this thing through before anybody even knows what it is, that's not good democracy."
Mr McConnell said in 2010: "Democrats on Capitol Hill are working behind the scenes on a plan aimed at jamming this massive health spending bill through Congress against the clear wishes of an unsuspecting public."
The Republican leadership needs 50 votes to pass its health plan in the Senate. With a slender 52-28 majority, the party cannot afford many defections.
Kentucky Senator Rand Paul has already been critical of the plan.
"I think the death spiral of Obamacare continues," he said. "The Republican plan doesn't fix that; the Republican plan just subsidises it."
Asked whether he has seen the bill, Arizona Republican John McCain said on Tuesday: "No, nor have I met any American that has.
"I'm sure the Russians have been able to hack in and gotten most of it."
Senator Marco Rubio told CNN on Sunday: "If it is an effort to rush it from a small group of people, straight to the floor in an up or down vote, that would be a problem."


Learning to sing or play a musical instrument can help disadvantaged children improve their reading skills, US research suggests.

After a year of music lessons, the reading scores of nine and 10-year-olds held steady compared to a dip seen in those who were not taught any music.
Another group of musically-trained children were found to be better at processing sounds and language.
The research is being presented to the American Psychological Association.
The research was led by Dr Nina Kraus at Northwestern University and involved hundreds of children at high schools in impoverished areas of Chicago and Los Angeles.
Her research had previously highlighted that learning music could improve the concentration, memory and focus of children in the classroom by improving their neural functions.
But much of the research had focused on the impact of music lessons on relatively affluent children.
In this study, Dr Kraus found that giving children regular group music lessons for five or more hours a week prevented any decline in reading skills, which would normally be expected in poorer areas.
Another group of teenage schoolchildren, from a poor area of Chicago, took part in band practice or choir practice every day at school as part of a music project.
Researchers recorded their brainwaves to assess how they responded to speech sounds.
After two years of musical training, the results showed the musical group was faster and more accurate at distinguishing one sound from another, particularly when there was background noise, compared to a group that did not participate in any musical activity.
Dr Kraus said this showed music could have a positive impact on the brain, which could also help learning, but it was not a quick fix.
"Research has shown that there are differences in the brains of children raised in impoverished environments that affect their ability to learn," he explained.
"While more affluent students do better in school than children from lower income backgrounds, we are finding that musical training can alter the nervous system to create a better learner and help offset this academic gap."
All the children had similar IQs and reading ability at the start of the study.
Dr Kraus said music appeared to remodel the brain to improve the connections between sounds and meaning, the process by which babies learn to speak.
Children growing up in poorer areas with poorly-educated mothers are more likely to have 'noisier brains', she said.
This is because they are less likely to know and recognise a wide range of words and are therefore less able to respond to sounds and language.
"Music automatically sharpens the nervous system's response to sounds," Dr Kraus explained.
The children participating in the study were part of the Harmony Project, which provides instruments and free music tuition for American schoolchildren in certain deprived urban areas.


Three people who died at the weekend as a result of two separate road crashes, just minutes apart, have been named.

On Saturday evening, Andrew Griffiths, 32, of Kentish Town, London was hit by a car on the M1 motorway near junction 20, after getting out of a taxi parked on the hard shoulder.
Ammar Ingar, 21, and Muhammed-Abdullah Patel, 22, both from Leicester, were killed in a collision on Hastings Road, Leicester.
Police have appealed for witnesses.
The collision on the M1 occurred at about 19:50 GMT. No one else was injured.
The second crash, involving a Honda Civic and a Mitsubishi Shogun, happened at 20:25.
Two rear seat passengers in the Honda, both men, suffered serious injuries and are in hospital.
A man and a woman, travelling in the other car, were also injured. The man was later released from hospital but the woman is in a critical but stable condition.


Japanese car giant Toyota has seen profits fall for the first time in half a decade.

The firm said it sold more cars in the year to March 2017 than in the previous 12 months but that higher costs and currency fluctuations hit results.
The profit of 1.83 trillion yen ($16.1bn; £12.4bn) was down 21% from 2016-17.
Toyota has warned next year's profits will be even lower, due to the strength of the Japanese currency.
The carmaker's prediction is based on a forecast that the yen will average around 105 to the US dollar in the year through to March 2018, compared with 108 yen in the last financial year.
Toyota, which has lost its top-selling carmaker status to Germany's Volkswagen sold 10.25 million vehicles over the year, up from 10.19 million units a year earlier.
However income from those sales was slightly down at 27.6 trillion yen.
The carmaker has been struggling in the US, its biggest market. Sales fell in North America as it battled to meet demand for bigger cars such as sport utility vehicles, which have become more affordable to drive thanks to lower petrol prices.
Earlier this year Toyota said it would invest $10bn (£8.2bn) in the US over the next five years.


According to the First Minister, Nicola Sturgeon, it is "highly likely" that a second referendum on Scottish independence will be held sooner rather than later, following the UK-wide decision to vote to leave the EU contrary to the preference of most Scots.

That statement means the launch today by the SNP of a somewhat delayed "summer offensive" on independence, an offensive that was initially promised as long ago as last March, has gained an added importance.
It is now potentially a launch pad for a second attempt to persuade a majority of Scots to vote for independence.
One of the implicit assumptions behind Nicola Sturgeon's "highly likely" remark is that enough of those who voted No to independence two years ago are sufficiently unhappy about the prospect of Scotland being required to leave the EU that they would now vote Yes.
But it is far from clear that there has been a post-Brexit increase in support for independence.
Since 23 June five polls have asked people how they would vote now in response to the question that appeared on the September 2014 ballot, "Should Scotland be an independent country?".
Three of these polls were conducted in the immediate wake of the Brexit vote. All three showed a small, but potentially crucial, swing to Yes.
Two were conducted by Survation. In one case 54% said they would vote Yes (after Don't Knows were left to one side), while in the other 53% did so.
When earlier this year Survation had on a number of occasions posed the referendum question, a little less than half - between 47% and 49% - then said they would vote for independence.
The third poll to be conducted soon after 23 June was done by Panelbase. It reported that 52% now backed independence. In polls the company conducted earlier this year it had consistently put support at 47%.
In short, all three of these immediate post-EU referendum polls suggested the Brexit vote had stimulated a small but potentially decisive swing in favour of independence.
Instead of there still being a small majority in favour of remaining in the UK, as most polls had suggested was the case hitherto, there now appeared to be a small majority in favour of independence.
If those poll figures were right, there was some realistic prospect that the SNP could win a second referendum, albeit holding such a ballot would still represent a considerable risk for the first minister.
However, two more recent polls, taken after the dust of the EU referendum had settled somewhat, have painted a different picture.
Conducted by YouGov, these polls have found little or no evidence of a swing in favour of independence.
One taken at the end of July put support for independence at 47%, while a second undertaken at the end of last month and published today, puts the figure at 46%.
These figures are more or less exactly in line with four polls YouGov conducted in advance of the Scottish Parliament election in May, all of which put support for independence at 45%-46%.
If these polls are correct then, whatever might have been the immediate reaction to the result of the EU referendum, it appears that over the longer term the outcome has failed to change the balance of opinion on independence after all.
Doubtless the first minister will be looking anxiously to see if any further polls in the coming weeks confirm YouGov's picture.
But at present it looks as though she cannot presume that she will be in a position to hold a successful second independence referendum any time soon.
Consequently, she needs the "summer offensive" being launched today to succeed in persuading more voters of the merits of independence.
To do that, the offensive will need to do more than reiterate the arguments in favour of Scotland staying in the EU.
YouGov's poll in July found that only 18% of those who voted No in the September 2014 referendum said they would rather live in a Scotland that was in the EU but not part of the UK than in a Scotland that was part of the UK but was outside the EU.
This suggests that most No voters have a stronger commitment to the Union with the rest of the UK than to the European Union headquartered in Brussels.
The SNP need to focus instead on persuading more voters that the case for independence makes economic sense.
In March this year - when the SNP envisaged Scotland would have become independent if it had voted Yes two years ago - as many as 49% said that they thought Scotland would now be worse off financially if it had voted for independence. Just 22% thought it would be better off.
Crucially, amongst those who voted No in September 2014 only 5% felt the country would now be better off, while as many as 81% reckoned it would be worse off.
The SNP's failure so far to persuade most voters of the economic case for independence is underlined by today's YouGov poll, which finds that as many as 49% believe that Scotland benefits economically from being part of the UK, while just 23% believes being part of the UK is harmful.
Whatever voters feel about the rights and wrongs of the vote on Brexit, persuading a majority of them to vote for independence is always likely to be an uphill task for so long as so many of them are doubtful that the proposition makes economic sense.


Justice Secretary Michael Gove is taking part in the latest live set-piece event of the EU referendum campaign.

The pro-Leave minister is being interviewed and taking questions from the audience in a Sky News special.
Mr Gove was challenged at the beginning of the interview on the economy and one of the Leave campaign's key claims that the UK sends Â£350m a week to the EU.
Mr Gove said the important thing was "we don't have control of that money".
"Every year we give billions of pounds to the European Union, billions of pounds that we should be spending hereâ€¦ on our NHS and our priorities," he said.
The referendum takes place on 23 June.
Live: Michael Gove faces studio questions
When asked whether he could name any economic authority in favour of an EU exit, Mr Gove said the big names that had come out for Remain "have been wrong in the past".
He said 300 business figures had put their name to his campaign.
His interview follows Thursday night's show which had a similar format but featured Prime Minister David Cameron, who is campaigning for Remain.
Mr Cameron, whose party is split on the EU, has refused to take part in any head-to-head TV debates with fellow Conservatives who back leaving the union.
But a number of debates and live Q&As are planned, including the BBC's event at Wembley Arena on 21 June.
Ahead of the hour-long Sky News show, which started at 20:00 BST, Mr Gove said he was feeling "nervous" but was hoping to "allay people's fears" about leaving the EU.
In his appearance, Mr Cameron was pressed on immigration from within the EU, warning that voting to Leave in order to try to control it would "trash" the economy.
Mr Gove and the Leave campaign have been campaigning hard on migration in recent weeks, calling for a points-based system for EU migrants if the UK severs its ties with Brussels.
Vote Leave said ending the principle of free movement would create a "fairer" system - but Remain campaigners said it would mean leaving the single market and could increase migration into the UK.


Foreign airlines are halting flights to Nigeria, where a foreign exchange crisis has led the government to limit access to dollars.

US carrier United Airlines has said it will end daily flights between Houston, Texas and Nigeria's commercial capital, Lagos, on 30 June.
It follows Spanish airline Iberia's decision to pull out in May.
Falling oil prices have hurt Africa's biggest economy, which has contracted for the first time since 2004.
As a result of the foreign currency restrictions, airlines have been unable to repatriate up to $600m (Â£417m) in ticket sales, according to the International Air Transport Association (Iata).
Foreign currency reserves have dwindled to their lowest level in more than ten years and the government introduced a currency peg last year that has created a black market for the naira currency.
"The inability of airlines to access forex in Africa's largest economy, if not solved, will affect air transport services to, from and within Nigeria and undermine the country's position as West Africa's aviation hub," Iata said this week.
Iberia said it was leaving Nigeria due to "very difficult operating circumstances and dwindling passenger numbers."
Businesses operating in Nigeria are struggling to get their hands on dollars, sterling or euros, says the BBC's West Africa correspondent Martin Patience. The official exchange rate, which is controlled by the government is also very low compared to the black market rate.
"If you take $1, the official rate is 200 naira but if you then go on the black market where you will get the cash it can often cost you double that and airlines...simply can't go on the black market to get business done," says Patience.
Nigeria's economy contracted 0.4% in the first quarter of this year and last month Nigeria's central bank governor said a recession appeared "imminent." The central bank also announced plans to introduce a greater flexibility into the foreign exchange market.


Arlene Foster has been elected as the first female party leader of the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) by the party's MPs and assembly members.

The DUP's 90-member executive has ratified her appointment.
Mrs Foster replaces Peter Robinson, who announced his plans to step down as DUP leader and Northern Ireland first minister last month.
She said it was an "enormous honour and an even greater responsibility" to take up the role.
Mrs Foster was the only candidate for leader.
"It is truly humbling to follow in the footsteps of political giants like Ian Paisley and Peter Robinson," she added.
"For much of the last 40 years this party toiled in the political wilderness but today we stand tall as the largest unionist party and the party of Northern Ireland.
"That is down to the hard work and efforts of those who have gone before me.
"And as a result of that labour this role is not just as leader of the DUP but the leader of unionism.
"I want to build on the firm foundations that have been laid and take this party from strength to strength."
Prime Minister David Cameron and Northern Ireland Secretary of State Theresa Villiers said they looked forward to working with Mrs Foster "in building a brighter, more secure, future for everyone in Northern Ireland".
"I am sure that Arlene will be committed to doing the right thing for everyone in Northern Ireland," Ms Villiers said.
Sinn FÃ©in's Martin McGuinness, who is Northern Ireland's Deputy First Minister, congratulated Mrs Foster.
"I will work positively with her for the benefit of all our people," he added.
Who is Arlene Foster?
Arlene Foster has experience of some of the most high-profile posts in Northern Ireland politics and has long been tipped for Stormont's top job.
The Fermanagh politician has had a rapid rise through the DUP ranks since joining the party from the Ulster Unionists in 2004.
She was born Arlene Kelly in Roslea in 1970.
Her first experience of Troubles violence came when she was just eight years old.
Her father was a part-time policeman and was shot by the IRA at the family farm.
When she was a teenager in 1988, a bomb exploded under her school bus.
Profile of Arlene Foster
Mrs Foster has represented the Fermanagh and South Tyrone constituency since 2003.
She is Stormont's current finance minister and has twice held the role of acting first minister of Northern Ireland, when Mr Robinson stepped aside temporarily in 2010 and in September this year.


A north Wales head teacher has appeared in court charged with fraud at two primary schools where he worked in Wrexham.

Nicholas Robert Hankin, 54, of Colwyn Bay, pleaded not guilty to three charges - one while he was head at Ysgol Tanyfron between 2014 and 2015.
The other two relate to when he worked at Ysgol Gwenfro in 2015.
Mold Crown Court heard he had been suspended from his job for the past 16 months.
Judge Rhys Rowlands released Mr Hankin on bail ahead of a trial set for 30 October.


Twelve babies have tested positive for bacterial infections which have closed a neonatal unit in Cardiff.

New admissions to the unit at University Hospital of Wales (UHW) stopped on Thursday because of a "cluster of infections".
Cardiff and Vale University Health Board said infected babies had been treated and their condition was improving.
Other babies who need neonatal care will be referred to other hospitals.
The health board said enhanced infection prevention control measures had been put in place to prevent the infections - Acinetobacter baumanii and Enterobacter - spreading.
Ruth Walker, director of nursing at the health board, said the hospital was looking to provide extra cot space elsewhere within its maternity services.
There are 15 babies at the unit, which has 30 cots for intensive care, high dependency and special care.
There are plans to expand the unit to 50 cots as part of proposals to centralise hospital services in south Wales, which would see more babies being treated at UHW.
A health board spokesman said it recognised "capacity is being stretched" and work to refurbish the unit was due to start within months.
Earlier on Friday, Cardiff and Vale of Glamorgan Community Health Council (CHC) claimed "poor infection control measures" had led to the closure of the unit.
A CHC spokesman said it had expressed concerns about the space available in the unit following a visit in February.
Chief officer Stephen Allen said the "most pertinent" of these was the fact staff were changing in toilets and equipment was being stored in an isolation room.
Mr Allen called on the health board to urgently create a brand new facility, saying: "The unit is so cramped there's not enough space for barrier nursing if a patient becomes infected.
"For far too long we have had a poor facility which provides excellent care, we need to re-balance that."
Ms Walker told BBC Radio Wales that staff could change in toilets if they wanted to but it was "not necessarily something we would be promoting".
"There is nothing to suggest that there is a cross infection issue if staff change in a bathroom facility, but it's not the optimum approach. The key here is hand hygiene," she said.
Staff would change into disposable uniforms when dealing with infections, she added.


Outside the morgue of the Wazir Akbar Khan hospital in Kabul a group of men have just identified the body of one of their relatives.

He had been working as a security guard for the German embassy and was killed in the explosion that struck Kabul on Wednesday.
His brother shows me his remains, offering me a scarf for the smell. It's a horrific sight - a badly-burnt torso and some limbs stuffed into a body bag.
His uncle, Zakiullah, says they were only able to identify the body through a distinctive birthmark. The victim's head had been completely blown off.
"There were dozens of bodies in the morgue and they're all burnt beyond recognition. We've only just found him after two days of searching for him."
Attacks are common in Kabul. There have been half a dozen major ones in the city already this year, carried out by the Taliban and the so-called Islamic State.
Targets have included the Afghan parliament, the Supreme Court and a military-run hospital. The vast majority of casualties are inevitably Afghan civilians.
The attack on 31 May, however, was one of the largest in Afghanistan since the Taliban were overthrown in 2001. Windows of buildings across the city shattered due to the bomb's power.
About 90 people were killed.
It is thought that the attacker wanted to gain access to the city's Green Zone - the heavily-fortified area where most foreign embassies are located.
However, the tanker filled with explosives was stopped by security guards just outside the large blast walls of the Green Zone, so he detonated his explosives where he was.
The offices of Afghanistan's largest mobile phone company, Roshan, were almost directly opposite the site of the explosion. The three-storey building collapsed.
Now being treated in hospital for wounds to his stomach, Abdul Rashid was one of the luckier employees
"All the people were trapped under the rubble, everyone was injured - I would say 80 or 90% of my colleagues were hurt."
No militant group has yet claimed the attack, perhaps because of the high civilian death toll. But Afghan authorities have accused the Taliban-linked Haqqani network and Pakistan's intelligence service, the ISI, of being behind the attack.
Pakistan vigorously denies the claim, but many Afghans rightly or wrongly believe Pakistan is responsible for the Taliban and their violence.
Outside a hospital run by an Italian NGO, Afghans waiting to see their injured relatives did blame Pakistan. One said: "The ISI are sending suicide attackers hereâ€¦ Pakistan has looted our country for years."
But their strongest criticism was for their own government. "Whoever is responsible for the attacks, it's the job of our government to stop them," one person said.
English teacher Nawaz Hafizi ran for 40 minutes through Kabul to visit his brother in hospital on the day of the attack, thinking he was about to die. His brother now seems to be recovering but Mr Hafizi is scathing about the Afghan government
"The government is sleeping. All their families are living abroad, relaxing. It's only the poor people here who are killed, no-one else."
Najibullah Azad, a spokesman for the Afghan president, said that while this attack had succeeded, the authorities manage to "catch terrorists every few days".
He added: "With the number of security forces we have, we are doing well."
Mr Azad said he hoped that more foreign troops would be sent to Afghanistan to help train Afghan forces. The United States is due to decide whether to commit an extra 3,500 soldiers to the country.
On Friday, around 1,000 protesters gathered close to the site of the explosion for a demonstration.
Police fired live rounds and water cannons at the crowds as they approached the presidential palace. At least one protester was killed.
Some at the protest were calling for prisoners from the Haqqani network and Taliban to be executed. But anger was directed all round - at international forces, and particularly the Afghan president and his government for the lack of security.
Protests of this size following attacks are unusual in Afghanistan and are an indication of the level of public anger this bombing has caused.
Security in Kabul is steadily deteriorating - last year saw the highest number of recorded civilian casualties.
Among those who lost their lives in this latest attack was Mohammed Nazir - a driver for the BBC and a much respected and loved colleague. He is one of the many Afghans to leave on his morning commute, and tragically never return home.


Vodafone says it has ended talks with Virgin Media owner Liberty Global over a potential asset swap.

In June, the mobile phone network had said it was talking to Liberty Global over "a possible exchange of selected assets between the two companies".
The two firms never disclosed which assets they were thinking of swapping.
The deal was seen as a key part of Vodafone's strategy and shares in the telecoms firm fell 5% in London.
Two weeks ago Liberty Global chairman John Malone had warned the two sides were struggling to find common ground.
Shares in the cable giant have also fallen in early trading in New York, losing 8% to $44 at 17:20 (BST).
Claire Enders, founder of research firm Enders Analysis, said: "Why were people disappointed when mission impossible foundered? I don't know."
She said one possible sticking point was on Liberty Global's high valuation of its prized asset, Virgin Media.
Regulatory issues in Germany, where Vodafone and Liberty Global own the two biggest cable operators, and the Netherlands also clouded the talks.
The telecoms industry has been going through a period of deal making as phone companies attempt to offer their customers packages of television, broadband, mobile and traditional phone services.
Investors have been keen to see Vodafone's next move after it sold a 45% stake in US-based Verizon Wireless for $130bn (£84bn) in 2013 - one of the biggest corporate deals in history.
Last year it acquired Germany's Kabel Deutschland for €7.7bn (£5.7bn), and was also linked to a deal for BSkyB.


Aston Villa manager Remi Garde said he felt "humiliated" and apologised for his side's performance in the 6-0 thrashing by Liverpool.

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It was the first time the Midlands club had let in six at home in a league game since October 1983.
Villa remain bottom of the Premier League and eight points from safety.
"I feel humiliated. I am sorry for the fans who came to Villa Park," said Garde. "This is a bad feeling that we did not fight enough."
Villa, owned by American Randy Lerner, let in two goals before half-time and then four during a 13-minute spell after the break.
The fans began leaving during the second half, while some home supporters also chanted 'Lerner out'.
"Before the game you could expect the level of the two teams was not on the same one but, after quite a good 15 minutes, I don't know what happened," said Garde.
"The first two goals were difficult to digest and then my team did not play anymore.
"We were always two or three metres away from from the opponent. It was very easy for them.
"I was expecting fighting spirit, especially in the position we are in, but we were not able to deliver it."
Garde, who was appointed Villa boss in November on a three-and-a-half-year deal, refused to concede his side were doomed for the drop into the Championship.
"I was not expecting this kind of match and we have to go for the next one to win it," said the Frenchman.
"Until we have little hope, I will be the one who will still believe. After a game like this, it is very difficult but we won't play Liverpool every weekend.
"I understand [the fans' frustration]. I don't know exactly who let down who in this football club.
"I am trying to concentrate on my job and try to do the best with the players who want to still fight."
BBC Radio 5 live's Pat Murphy: "Villa were an absolute shambles. The biggest round of applause came from the Villa fans when former striker Christian Benteke came on. I think the fans know that he did more than anyone to keep Villa up in the last few seasons.
"The Villa players just aren't good enough. There was a derisory cheer when Scott Sinclair hit the post. What must the European Cup winners from a proud Aston Villa side think of this?
"I don't blame Remi Garde but after this game it is 15 games and 12 points. He got a hospital pass.
"He is not happy at all about the lack of investment. It will take a lot to make him stay on. What is in it for him, after doing so much in Ligue 1?"


The US has regained top spot from China as the biggest investor in clean energy in 2011, according to global rankings.

The table, published in a report by the Pew Charitable Trusts, showed that US invested more than $48bn (Â£30bn) in the sector, up from $34bn in 2010.
China slipped to second place, the authors reported, with investment only increasing by $0.5bn to $45.5bn.
Globally, overall financial backing in clean energy technologies hit a record $263bn, up 6.5% from 2010 levels.
The report, Who is Winning the Clean Energy Race
, showed that G20 nations accounted for 95% of the investment in the sector (which does not include nuclear power).
The data, compiled by Bloomberg New Energy Finance, ranked the UK as seventh in the world, with $9.4bn of investment in 2011.
Over the course of the year, an additional 83.5 gigawatts (GW) was added to the world's clean energy generation capacity, including almost 30GW of solar and 43GW of wind.
"The sector continues to expand and is outpacing growth in the overall (global) economy. The sector reached its trillionth dollar of investment last year," observed Phyllis Cuttino, director of Pew's Clean Energy Program.
"We now have 565GW of installed (generation) capacity around the world. That outstrips nuclear installed capacity by 47%.
"So I think the facts fly in the face of those individuals who say this is a niche industry. This a growing and maturing sector."
(December 2011; source: Pew/Bloomberg)
She said market data showed that the US benefited in the short-term from attracting finances, however it was unlikely to be sustained.
"Investors rushed in to take advantage of expiring policies, such as tax incentives, loan guarantees, which expired at the end of 2011," Ms Cuttino told BBC News.
"So when we look at the very rapid rate of growth in investment here in the US, it is hard to see how that could be maintained without the policy mechanism that spurred that growth."
She suggested that there were signs that pointed towards a "drop off" in future clean energy investment as a result of "policy uncertainty".
China in previous years, on the other hand, had enjoyed rapid year-on-year growth, but it only recorded a $0.5bn increase during 2011.
Ms Cuttino said this was probably a result of the sector within the country maturing.
"The thing that is noticeable about China is that they are world leaders in terms of attracting asset finance, which is a measure of job creation and deploying renewables.
"This means they are really reaping the rewards of attracting a certain class of investment.
"They have a policy that not only attracts investment and deploys renewables, but actually manufacturers and exports as well.
Ms Cuttino said that all eyes would be on the Chinese during the coming 12 months because it had increase it target for solar generating capacity from 20GW by 2020 to 50GW by 2020.
"So it is going to be a good location for investment, as solar incentives decline in the US and Europe," she added.


The final Anfield memorial service to remember 96 football fans who died at Hillsborough will take place in April.

Memorial services have been held at Liverpool's stadium most years since the disaster on 15 April 1989.
Hillsborough families have agreed that this year's service - on the 27th anniversary - will be the final one.
The coroner at the inquests into the fatal crush at the Sheffield stadium will start summing up evidence later this month.
The decision to end the Anfield services was made by the Hillsborough Family Support Group (HFSG) following consultation with the relatives of those who died.
On Tuesday, Coroner Lord Justice Goldring adjourned the inquests, being held in Warrington, Cheshire, until 25 January when he expects to summarise evidence for the jury.
Margaret Aspinall, chairwoman of the HFSG, said: "The 96 will never be forgotten. This final memorial service will provide the families with some closure."
Mrs Aspinall, whose 18-year-old son James died in the disaster, added: "The HFSG would like to thank everyone for all the support the families have received over the past 27 years and all those people who have attended the service at Anfield each year.
"We hope that the public and fans respect the decision of the HFSG and will continue to remember the 96 in their own, perhaps more private, way."
In the days after the disaster, Anfield became the focus of grief on Merseyside.
A carpet of flowers was laid over the pitch and a chain of football scarves stretched from the stadium, across the city's Stanley Park and to Goodison Park, home of local rivals Everton.
On the first anniversary the club unveiled its permanent memorial to those who died - a 10-tonne granite block inscribed with the names of the victims alongside an eternal flame.
Since then bereaved families, survivors, Liverpool players and managers have attended the annual service at the ground.
The service has been a very public show of remembrance - but also of the support shown to those affected by the disaster.
More recently it has also helped keep the bereaved families' campaign in the public eye.
Mrs Aspinall has also asked people to stop pledging financial donations to HFSG.
The families have received many donations over the years, including Â£96,000 pledged by former Liverpool manager Rafa Benitez.
But Mrs Aspinall said: "The families don't need the money now.
"I'd like to thank everybody, not just for their support, but the monetary side of it."
BBC News: Profiles of all those who died