A woman at the centre of a "gruesome" child sex abuse ring which passed children round "like toys" has been given a life sentence.

Marie Black, 34, of Norwich, was convicted at Norwich Crown Court of 23 charges, including rape and inciting a child to engage in sexual activity.
Victims were abused at parties and may have been offered in raffles.
"The case is the most harrowing it has been my misfortune to try," said Judge Nicholas Coleman.
"I and the jurors had to listen to the truly gruesome detail of what took place.
"Your conduct towards these children can only be described as utterly depraved - the children were subjected to sexual abuse of the worst kind.
"They were simply passed around like toys," he said.
The charges related to five young children over a 10-year period.
Michael Rogers, 46, from Romford, north east London, was found guilty of 14 counts, including cruelty, rape and inciting a child to engage in sexual activity.
Jason Adams, 44, from Norwich, was convicted of 13 similar counts.
Both were sentenced to 24 years.
The severity of the sentence means Marie Black has become one of the UK's most notorious paedophiles.
Yet still she cries her innocence. She sobbed quietly and occasionally shook her head as her sentence was read out.
Judge Nicholas Coleman said he had "had enough" of legal argument from her barrister and went at it both barrels.
For Marie Black life inside will be tough. Already she has had to move prisons several times.
The men were also made subject to sexual harm prevention orders, which allows the court to impose restrictions deemed necessary to protect the public.
All three had denied the charges against them, with Black accused of 26 counts and found guilty of 23.
Seven others stood trial, six of whom were cleared of all charges.
Judge Coleman said: "You, Marie Black, were the constant factor in all of these crimes.
"The offences included adults conspiring to rape children at so-called sex parties.
"You used them for your own, and for others', sexual gratification."
Black was told she could only be considered for parole after 12 years.
He said there was evidence the children were taken to other parts of the country where they were raffled for abuse by others.
Black did not give evidence and was described by her barrister Sarah Elliott QC as "clearly a vulnerable, corrupted woman".
"The impetus for abusing the children comes from Adams and Rogers," she said.
"She was vilified throughout the trial and was blamed by everybody to exculpate themselves."
However, barristers representing Adams and Rogers rejected the notion that they had manipulated her.
Isabella Forshall QC, for Adams, said he had no previous convictions for sexual offences and Black was "the common denominator between all the offences."
Ann Cotcher QC said Rogers was a "naive" man who had sought to help Black and was not the instigator of sexual and physical abuse.
Co-defendant Carol Stadler, 59, from Norwich, was found guilty of assault causing actual bodily harm, but cleared of nine other charges including serious sexual assaults.
She is due to be sentenced.
Six others - Anthony Stadler, 63, Nicola Collins, 36, Andrew Collins, 52, Judith Fuller, 31, Denise Barnes, 43, and Kathleen Adams, 85, all from Norwich - stood trial but were cleared of all counts.


Britain's double Tour de France champion Chris Froome has urged athletics to follow cycling's lead and invest a lot more money in anti-doping.

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Cycling's problems with drugs are well documented but the sport's blackest days appear to be behind it.
But the ongoing doping allegations in athletics threaten to overshadow this month's World Championships in Beijing.
"From what I understand, the testing hasn't been at the level that it is in cycling," Froome told BBC Sport.
He said the International Cycling Union (UCI) spends about four times what the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) does on testing.
"It is going to have to invest a lot more heavily in anti-doping," he added. "That would be a step in the right direction."
Track and field's governing body spends about £1.3m a year on anti-doping, whereas its cycling equivalent spends closer to £6m, although much of that comes from the professional teams as a condition of their licences to race in UCI competitions, and race organisers.
"I believe some things have changed quite substantially [for cycling] since the dark ages of 10 to 15 years ago when the sport was really dirty," said Froome, in an exclusive interview with the BBC's sports editor Dan Roan.
"The testing has really evolved and the UCI has now implemented 24-hour testing. I have every confidence that the system now really works."
The 30-year-old Briton, who confirmed this week he will be lining up at the Vuelta later this month, revealed that he had been tested at his Monaco apartment on Sunday night and had no problem with being woken up at 3am by testers, if that is what it takes to assure fans he is clean.
Earlier this year, a BBC investigation revealed allegations of doping by leading US track coach Alberto Salazar and one of his star pupils, American distance runner Galen Rupp. Both men deny the claims.
This hit the sport hard, especially coming after revelations about the apparent return of state-sponsored doping in Russia, as well as lingering distrust of the quality of testing in athletics powerhouses Kenya and Jamaica.
But worse was to come earlier this month when a joint investigation by German broadcaster ARD and British newspaper The Sunday Times uncovered a decade's worth of suspect blood values that cast a shadow over six World Championships and three Olympics.
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The sense of crisis has not been helped by the fact the IAAF is also in the midst of an election battle to replace long-standing president Lamine Diack, with the two contenders, Ukrainian pole vault legend Sergey Bubka and British running great Lord Coe, trading promises to get tougher with cheats while simultaneously suggesting the sport is being unfairly treated.
Cycling fans watched the sport almost destroy itself by failing to face up to its obvious problems, often wasting resources on attacking the messenger instead.
The legacy of cycling's tainted era is all too obvious to Froome, who has been subjected to constant sniping about his performances since his breakthrough at the 2011 Vuelta, where he finished second, and subsequent Tour wins in 2013 and 2015.
The sniping got nasty this year, with one fan throwing urine at him on a mountain stage and others spitting at him. His team-mate Richie Porte was even punched during one stage.
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The Team Sky rider is philosophical about this now, saying he does not blame the tiny minority of wrongdoers on the roadside: his anger is directed at "supposed cycling experts" in the media who cast suspicions about his performances.
"(The fans) were only following the words of the media who were saying this team is not believable," he said.
"If the public is told that enough times by journalists, it's only natural that's what people will believe.
"But I don't think any sportsman should have to go through what we went through during this year's Tour de France."
In an attempt to dispel the "negativity" that surrounded Froome in the days immediately after his superb victory in the Tour's 10th stage, Team Sky released his performance data from that day's final climb, and he has also promised to undergo independent physiological tests that he will share publicly.
"It's something I wanted to do from the start of the season, even before all this came up during the Tour," he said.
"The physiological testing could even help me understand what makes me who I am and what it is about me that allows me to make the efforts I do."
He added that he was "open" to doing the VO2 Max test that many pundits have been asking for, and plans were in place to do the peak oxygen uptake assessment but he "would not be rushing into it".
"I do want to be a spokesman for clean cycling," he said. "I believe somebody has to stand up for the current generation.
"I'm happy to do that. I'm happy to release more information when I can and to show people they can trust these performances."
These attempts to answer his critics' doubts have parallels with the efforts of British athletes Mo Farah, Jenny Meadows and Jo Pavey, who this week gave their blood profiles to The Sunday Times in a bid to prove their commitment to clean sport.
Froome supports this move but ultimately hopes fans will come to trust elite athletes again, certainly in his sport.
"You turn yourself inside out on training camps trying to get yourself ready for the Tour de France and you do an amazing ride - and all of a sudden it's seen with a lot of negativity and doubt," he said.
"You think: 'Hold on a minute, are we all just wasting our time here?' If a good performance is just going to get ripped apart, what are we doing?
"That's what sport is all about, that's why you strive to be the best athlete you can be.
"If you're just going to pull these people down, then there's no point."


League Two side Morecambe have signed goalkeeper Daniel Nizic on a free transfer and Liverpool forward Jack Dunn on loan.

Australian Nizic, 21, spent two years with Burnley but he failed to make an appearance.
He did have loan spells in non-league at Workington and Chorley as well as a short stint at Crewe.
Dunn, 21, is a product of the Reds' youth academy and has agreed a deal until 2 January.
He has spent time at Burton and Cheltenham on loan in 2015.
Find all the latest football transfers on our dedicated page.


Stadiums will be filled with "tourists" waving "half and half scarves and taking selfies" if ticket prices rise further, warned Football Supporters' Federation chairman Malcolm Clarke.

Thousands of Liverpool fans walked out of Saturday's Premier League game against Sunderland at Anfield in protest at next season's prices, which include a £77 matchday ticket.
The FSF is meeting fans' groups to discuss further action, including a potential mass walkout across a weekend of Premier League fixtures.
Clarke said his organisation wants to make sure top-flight clubs "really do deliver some sort of a package" to help bring down the price of tickets.
Speaking to the BBC, he said clubs would "lose the atmosphere and link to the local community", with match-going supporters replaced by "foreign tourists with half and half scarves taking selfies of being in an English ground".
Clarke claims the money from the new £5.1bn television rights deal, which begins next season and guarantees the Premier League's bottom club £99m a year, means clubs could let every supporter into every home game free next season and still bring in the same revenue as this season.
BBC Sport's Price of Football study found two thirds of Premier League tickets were frozen or reduced in price in 2015, but there is increasing pressure for further reductions to follow.
To date, Arsenal, Crystal Palace, Manchester United, Norwich and Swansea have frozen season-ticket prices for 2016-17, while West Ham have reduced theirs for their move to the Olympic Stadium.
Eight other Premier League teams - Chelsea, Spurs, Manchester City, Leicester, Bournemouth, West Brom, Sunderland and Watford - told BBC Sport they will not announce prices until later this year. The rest are yet to respond.
"Until there is collective action from supporters then the Premier League will continue to ignore calls for reform on such issues as ownership, governance, regulation and ticket pricing," said Ian Stirling, the vice-chairman of Manchester United Supporters' Trust.
Tim Payton, from the Arsenal Supporters' Trust, said a boycott was "very difficult" for fans, who want to support their team.
But he added: "There comes a point when you really have to send a message.
"I think we've seen in the last few days that enough is enough for many football fans. It's time to share some of that money with fans and stop squeezing us until we can no longer support the team."
Payton said the issue was "particularly acute" at Arsenal, who had the highest-priced single matchday ticket in last year's Price of Football study at £97.
"If you look around, there aren't many 18, 19, 20 year-olds. Where's the future of the game?" said Payton.
"We think the sensible people at the Premier League understand that.
"They know TV pictures sell around the world because of our fans and our tribalism and we've just got to persuade some of the clubs now to start introducing price caps and to start to do more to help the fans keep going to the game that we love."
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The majority of Premier League clubs voted in favour of capping away ticket prices at £30 in a secret ballot held during a meeting last week, said Clarke.
However, the proposal needed the backing of 14 clubs to be implemented and it failed to generate enough support.
The clubs will reconvene in March to discuss the issue again.
Premier League director of communications Dan Johnson told BBC Radio 5 live there was an "absolute unanimity of purpose" to help away fans, but "no consensus as yet what form that might take".
He added: "There's still lots of ideas in play.
"We're working on it, clubs are working on it and there will be something meaningful and substantial in place for the start of next season."


England and Sunderland footballer Adam Johnson will deny having sexual activity with a 15-year-old girl, a court has been told.

The 27-year-old, from Castle Eden, County Durham, was arrested in March.
His solicitor told magistrates in Peterlee he intends to deny three counts of sexual activity with a child under 16 and another of grooming.
The player was released on conditional bail to appear before Durham Crown Court on 3 June.
The court was told the three counts of sexual activity with a child are alleged to have taken place on one night in January at two locations in County Durham, while a meeting a child after sexual grooming offence was said to have happened between December and February.
Born in Sunderland, Johnson began his career at Middlesbrough before moving to Manchester City and then Sunderland for £10m in 2012.
During the five-minute hearing, his solicitor, Paul Morris, indicated he would plead not guilty when he next appeared in court.
He did not comment as he left court with his partner Stacey Flounders and was driven away in a Range Rover.


Niger's jailed opposition leader Hama Amadou has been flown to France to receive specialist medical treatment.

He is due to take part in Sunday's presidential run-off, although his party says he will boycott the vote.
He says being in prison has prevented him from campaigning.
His doctor was arrested on Tuesday on charges of spreading false news, having told media that Mr Amadou had been hospitalised after losing consciousness twice.
It is not clear what he is suffering from.
The government says general fatigue, while his doctor said he was bound by patient confidentiality
President Mahamadou Issoufou gained 48% of the first round vote in February, with Mr Amadou taking 17%.
Mr Amadou campaigned from a prison 180km (110 miles) north of the capital Niamey, where he has been held since November on baby trafficking charges.
He denies the allegations and describes them as politically motivated.


Oscar-winning actor Tom Hanks was out for a jog in Central Park, New York, on Saturday when he bumped into bride and groom Elisabeth and Ryan as they were having their wedding photos taken.

27 September 2016 Last updated at 18:17 BST
As well as posing for a selfie with the couple, Hanks told them he was an ordained minister and could help out if necessary.
New York based photographer Meg Miller, who was taking the photographs of the couple, said on Instagram that the accidental meeting was the "icing on the cake" to a beautiful wedding.


Defender Ben Davies has signed a new three-year deal with Championship side Preston North End, keeping him at Deepdale until the summer of 2020.

The 21-year-old has started just seven league games for the Lilywhites since making his first-team debut in 2013, spending much of his professional career to date out on loan.
He played 26 games for League One side Fleetwood last season.
The central defender is yet to feature in the Championship.
Find all the latest football transfers on our dedicated page.


Union leaders are set to decide on Monday if next week's double London Underground strike will go ahead.

Members of three unions will stage two 24-hour walkouts starting on Tuesday and Thursday evenings, in the dispute over plans for a new all-night service.
The Rail, Maritime and Transport (RMT), Transport Salaried Staffs Association (TSSA) and Unite unions are in dispute over work-life balance and job cuts.
The Night Tube service is due to launch on 12 September.
Station staff will strike from 18:30 each day and drivers from 21:00 in the protest, which follows two earlier strikes, on 8 July and 6 August.
Disruption is likely to be felt from Tuesday evening until Friday night, owing to the knock-on impact of each strike to the service.
The train drivers' union Aslef is yet to decide on the action it will take.
"The Tube strike will go ahead," said RMT assistant general secretary Mick Lynch on Radio 4's Today programme.
But he added: "There's always a deal to be done. We will review our position on Monday."
Talks aimed at resolving the dispute have been taking place all week and will resume on Friday.


Round three of the 2016 Six Nations brought wins for Wales, Scotland and England and ended with Eddie Jones' England leading Wales at the top of the table.

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Do you have a question for BBC Sport rugby union expert Jeremy Guscott about any of the weekend's matches or the tournament so far?
Who have been the standout players or best newcomers? Who will win the Six Nations and who will receive the Wooden Spoon?
Here's a reminder of the latest results:
If you have a question for the former England and Lions centre, post it in the comments section at the bottom of the page. Not every question submitted can be used.
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A non-league team dubbed "the worst in the country" have ended a 26-game losing streak.

New Mills, who play in the eighth-tier Northern Premier League Division One North, had lost all of their league and cup games this season.
But on Tuesday night the Derbyshire club drew 2-2 with Witton Albion to earn their first point of the campaign.
"I just hope it can be a springboard for the rest of the season," said manager Garry Brown.
In front of a crowd of 218 at Witton Albion's Wincham Park in Northwich, New Mills twice led through Darryl Mason.
But goals from Danny Andrews and Rob Hopley earned the home side a draw as the Millers earned a point for the first time since 11 April, 2015.
"We have got rid of that duck," Brown, the club's fourth manager since June, told BBC Sport.
"The 'worst team in England' tag had driven me. I know we are not and I think we can still surprise a few people this season. New Mills is no longer a place to get easy points.
"It was a fantastic performance and just what the lads deserve."


Voice actor Erik Bauersfeld - whose brief turn as Admiral Ackbar in the Star Wars films launched a pop culture catchphrase - has died, aged 93.

His line "It's a trap," in 1983's Return of the Jedi is beloved among Star Wars fans and later became a popular internet meme.
Bauersfeld died on Sunday at his home in California, his manager told the Associated Press.
Bauersfeld mainly worked in radio before his Star Wars roles.
He also provided the voice for Jabba the Hutt's ghostly steward Bib Fortuna in Return of the Jedi.
Admiral Ackbar and Bauersfeld returned for a cameo role in last year's Star Wars sequel The Force Awakens.


Johnny Depp's former managers have claimed the star is fed his lines through an earpiece so he doesn't have to memorise his scripts, US media say.

The bombshell comes from a new court filing in an increasingly bitter battle between the actor and his ex-managers.
He's suing them for mismanaging his money and they're countersuing him.
Among their claims about his spending, they say he paid hundreds of thousands of dollars to employ a sound engineer to read him his lines on film sets.
The actor has used the method "for years to feed him lines during film production", according to a court document that was filed on Monday.
"Depp insisted that this sound engineer be kept on yearly retainer so that he no longer had to memorise his lines," according to the papers, written by attorney Michael Kump on behalf of The Management Group's Joel and Robert Mandel.
Details of the court document have been reported by The Hollywood Reporter, Variety, Deadline, the New York Post and others.
A lawyer for the movie star responded by describing the allegations as "psychobabble".
A statement from Adam Waldman said: "This is how guilty people respond when confronted with the detailed results of a nine-month legal and forensic investigation conducted by four firms."
In the new document, The Management Group (TMG) said the Pirates of the Caribbean star may have "compulsive spending disorder" and needs "a mental examination".
He originally sued them for fraud, but in an amended complaint filed on Monday, the firm said they "did everything possible to protect Depp from his own irresponsible and profligate spending" before he fired them in March 2016.
According to the reports, they claim he spent more than $75m (Â£58m) to acquire and improve on 14 residences, including a chain of islands in the Bahamas, multiple houses in Hollywood and a 45-acre chateau in the south of France.
They also say he bought 45 luxury vehicles, 70 collectible guitars and enough Hollywood memorabilia to fill 12 storage facilities.
Depp spent up to $1.2m (Â£930,000) a year for a "personal on-call physician" and "millions more to employ an army of attorneys", they allege.
They say the lawyers bailed him out of legal crises and made a series of "hush money settlements" - details of which will be revealed if there is a trial.
And they dismissed as "laughable" a claim by a lawyer for Depp that he spent $30,000 (Â£23,300) a month on wine as an "investment".
"Depp would be hard pressed to find a single bottle of wine that he purchased during his tenure with TMG that he or his various companions have not yet consumed," they said.
"Wine is not an investment if you drink it as soon as you buy it."
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Justice Secretary Michael Matheson has said it is not helpful if people give a "running commentary" on the death in police custody of Sheku Bayoh.

25 October 2015 Last updated at 15:02 GMT
Earlier this week, the Lord Advocate appealed for calm following a row between Mr Matheson's predecessor Kenny MacAskill and Aamer Anwar, the lawyer representing Mr Bayoh's family.
Mr MacAskill, writing in a police journal, said he believed the outcome of the case would be a "tragic accident".
The comments angered Mr Bayoh's family, as the Police Investigations Review Commissioner investigation into his death continues.
Mr Matheson told the BBC's Sunday Politics Scotland programme: "There is a robust investigation being taken forward through the Police Investigation and Review Commissioner and that is also being directed by the Crown Office.
"As the Lord Advocate has made clear this week, it is better if all parties refrain from making comment while the investigation is taking place.
"I don't think it is helpful if people are giving a running commentary on issues around this investigation while it is being undertaken."


An internal report into "abhorrent practices" at Hazlehead Crematorium in Aberdeen must be published, Scotland's Information Commissioner has ruled.

The ruling comes after BBC Scotland sought a copy of the report under Freedom of Information legislation.
The report was kept secret by Aberdeen City Council because it contained details of senior managers' conduct.
It was commissioned after the revelation that babies were being cremated with unrelated adults.
The ashes of both were being handed to relatives of the adult for scattering.
The report's remit included the role of the director responsible for the crematorium, Pete Leonard, who resigned.
He had been quoted as referring to "slow cooking" babies - comments for which he was heavily criticised.
BBC Scotland understands the conduct of Mr Leonard and his senior team was investigated, but not that of chief executive Angela Scott.
Personal details and the views of the report's author on the conduct of individuals can still be redacted because of the potential influence on any disciplinary actions.
But the local authority has been told it must publish the majority of the report by 1 September.
In a decision notice, the acting Information Commissioner Margaret Keyse is critical of the council which repeatedly changed its reasons for not making the report public.
She said: "The council's actions suggest it was intentionally trying to prevent [BBC Scotland] accessing information it could quite readily provide."
Aberdeen City Council had argued that some of the information contained within the report was already in the public domain but that the same information should be withheld because of the risk of prejudicing future investigations.
The ruling said the justifications for withholding the report were "wholly inadequate".
It went on to express concern that "disclosure of the information in full... would allow members of the public to draw their own (and possibly incorrect) conclusions regarding an individual's involvement in, or responsibility for, any failings at Hazlehead, in advance of any further investigations being carried out".
Aberdeen City Council further argued the level of intrusion into the private lives of individuals mentioned in the report was "unwarranted".
The commissioner accepted there was a public interest in publication because of the senior posts held by those who were being investigated.
She also dismissed a claim that publishing the report would "cause harm" to the council as "somewhat over-stated".
A spokesperson for the council said: "We have received initial notification from the Scottish Information Commissioner and the full decision will be considered in due course.
"We are committed to complying with the requirements in the timeframe specified by the SIC."
The council's internal inquiry followed an investigation by Dame Elish Angiolini into practices at crematoriums across Scotland.
The former Lord Advocate said the process of cremating bodies together may have been going on from 1967 until a change of management in 2011.
Her report said there was no overall strategic management of the crematorium by Aberdeen City Council and that the focus among officials was on budget rather than policy.
It said an Infant Cremation Commission led by Lord Bonomy was misled about practices taking place there.
The council has since apologised and compensation has been paid to dozens of affected parents.


Aled Thomas came off the bench to kick Scarlets to only their second win over Ospreys at Liberty Stadium.

The west Wales rivals were tied at 13-13 before the fly-half kicked four penalties in the final 18 minutes.
Centre Josh Matavesi's try had given Ospreys an early lead before DTH van der Merwe replied for Scarlets.
The result cements Scarlets' position in the top three, and leaves the Ospreys in ninth place - a long way off European Champions Cup qualification.
Sam Davies kicked 11 points for the Ospreys, but the Scarlets' forward dominance after the break kept the home team at arms length.
With Wales forwards Alun Wyn Jones and Justin Tipuric injured, Ospreys struggled at the scrum and could not break the stranglehold Wayne Pivac's team established up front.
The defeat is a blow to Ospreys' already slim top-flight European qualification hopes, and confirms Scarlets as the top region in Wales this season.
Scarlets were pipped 27-26 in the first meeting between the sides this season.
But their pack were in no mood to allow a repeat, with the front row and flanker James Davies outstanding.
In the anticipated battle of the half-backs, it was honours even in a first half when Ospreys number 10 Davies looked assured with Wales fly-half Dan Biggar waiting on the bench.
His delayed pass put Evans through a hole to set up Matavesi's try, and he kicked impeccably.
Scarlets scrum-half Gareth Davies darted through a gaping narrow-side hole to set up the chance for Van der Merwe's outstanding finish in the left corner.
After the break, the visitors established a control, but could not turn it into points.
And the key moment came when Hadleigh Parkes intercepted a Rhys Webb pass with an Ospreys try looking certain.
With that danger passed, Scarlets re-established control and Thomas made up for missing his first kick at goal by nailing the next four - and possibly the crucial nails into Ospreys' European ambitions.
Ospreys: Dan Evans; Jeff Hassler, Ben John, Josh Matavesi, Eli Walker; Sam Davies, Rhys Webb; Paul James (capt), Scott Baldwin, Aaron Jarvis, James King, Rory Thornton, Dan Lydiate, Sam Underhill, Dan Baker.
Replacements: Sam Parry, Nicky Smith, Dmitri Arhip, Adam Beard, Olly Cracknell, Brendon Leonard, Dan Biggar, Owen Watkin.
Scarlets: Michael Collins; Steffan Evans, Regan King, Hadleigh Parkes, DTH van der Merwe; Dan Jones, Gareth Davies; Rob Evans, Ken Owens (capt), Peter Edwards, Jake Ball, David Bulbring, John Barclay, James Davies, Morgan Allen
Replacements: Kirby Myhill, Dylan Evans, Samson Lee, Maselino Paulino, Will Boyde, Aled Davies, Aled Thomas, Harry Robinson
Referee: Ben Whitehouse (WRU)
Assistant referees: Ian Davies, Wayne Davies (WRU)
Citing commissioner: John Charles (WRU)
TMO: Jon Mason (WRU)


"The most important thing in life is having a child," said the late Prof Sir Robert Edwards.

He was one of the pioneers of in vitro fertilisation, known as IVF, alongside his colleague Dr Patrick Steptoe.
Sir Robert, who has died aged 87, was born in Batley outside Leeds in September 1925.
World War II and service in the British Army delayed his eventual emergence in the scientific world.
In 1951 he graduated from the University of Bangor in Wales and then completed his doctorate at the University of Edinburgh in 1955. It was at Edinburgh that he met his wife Ruth.
Around this time he began to work on the processes of fertilisation - that critical moment when a man's sperm and a woman's egg join to create new life.
Animal studies had shown that it was possible to fertilise an egg in a laboratory instead of inside the body.
The team of Dr Steptoe and Prof Edwards were trying to achieve the same results in people.
It took until 1968 for the first glimmers of success.
They fertilised an egg, which then began to develop and reached the blastocyst stage after five to six days.
Prof Edwards said: "I'll never forget the day I looked down the microscope and saw something funny in the cultures.
"I looked down the microscope and what I saw was a human blastocyst gazing up at me. I thought, 'We've done it'".
However, there would be another decade of trials and tribulations before the first test-tube baby.
Their work was refused funding by the UK's Medical Research Council in 1971 and they had to rely largely on private donations to continue their work.
It was also vigorously opposed by groups including the Catholic Church and scientists were concerned about abnormalities in any babies born through these procedures.
There were many failed attempts, the first pregnancy was ectopic, but one of the childless couples treated were Lesley Brown and her husband John.
They had been trying to conceive for nine years, but now she was pregnant.
The media storm was intense.
"We were concerned that she would lose the baby, the foetus, because the press were chasing Mrs Brown all over Bristol where she lived," said Prof Edwards in 2008.
"So, secretly Patrick Steptoe hid the mother in his car and drove her to his mother's house in Lincoln - the press didn't know where she was."
In 1978, at Oldham and District General Hospital, a tiny baby was introduced to the world.
The birth of Louise Brown, the first test tube baby, changed the world forever.
Being infertile was no longer a guaranteed barrier to having a child.
Robert Edwards and Patrick Steptoe would then set up the first IVF clinic - Bourn Hall in Cambridgeshire - in 1980.
The opposition to IVF lessened with time and the procedure is now commonplace.
By 2012, more than five million children had been born through assisted reproductive techniques around the world.
Dr Patrick Steptoe died in 1988.
It was a long wait for a Nobel Prize, which was awarded to Prof Edwards for medicine in 2010. A knighthood followed the year later.
He was one of the giants of science in the 20th Century and pioneered the techniques which have given children to millions of couples.


A classic Scottish play revived last year at Dundee Rep Theatre will tour in the autumn.

The Cheviot, the Stag and the Black, Black Oil tells the story of the Scotland's history, from the Highland clearances to the arrival of oil.
The production will once again be performed in Dundee before embarking on a Scottish tour visiting Edinburgh, Aberdeen, Inverness and Glasgow.
It will be the first professional tour of the play in over 20 years.
The play, which was written by John McGrath, was first performed by the 7:84 Scotland group at the "What Kind of Scotland?" conference in Edinburgh in March 1973.
Last year, Dundee Rep Ensemble was granted permission to present it in a professional production for the first time in over two decades.
Director Joe Douglas said: "Directing The Cheviot has never been anything but a terrifying honour.
"Dundee was jumping when we performed the play last year and we're very excited to take the Ensemble out on the road.
"McGrath's philosophy was that the audience must have 'a good night out' and that's something that we aim to ignite across the country."
Dundee Rep Theatre chief executive Nick Parr said: "The Cheviot, the Stag and the Black, Black Oil was a huge success in Dundee last year.
"I am delighted that we can share this outstanding and timely production in Dundee again and also across Scotland.
"John's script is as powerfully relevant today as it was 40-odd years ago."
The play will run at the Rep from 31 August until 10 September.
It will then visit the Royal Lyceum Theatre Edinburgh, His Majesty's Theatre, Aberdeen, Eden Court Theatre, Inverness and the Citizens Theatre, Glasgow, until 22 October.


Ajax Cape Town of South Africa won the first leg of their African Confederation Cup first round match in Angola, beating Sagrada Esperanca 2-1 after reversing a decision to withdraw from the tournament.

Ajax, concerned with internal travel arrangements in Angola, honoured the fixture after South Africa's Football Association (Safa) said they would face severe sanctions if they did not go.
Ruzaigh Gamildien and Riyaad Norodien grabbed vital away goals for Ajax, with Antonio Oliviera scoring for the hosts.
In other first round first leg ties, Tripoli-based Al Ittihad began their Confederation Cup campaign with a resounding 4-1 win over visiting Sonidep from Niger on Friday.
The Libyan club played their match in Tunisia at the home of Stade Gabesien, about 400km along the coast from Tripoli because of the war in Libya.
Al Ittihad are looking to go one step further than 2010 when they reached the semi-finals of the Confederation Cup.
Stade Gabesian were also in action themselves on Friday as they travelled to Bakaridjan in Mali where it finished 1-1.
Two-time African champions Esperance from Tunisia and Morocco's FUS Rabat have a bye and so will see action from the first round in March.
The second-tier Confederation Cup has been hit by the withdrawal of Gaborone United of Botswana and Wallidan from The Gambia, giving JKU of Zanzibar and Mouloudia d'Oran byes.
The return leg matches will be played on the weekend of 26-28 February with the overall winners advancing to the round of 32 to be played from 11-13 March.


The African Union has called for the mass withdrawal of member states from the International Criminal Court (ICC).

However, the resolution is non-binding, with Nigeria and Senegal opposing a withdrawal.
South Africa and Burundi have already decided to withdraw, accusing the ICC of undermining their sovereignty and unfairly targeting Africans.
The ICC denies the allegation, insisting it is pursuing justice for victims of war crimes in Africa.
The AU took the decision on Tuesday following a divisive debate at its annual heads of state of summit in Addis Ababa.
Part of the resolution also said the AU would hold talks with the UN Security Council to push for the ICC to be reformed.
After being discussed in several previous summits, this was a huge announcement showing how frustrated the AU was with the international court. But the debate itself showed how divisive the whole issue is.
The resolution isn't as strong as many who are opposed to the court would have liked. It only calls on countries to consider how to implement the decision but does not bind them to it. It's a victory for human rights activists who insist the court still has a very important role to play in the continent where many countries have weak judicial systems.
The resolution also calls for African countries to continue pushing for reforms of the court - another clear indication that ditching the court en masse isn't such a popular decision. The likes of South Africa and Kenya, which have pushed for withdrawing, will be disappointed that the discussions about completely severing ties with the ICC will have to wait another six months for the next summit.
Sudan's President Omar al-Bashir, who is wanted by the court on charges of genocide in Darfur, was at the summit.
In 2015, a South African court criticised President Jacob Zuma's government for failing to arrest Mr Bashir when he attended an AU meeting in the main city, Johannesburg.
The government later announced that it was withdrawing from the ICC because it did not want to execute arrest warrants which would lead to "regime change".
A total of 34 African states are signatories to the Rome Statute, which set up the ICC.
The ICC and global justice:
What does the ICC do?


A 100-year-old woman is among the victims of a series of distraction thefts within the homes of the elderly and vulnerable in Dundee.

Police have described the thefts, which are believed to have been carried out by the same man, as "despicable".
The incidents took place over the last two weeks in the Stobswell, Maryfield and Douglas areas.
The suspect, who is aged between 30 and 35, may be sleeping rough and travelling by bicycle.
He is about 5ft 6in tall, of thin build, with short brown or blonde hair.
PC Garrie Watson said: "These are despicable crimes.
"This man has deliberately targeted the vulnerable and elderly within their own homes, with the oldest victim being 100 years old.
"I would urge members of the public to provide us with information which would help us to identify and arrest the person responsible."


"The UN was not created to take mankind to heaven, but to save humanity from hell."

So often repeated are the words of the Swedish diplomat Dag Hammarskjold, the organisation's most beloved secretary general, they have come to serve as a mission statement of sorts.
Additionally, they function as a crude benchmark against which the work of the United Nations can be judged.
When the organisation was formed in 1945, in the aftermath of World War Two and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, "hell" would have been the outbreak of a third global conflict and nuclear Armageddon, neither of which has come to pass.
But in those post-War years, as the full horror of the Holocaust was uncovered, "hell" also meant genocide, a word which had only just been coined: the systematic massacre of thousands of people because of their ethnicity, religion, race or nationality.
Here, the UN has not always been able to halt the descent into the abyss.
To its member states' eternal shame, on some occasions it has been a bystander to genocide.
In any historical ledger, Rwanda and Srebrenica stand out as ghastly failures.
During the Rwanda genocide, UN peacekeepers deployed in the country concentrated on evacuating expatriates and government officials, failing to intervene as 800,000 Tutsis and sympathetic Hutus were slaughtered.
In Srebrenica in July 1995, more than 8,000 Muslims, mainly men and boys, were massacred by Bosnian Serb forces, which barged past Dutch soldiers wearing the distinctive blue helmet of the UN peacekeepers as if they weren't there.
What made the massacre all the more horrifying was that the Muslims had sheltered in enclaves deemed "safe areas" under the protections of the UN.
In some conflicts, such as Yugoslavia, the UN was slow to respond.
In others, such as Vietnam and the Iraq war, it was sidelined.
Its efforts to broker peace talks during Syria's civil war, now in its fifth year, have always ended in failure.
Now, a third UN envoy, the Italian diplomat Staffan de Mistura, is trying, without success so far, to break the impasse.
Peace has also proved elusive in the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, one of the UN's first major dilemmas following its formation in 1945 and a long-running bugbear.
Sometimes the UN has been part of the problem rather than the solution.
Blue-helmeted peacekeepers have been accused of a litany of sexual abuses, most recently in the Central African Republic.
In Haiti, peacekeepers from Nepal were the source, the evidence suggests, of a cholera outbreak that has killed more than 8,000 people - though the UN refuses to accept any legal liability.
While the UN sees itself as a force for democratisation, it is a ridiculously undemocratic organisation.
Its locus of power is the Security Council, where the five permanent members - the US, Britain, France, China and Russia - still wield crippling vetoes.
The Security Council, like amber encasing an extinct insect, preserves the influence of the victors from World War Two, freezing a moment in a time.
Tellingly, when Franklin Delano Roosevelt coined the phrase the "United Nations," he was referring not to the countries of the world but rather the Allied powers.
Germany and Japan do not have permanent seats on the Security Council, nor do India or Brazil.
Though every country has a vote in the General Assembly, a less powerful body, almost 75% of the world's population is effectively disenfranchised in the Security Council.
There, preposterously, one veto-wielding power can thwart the will of the other 192 members.
All five veto powers have to agree, for instance, on the appointment of secretaries general, enabling weak, if well-intentioned, compromise candidates, like the present leader Ban Ki-moon, to reach the top.
For all its shortcomings, however, the United Nations can look back on much of the past 70 years with pride.
It is credited with brokering more than 170 peace settlements, though it has proved better at preventing nation-to-nation conflicts rather than civil wars.
The Cold War never turned hot, although there were Cold War proxy conflicts in Korea, Vietnam, Nicaragua, Angola, Afghanistan and elsewhere.
The number of people killed in conflicts has declined since 1945.
Fewer died in the first decade of this century than in any decade during the last.
Its peacekeeping operations, which began during the Suez crisis in 1956, have expanded to 16 missions around the world, keeping and monitoring the peace in Haiti to Darfur, Cyprus to the Golan Heights.
The UN has codified a panoply of international laws and forged the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948.
It has helped broker major international treaties, such as the landmark, nuclear non-proliferation treaty that came into force in 1970, and helped organise historic elections, such as the first presidential contest in Afghanistan in 2004.
The work of UN agencies, much of it unnoticed and unsung, has been impressive, partly because they employ some of the world's leading experts in disaster relief, public health and economic development.
Not only are their staff expert, but often incredibly brave and dedicated.
Partly because of the efforts of Unicef, deaths of children under the age of five have declined from nearly 12 million in 1990 to 6.9 million in 2011.
The UN's refugee agency, the UNHCR, has helped 17 million asylum seekers and refugees, picking up two Nobel peace prizes, in 1954 and 1981, for its efforts.
The World Food Programme each year gives assistance to 80 million people in 75 countries.
The preservation of 1,031 of the world's most beautiful sites, from the Serengeti National Park to Machu Picchu, is partly thanks to the cultural agency Unesco.
Its Millennium Development Goals, which will soon be superseded by the Sustainable Development Goals, have been described as the greatest anti-poverty drive in history.
Often, however, the work of agencies is hindered by a lack of funding from member states, which is often called donor fatigue.
There is a chronic shortfall in Syria, for instance, where only 38% of the funding requirements have been met.
Of the $4.5bn needed by the UN to confront the Syrian refugee crisis, only $1.8bn has been contributed.
The UN's convening power, the simple fact that it brings together 193 members, is obviously unique.
Still, all too often its members deliberately hamper its work.
UN agencies would like to deliver humanitarian aid to Syria, to use one example, but for much of the past five years the Security Council has not mandated them to do so.
Russia, with the backing usually of China, has used its veto as a block to protect its ally, Syria's President Bashar al-Assad.
This kind of obstructionism and negative statecraft is common at the UN.
Critics of Israel, a country that regularly complains of being unfairly vilified at the UN, bemoan the regular use of US vetoes to shield it from international criticism.
Often the UN doesn't solve the world's problems, but merely reflects them.
As the late US diplomat Richard Holbrooke once memorably said, blaming the UN is rather like blaming Madison Square Garden when the New York Knicks lose.
It is the players that count, and they who ultimately decide on whether the UN succeeds or fails as a multinational problem-solver.
Syria offers a case study of the UN at its best and its worst.
The deadlock in Security Council has stymied peace efforts, but the UN runs the massive Zaatari refugee camp in Jordan, the home to almost 80,000 displaced people.
That camp could never in any way be described as "heaven".
But it has saved those seeking shelter from "hell".


A group of 20 schoolgirls who were stranded in the Himalayas after floods will return to the UK on Tuesday, according to one student's father.

The trekkers from the Holt School in Wokingham were on a three-week expedition in Ladakh, northern India, organised by Adventure Lifesigns.
They were trapped after five days of rain and rescued by Indian Air Force helicopters on Friday.
Philip Collins, whose child is on the trip, said they "never felt at risk".
He said he had been told his daughter Emily and her fellow trekkers would fly back on Tuesday - two days before she is due to collect her A level results.
"There was no real concern, they were in a safe place and had plenty of supplies.
"We were able to speak to her, they were all fine.
"I think it's been an adventure, they never felt at risk."
A spokesman for Adventure Lifesigns said the group was made up of 20 pupils, three staff and five local guides.
Suzanne Richards, headteacher at the Holt School, said the company running the expedition had been "excellent".
The Indian Ministry of Defence said: "All major rivers in Ladakh region were flowing beyond their danger mark.
"The road and telephone communication was cut-off along most major roads.
"Thankfully, the trekkers had made a temporary 'SOS' sign, this distress signal on ground was instrumental in correctly identifying the location."
The UK Foreign Office said it was providing consular assistance and was in contact with local authorities.


Firefighters searching the rubble of a collapsed building in the Brazilian city of Sao Paulo have found another body, taking the death toll to eight.

A further 26 people were injured when the two-storey factory, under construction in the Sao Mateus neighbourhood, collapsed.
Two of the 36 people who are believed to have been working in the building at the time are still unaccounted for.
It is not yet clear what may have caused the collapse.
According to city officials, the construction work did not have the necessary permits and two fines had been issued already in relation to the work carried out.
Edilson Carlos dos Santos, a lawyer for the owner of the site, blamed the engineering company hired to work on the building for the collapse.
Mr Santos said the company, Salvatta Engenharia, had been installing lift shafts and staircases at the time of the collapse on Tuesday.
The engineering company denied the allegations, saying in a statement that it had not yet received the keys to the building "because the works he [the owner of the site] had agreed to carry out had not been completed".
Some 60 rescue workers continue to search the site with sniffer dogs.
They dug holes into concrete walls with sledgehammers and removed metal sheeting in their attempt to find the missing construction workers.
Building collapses of this kind are common in Sao Paulo - Brazil's largest city - and particularly affect structures that are either poorly maintained or still under construction.
Home to 11 million people, Sao Paulo is one of 12 Brazilian host cities for next year's World Cup.


Mohammad Ajmal Amir Qasab, the sole surviving gunman in the 2008 Mumbai attacks, has been hanged.

The Pakistani national's plea for mercy to Indian President Pranab Mukherjee was rejected earlier this month.
He was executed in prison in Pune early on Wednesday, the Home Ministry said.
The 60-hour siege of Mumbai began on 26 November 2008. Attacks on the railway station, luxury hotels and a Jewish cultural centre claimed 166 lives. Nine gunmen were also killed.
Qasab and an accomplice carried out the assault on the main railway station, killing 52 people.
He was convicted of murder and other crimes in May 2010. The Supreme Court upheld his death sentence in August.
By Yogita LimayeBBC News, Pune
Since news of Ajmal Qasab's execution has spread, people have started gathering outside the Yerawada prison in Pune.
Most of them appear to be affiliated to Hindu nationalist parties and have been chanting patriotic slogans, distributing toffees and sugar to celebrate the event.
Security has been stepped up outside the jail, which is where Qasab's body has been buried.
Elsewhere in the city of Pune, political parties have planned events to pay tribute to security personnel and civilians who lost their lives in the Mumbai attacks.
Survivors and relatives react
'Need for secrecy'
R R Patil, Home Minister of Maharashtra state, of which Mumbai is the capital, said Qasab was hanged in the Yerawada prison at 0730 (0200 GMT).
"This is a tribute to all innocent people and police officers who lost their lives in this heinous attack on our nation," Mr Patil was quoted as telling reporters by the Associated Press news agency.
Qasab did not leave behind a will and was buried inside the jail, Maharashtra Chief Minister Prithviraj Chavan said.
Senior officials in Delhi said Qasab's family members had been informed about the execution "through a letter sent by courier".
In Delhi, federal Home Minister Sushil Kumar Shinde said he had signed Qasab's execution order on 7 November, two days after President Pranab Mukherjee rejected his clemency petition.
Qasab, who had been held in Mumbai's Arthur Road jail, was moved to Pune's Yerawada prison two days ago, Prithviraj Chavan said.
By Soutik BiswasIndia correspondent
"We kept secrecy. It was important to maintain secrecy in this matter," Mr Shinde said, adding that Pakistan had been informed of the execution.
The Indian government was under pressure to act against a man who helped carry out one of the deadliest attacks in the country, says the BBC's Sanjoy Majumder in Delhi.
But the swiftness and secrecy in which the execution took place would have come as a surprise to many, our correspondent adds.
Major political parties in India welcomed Qasab's execution.
A spokesman for the main opposition Bharatiya Janata Party, Mukhtar Abbas Naqvi, said the execution would send a message to India's enemies.
"The hanging of Qasab is a case of better late than never. It also sends out a strong message and warning to India's enemies and to forces across the border that are running factories of terrorism," he said.
Commenting on Qasab's execution, Pakistan's Foreign Ministry spokesman Moazzam Ali Khan said: "We condemned terrorism in all its forms and manifestation... We are willing to co-operate and work closely with all countries of the region to eliminate the scourge of terrorism."
Profile: The last gunman
Twists and turns of Qasab case
Twitter users hail hanging
But Pakistan-based banned militant group Lashkar-e-Taiba [LeT], which was blamed for the Mumbai attacks, hailed Qasab as a "hero". He would "inspire other fighters to follow his path", an unnamed LeT commander was quoted by Reuters as saying.
The Pakistani Taliban were "shocked" by the hanging, Reuters quoted Taliban spokesman Ehsanullah Ehsan as saying.
Faridkot, the village Qasab came from in the Pakistani province of Punjab, was tense on Wednesday. Villagers who BBC Urdu spoke to denied he had ever lived there. Other reports said residents were openly hostile and threw stones at journalists.
There has been no information yet on Qasab's last few days, but his lawyer Raju Ramachandran, who argued his case in the Supreme Court, told Reuters that Qasab was a "worried man" when he last met him in August, before the court upheld his death sentence.
He was scared that he would be hanged and asked the lawyer: "Can you please help me get out of jail?"
Qasab was part of a heavily armed and well-drilled, 10-member militant unit which arrived in Mumbai by sea on 26 November.
The men split into groups to attack various targets. Their assault on the Taj Mahal Hotel, Oberoi Trident Hotel and a Jewish centre went on for more than two days.
Closed-circuit TV camera showed Qasab and an accomplice opening fire on passengers at one of Mumbai's busiest train stations, Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus.
Relations between India and Pakistan deteriorated sharply after India blamed Lashkar-e-Taiba for the attacks.
After initial denials, Pakistan acknowledged that the assault had been partially planned on its territory and that Qasab was a Pakistani citizen. Relations have been gradually improving since then.
Qasab's execution was the first in India since a man convicted of raping and killing a schoolgirl was hanged in the eastern city of Calcutta in 2004.


Welsh Secretary Alun Cairns was among the first formally to congratulate First Minister Carwyn Jones on Labour's success in Wales.

In a statement, Mr Cairns said he believed the new Welsh Government should have "five clear priorities" in co-operating with Westminster.
These are the steel industry, unlocking the potential of north Wales (the so-called "northern powerhouse"), M4 improvements, the EU referendum and the next stage of devolution.
On the EU, he said: "We need to unite across the political divide and explain our common belief that Wales will prosper by staying within a reformed European Union.
"The UK government's leaflet which will shortly be distributed to every home in Wales sets out our case for this. We need to shelve party politics to ensure Welsh voters make an informed choice."
Shelving party politics might be easier than uniting the Welsh Conservatives on the issue: Montgomeryshire MP Glyn Davies has announced that he will vote to leave the UK, the fifth of eight Welsh Tory backbench MPs to support "Brexit". Welsh Tory leader Andrew RT Davies is also in the "leave" camp.
On devolution, Mr Cairns suggested: "taking advantage of the opportunities offered in the forthcoming Wales Bill to deliver a real parliament for Wales, with greater powers and a government responsible for raising as well as spending money".
His predecessor, Stephen Crabb, pressed the pause button on that Bill two months ago amid little sign of cross-party consensus.
Mr Cairns added: "Welsh politics has been characterised too often by tribalism and opposition for opposition's sake at either end of the M4. It's time for a new spirit of pragmatism.
"As Wales advances to the next stage of devolution, my message to the new Welsh Government is that we put aside political differences and get on with the big job of delivering projects that will really benefit people's lives. If we can, then the Welsh people will be the real winners of this election."
"Pragmatism" may not be the most energising call to arms but Mr Cairns intends it to be the theme of his time at the Wales Office.


Prosecutors are to decide whether the Sussex Police and Crime Commissioner (PCC) should face charges over allegations she made a false statement.

The Independent Police Complaints Commission (IPCC) has completed an investigation into claims against Katy Bourne during last year's PCC election.
Its report has now been passed to the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS).
In a statement, Ms Bourne's office said it would be "inappropriate to comment" until the matter was concluded.
"The office is aware the IPCC has passed its report into this complaint to the CPS," it said.
It is alleged Ms Bourne made a false statement during the 2016 election regarding her expenses while serving as the PCC.
An IPCC spokesman said: "A referral to the CPS is made when the IPCC investigation indicates that a criminal offence may have been committed.
"It does not mean that criminal charges will necessarily follow."


Prosecutors in Brazil are recommending that football star Neymar be charged over four counts of fraud in relation to a tax case prior to his transfer to Barcelona in 2013.

It is alleged that companies were set up as fronts in order for the striker to pay a lower rate of tax.
Officials in Brazil say the allegations against the Barcelona striker cover a seven-year period from 2006.
The allegations are separate from a case heard in Spain on Tuesday.
Neymar appeared in court in Madrid in connection with fraud allegations surrounding his transfer. He has consistently denied any wrongdoing.
The case in Brazil relates to the time when Neymar was still in Brazil and his income came from Brazilian sources.
Government prosecutors - who are recommending his prosecution on four charges of fraud - claim that companies were set up as fronts, and money that should have been taxed at the rate of a private individual was channelled into these companies and subject to a lower rate.
It is very early stages. The prosecutors claims will go to a judge who will decide if there is a case to answer or not. At the moment Neymar is not formally a defendant.
At the time of his transfer he was a rising star at Brazilian club Santos.
Brazilian prosecutors are reported by the AFP news agency to have also framed fraud charges against Neymar's father Neymar da Silva Santos, Barcelona President Josep Maria Bartomeu and his predecessor Sandro Rosell.
Barcelona said it paid €57m (£43m) for Neymar in 2013 but investigators say the fee was closer to €83m and the club concealed part of the deal.
Neymar spent an hour and a half before a Spanish judge on Tuesday.
Mr Santos, who arrived at court with his son on Tuesday evening, acts as his agent.
The Spanish case was brought by Brazilian third-party investment fund DIS, which owned 40% of the Brazilian player's sports rights.
DIS alleges it was financially harmed by the transfer when it received €6.8m of Mr Santos's €17m fee and argues it was deprived of its full share.
Neymar: Better than Messi & Ronaldo?


A police officer accused of misusing his force's helicopter to film people having sex has told a court he did not know his colleague was recording them.

Matthew Lucas, 43, was in South Yorkshire Police's aircraft when a couple were filmed having sex on their patio, Sheffield Crown Court heard.
He admitted he was in the front passenger seat but said he did not see the couple involved in sexual activity.
Mr Lucas is one of four men on trial. All deny misconduct in a public office.
Another officer, Adrian Pogmore, 51, has pleaded guilty to the charge. He also admitted he knew the couple through the "swinging scene" and that he had sex with the woman.
More stories from across Yorkshire
Mr Lucas, who was honoured for helping two boys attacked in Edlington in 2009, said his colleague Pogmore was in the back seat of the chopper and was operating the camera.
Giving evidence, Mr Lucas said he did not recall much of the flight but remembered seeing a naked woman with a man in a Manchester United shirt for a "matter of seconds".
Pogmore made four recordings from the aircraft between 2007 and 2012, including two of people sunbathing naked, one of a couple of naturists and another of his friends having sex in their back garden, the jury was told.
When Mr Lucas, who was in the helicopter for three of the four incidents, was asked if he saw "any of the actual sex" by his defence barrister Paul Greaney QC, he replied: "I did not".
He told the court he had little recollection of what he said at the time he caught a glimpse of the naked woman but said it was along the lines of: "Oh my god, Poggy."
Mr Lucas said he was focused on searching for nuisance motorbikes on waste ground nearby.
Mr Greaney asked: "Did you do anything at all to assist Adrian Pogmore in what he was doing?"
"Absolutely not," he replied.
Mr Lucas said he had been on flights before which had "stumbled across" naked people and recalled an incident over Barnsley when the helicopter flew over a couple having sex in a field.
Pogmore, of Guilthwaite Crescent, Whiston, Rotherham, has admitted four charges of misconduct in a public office.
Mr Reeves, of Farfield Avenue, Knaresborough, North Yorkshire, denies two counts of the same charge.
Mr Walls, of Southlands Way, Aston, Sheffield, denies one count.
Mr Loosemore, of Briar Close, Auckley, Doncaster, denies one count.
Mr Lucas, of Coppice Rise, Chapeltown, Sheffield, denies three counts.
The trial continues.


Liverpool footballer Roberto Firmino has been charged with drink-driving after being arrested on Christmas Eve.

The 25-year-old forward was arrested after his car was stopped in Liverpool city centre in the early hours of Saturday, police said.
The Brazil international is due to appear at Liverpool Magistrates Court on 31 January.
The court appearance date is scheduled for the same day that Liverpool face Chelsea at Anfield.
Liverpool signed the forward from Hoffenheim on a five-year deal for about Â£29m in June last year.
He played in last week's win against Everton at Goodison Park.
A Liverpool spokesperson said the club would not be commenting on the issue until the legal process had concluded.


Scarlets wing Harry Robinson has revealed he feared he would never play again because of a serious neck injury.

Robinson, 22, had surgery in May after a heavy collision in a Pro12 game in March forced two discs in his back to protrude onto his spinal cord.
He returned to action earlier this month in a Welsh Premiership match for Llanelli RFC and could feature for Scarlets against the Dragons on Friday.
"It's a huge relief. It was a lucky escape really," said Robinson.
"When the injury first happened I wasn't too sure if I'd actually be able to come back and play rugby again."
Robinson has identified a tackle in the Pro12 loss at home to Edinburgh at the end of March last season as the cause of the injury.
Despite feeling numbness throughout his body, he stayed on the pitch, and remarkably played in the next three games. It was only after having a subsequent scan that the full extent of the injury became clear.
"I had a nasty bang in the Edinburgh game and my whole body ended up going numb. I couldn't feel my feet and I lost all sense of balance," he said.
"So I'm 99% sure that's when it happened. In the collision, I think two of my discs must have slipped and ended up going onto my spinal cord.
"It was pretty frightening but in the heat of the game you just carry on really.
Media playback is not supported on this device
"I went for a scan not long after and had the two discs that had gone into the spinal cord removed and they fused vertebrae three, four and five together. It was a big operation."
Despite the severity of the surgery, Robinson was given an encouraging prognosis over his rehabilitation.
He also found support and guidance from Scarlets and Wales hooker Ken Owens, who had surgery last year for a second slipped disc.
The biggest doubt over Robinson's recovery was whether his movement would be restricted in his neck and how much pain he would be able to tolerate.
So far there have been no problems, with Robinson coming through 60 minutes on his return to action for semi-professional side Llanelli RFC against Ebbw Vale on 17 October and then playing the whole match last Saturday in their win over Bedwas.
Such has been his progress, the wing is being considered for a rapid return to the Scarlets, who are likely to give Tom Williams, on loan from Cardiff Blues, his first start against the Dragons on Friday.
"It's great to be back on the pitch," he said. "I'm really looking forward to getting back into the main picture.
"Tom's come down and has played really well so it's going to be quite a fight to get back in there but I'm looking forward to the challenge."
Robinson, who moved from Cardiff Blues in 2014, was the top try scorer at Scarlets last season with nine tries, making him a contender to be selected for Wales' World Cup training squad.
He first broke into the national squad as a raw 18-year-old in 2012, but for now his international ambitions are on hold as he prepares to see if his neck can withstand the rigours of professional rugby.
"I'm just thankful to be able to put my boots back on in training," he said. "I'll just take it a game at a time and see what happens in the future.
"Fingers crossed over the next few weeks I'll be putting my boots back on for the Scarlets."


Men suspected of being involved in child sexual exploitation "blatantly" prey on girls on under-18 nights in Shropshire, street pastors claim.

Telford pastor Rev Keith Osmund-Smith said registration numbers of vehicles seen regularly were passed to police.
Pastors raised concerns in a report on tackling child exploitation in Telford and Wrekin following Operation Chalice which saw seven men jailed in 2012.
Supt James Tozer said police "worked closely" with the volunteer pastors.
"The local community, including street pastors, play a vital role in tackling child sexual exploitation and we welcome any information which could help us to stop people committing these offences," he said.
Mr Osmund-Smith, who co-ordinates a team of 21 street pastors working alongside police community support officers and outreach workers, told the BBC: "We see the same vehicles, containing the same men. They are looking out for the girls and they are there for one thing.
"There have been occasions where pastors have stopped girls getting into the cars."
Operation Chalice led to prosecutions for a range of offences including rape, controlling prostitution and sexual activity with girls, some as young as 13.
The Children and Young People's Scrutiny Committee report from Telford and Wrekin Council said it was believed there were "far more" victims of child sexual exploitation (CSE) than those seeking help.
"Despite the success of Operation Chalice, it is clear that CSE is still taking place in Telford and Wrekin, although the true scale of this crime is unknown," it said.
From September 2014 to September 2015, 256 child sex crimes were recorded in Telford and Wrekin - the highest per capita in England and Wales, according to Home Office figures.
In Telford and Wrekin there were 15.1 recorded cases per 10,000 residents, compared with 14.1 in Rochdale, and 13.5 in both Stoke-on-Trent and Rotherham.
The NSPCC, while describing the Telford figures as "shocking", said they suggested victims were more confident about coming forward.
Police data
The Telford scrutiny committee was "particularly concerned" by pastors' eye-witness accounts that girls were "vulnerable to predators" after consuming alcohol or drugs. Pastors also said they feared "a new generation of post-Chalice perpetrators" was growing up and called for the problem to be acknowledged so it could be tackled.
Mr Osmund-Smith said youngsters often "preloaded" with alcohol ahead of the monthly under-18 nights in Telford and Wellington and pastors were finding them drunk, sometimes passed out, and would then call parents to collect them.
He said the men they saw approaching under-age girls were mainly of British Pakistani heritage "but not exclusively so".
He said the pastors had been working with elders from the Muslim community who were trying to address the behaviour of a minority of young men.
"Imams at both mosques and elders are as upset and distressed as any other community would be."
Most children were collected by parents or carers, but some events saw 30 to 50 youngsters going into Oakengates town centre afterwards, he said.
"These are 14 or 15 year olds, some who are drunk, so the potential for safeguarding issues is enormous," he said.
Mr Osmund-Smith believes stopping under-18 nights and providing alternative entertainment for some 250 youngsters it attracted would be a "good start" to tackling child sexual exploitation.
He said the nightclubs did not sell alcohol to under 18s and had qualified door staff,  but "abdicated responsibility" after the doors closed, meaning police and pastors had to pick up the pieces.
The report found agencies were "working well together" to respond to known CSE cases, although some victims had not received the support they needed.
The committee made 38 recommendations, including carrying out work to identify the scale of the crime, raising awareness, including among primary school children; and setting up a "whistle-blowing hot line" for information to be passed on anonymously.
Costas Vanezi , who owns Pussycats in Wellington, and Club Crush in Telford town centre, said girls were not approached outside his venues, adding Mr Osmund-Smith had done "nothing but praise" the organisation of its last two under-18 nights.
"The under-18 events are 100% safe. The police are there, we have our own security and CCTV and no alcohol is served," he said.
He said anyone turning up drunk was not allowed in and the club would also call parents to take youngsters home.
Mr Vanezi said: "You can't lock children up in their homes. It it is up to parents and us as a society to make sure children are safe wherever they may be."


Four policemen have been suspended and a fifth transferred over the handling of a suspected new rape and murder case close to the Indian capital, Delhi.

The father of the alleged 21-year-old victim has told the BBC she was gang-raped. Her body was found on Saturday.
Two men have been arrested and a third suspect is reported to have fled.
Meanwhile, five men have arrived in court for a hearing in the case of the abduction, gang rape and murder of a 23-year-old, a case that shocked India.
The victim in the latest case was a factory employee in Noida, a suburb of Delhi.
She disappeared on Friday night while returning home from work, Indian media reported.
The woman's father complained that police initially failed to react when he reported her disappearance, suggesting instead that she had gone off with someone.
The case has triggered protests in Noida.
News of the case came shortly before a preliminary hearing in Delhi in the case of five suspects in last month's gang rape.
Security at the court building is tight, says the BBC's Andrew North, who is outside the hearing.
Prosecutors have said they have extensive forensic evidence against the suspects, who could face the death penalty if found guilty.
The five accused have been named as Ram Singh, his brother Mukesh, Pawan Gupta, Vinay Sharma and Akshay Thakur.
Their trial is expected to take place in a newly-formed fast-track court in the next few weeks.
A sixth person accused in connection with the attack, a teenager, will be dealt with by a juvenile justice board.
On 16 December the victim, a student, was raped for nearly an hour on a bus before she was dumped with a companion by the side of a road.
She later died of her injuries.
Protests have continued across India in the wake of the attack.
A demonstration in Delhi on Sunday included protesters who have been on hunger strike for more than a week.
Campaigners are calling for tougher rape laws and reforms to the police, who critics say often fail to file charges against accused attackers.
By Geeta PandeyBBC News, Delhi
Did the father of the Delhi gang-rape victim give permission to a British newspaper to reveal her name?
The newspaper says yes. But the father has subsequently denied it.
Indian law strictly prohibits naming a rape victim as long as she is alive and states that "where the victim is dead", her name can be published only with "the authorisation in writing of the next-of-kin of the victim" to the government.
On Sunday, the victim's brother told the BBC that he was not aware that his family had sent any such authorisation letter to the authorities.
The high-profile case has generated worldwide interest and the Indian courts have so far insisted on not naming the victim - in court documents she has been called "XYZ".
Senior Supreme Court lawyer Priya Hingorani told the BBC that the family "is confused, they are grieving, and they sometimes may say something which is not thought through".
Ms Hingorani said the law, of course, cannot prosecute the parents for releasing the name of their daughter, but the police and courts can take action against the media for publicising her name.
Also on Sunday, the victim's father denied a British newspaper report that he wanted his daughter named.
The Sunday People said the father had given permission to name him and his daughter, despite an Indian law that protects sex crime victims by prohibiting their identification.
The newspaper carried a photograph of the father, but said the family had requested no photograph of the victim be used.
The father was later quoted by the Hindustan Times and The Hindu newspapers as denying the comments attributed to him.
"I have only said we won't have any objection if the government uses my daughter's name for a new law for crime against women that is more stringent and better framed that the existing one," the Hindustan Times quoted him as saying.
Last week, the father told BBC Hindi that he had no problem with his daughter's name being used in the context of a revised anti-rape law. "She is a martyr. It would cause no problem to the family," he said.
Indian minister Shashi Tharoor has also urged authorities to reveal the name so it can be used for a new anti-rape law.


Sony has hit back at suggestions that it downplayed elements of forthcoming Will Smith film Concussion to appease the National Football League (NFL).

Concussion focuses on real-life whistle-blower Dr Bennet Omalu (Smith) and his confrontation with the NFL.
Omalu was implicit in diagnosing CTE, a degenerative brain disease arising from repeated head trauma - a condition which the NFL sought to cover up.
But Sony claims "nothing... has been 'softened' to placate anyone".
Earlier this week, the New York Times published a story stating that emails leaked last autumn, during the hack on Sony Pictures, apparently show the film was amended to avoid upsetting the powerful NFL.
"In dozens of studio emails unearthed by hackers, Sony executives; the director, Peter Landesman; and representatives of Mr. Smith discussed how to avoid antagonizing [sic] the N.F.L. by altering the script and marketing the film more as a whistle-blower story, rather than a condemnation of football or the league," wrote Ken Belson, in the New York Times on Tuesday.
'Hard-hitting'
On Thursday, Sony issued a statement calling the Times story "misleading", adding that journalist had not actually seen the film - due out in December.
"As will become immediately clear to anyone actually seeing the movie, nothing with regard to this important story has been 'softened' to placate anyone,'' the statement read.
"We always intended to make an entertaining, hard-hitting film about Dr. Omalu's David-and-Goliath story, which played out like a Hollywood thriller,'' said the film's director, Landesman, in a further statement to the Associated Press.
"Anyone who sees the movie will know that it never once compromises the integrity and the power of the real story."
Leaked emails published during the film's production last year suggest a degree of concern over the NFL's reaction to the film, with an independent consultant hired to deal with the organisation.
In early July 2014, Sony executive Hannah Minghella said, in a leaked email, that "rather than portray the NFL as one corrupt organization, can we identify the individuals within the NFL who were guilty of denying/covering up the truth."
The same month, former Sony Pictures boss, Amy Pascal, cautioned in an email: "We need to know exactly what we can and can't do and if this is a 'true' story or not. I know these can be dicey waters but none more than this one."
Accuracy
Director Landesman has acknowledged that a scene featuring NFL commissioner Roger Goodell was cut from the film.
Another email - from Sony chairman Michael Lynton - highlighted that Sony lawyer Aimee Wolfson "took out most of the bite for legal reasons with the NFL".
An email from Doug Belgrad, president of Sony's motion picture unit, in October last year reiterated the importance of fact-checking: "If we fudge or embellish the NFL's actions on this issue, it could compromise the success of our pic,'' he wrote.
The recently released trailer for Concussion portrays the NFL as a foreboding opponents, telling Omalu - "You're going to war with a corporation that owns a day of the week.''
The NFL which, in recent years, has donated millions of dollars to study the effects of concussion and develop treatment, has not publicly commented on the film's stance, limiting its statement to the health issues raised in the film.
"We are encouraged by the ongoing focus on the critical issue of player health and safety.. we have no higher priority. We all know more about this issue than we did 10 or 20 years ago. As we continue to learn more, we apply those learnings to make our game and players safer."


Myanmar has signed a ceasefire deal with eight armed rebel groups, in the hope of ending decades of conflict.

President Thein Sein said the deal had opened up the "road to future peace" in Myanmar, also known as Burma.
But the most active of rebel groups have not signed the agreement, which comes after two years of negotiations.
Myanmar has been engaged in armed conflict with various ethnic and other groups seeking greater autonomy since independence from the British in 1948.
The violence has left tens of thousands dead over the years, displaced hundreds of thousands more and has been used by the military to justify its long hold on political power.
Resolving the conflicts is seen as central to Myanmar's attempts to reform after decades of military rule.
The government hopes Thursday's deal - which comes weeks ahead of general elections - will be the first step on a path to a lasting political settlement.
Speaking at the lavish signing ceremony in the capital, Nay Pyi Taw, Thein Sein said it was a "historic day for Myanmar".
"We have been able to launch a new road to a peaceful future of our country."
The chairman of one of the armed groups, the Karen National Union (KNU), called it "a new page in history and a product of brave and energetic negotiations".
The agreement is neither truly nationwide nor strictly speaking a ceasefire.
In order to take part in this collective agreement the armed groups had to have previously signed a bilateral ceasefire with the government. So it is not actually halting any conflicts.
This at times tortuous process has been about trying to get everyone to the start line before the next phase, political dialogue, gets under way.
With only about half the groups having made it to the start line, the way forward from here will be ever more complex.
Read more: Ceasefire marks milestone for Myanmar
But seven of the armed groups which have been involved in the talks did not sign the final deal.
Among them is the largest, the United Wa State Army (UWSA), which has some 25,000 members operating on the border with China, and has largely remained on the sidelines of the talks.
Also not signing was the Kachin Independence Organisation (KIO), whose Independence Army (KIA) controls large areas of north-eastern Kachin state and has regularly clashed with the Burmese army since a ceasefire collapsed in 2011.
Thein Sein said the government would "continue with our efforts to bring the remaining organisations into the process".
"The door is open for them," he said.
Political discussions are now due to begin within months on the structure of a new, and probably more federal, system of government, says our correspondent.
But there are still concerns that peace with the groups signing Thursday's agreement could be short lived, if the Burmese army ignores the ceasefire, as it has with others.
Earlier this week, all of the groups signing were removed from the government's list of "unlawful associations", a step towards bringing them into mainstream politics.
Opposition leader Aung San Suu Kyi, who has previously urged rebel groups to focus more on a lasting deal than a quick one, was not at the signing ceremony.
Representatives from the United Nations, the European Union, India and China and others witnessed the signing.


UK Prime Minister Theresa May made the snap election on 8 June personal right from the start.

In April she said the election would not be just about the parties' competing visions on Brexit, but also about who could best pull off a deal.
"It will be a choice between strong and stable leadership in the national interest, with me as your prime minister, or weak and unstable coalition government, led by Jeremy Corbyn," she said.
"Every vote for the Conservatives will make me stronger when I negotiate for Britain with the prime ministers, presidents and chancellors of the European Union."
She stressed early on that the stakes could hardly be higher. After all, whoever wins this election will face three extraordinary challenges:
At first Mrs May seemed on track for a thumping victory.
The early evidence suggested that Brexit was trumping normal party loyalties, with many of Labour's white working-class voters, who had backed Leave, deserting the party over the EU and because of their dislike for Jeremy Corbyn.
In one so-called "safe" Labour seat near Manchester I struggled to find anyone who would be backing the party in 2017, despite hours talking to voters.
And crucially Mrs May was winning back many of the nearly four million people who had voted for the anti-EU party UKIP at the last election.
Her decision to call a snap election also seemed to be working in Scotland.
As I travelled amid the beautiful hills and small towns of the Scottish Borders, I saw and heard first-hand the phenomenon of voters opposed to independence deciding to back the Conservatives, seeing it as the best way of voicing opposition to a second Scottish referendum.
Of course this general election won't settle the question of how best Scotland should be governed, given the continuing high levels of support for independence.
But it will affect who has the political momentum, and whether another referendum will be held before or after Brexit, or perhaps whether it happens at all.
It's certainly Brexit that is dominating the election in Northern Ireland, where the EU referendum last June divided the province, as ever, on sectarian lines. Most Roman Catholics voted to remain in the EU, while many Protestants voted to leave.
Although Northern Irish voters told me they couldn't imagine a return to violence, they did voice concern about what would happen to relations between the North and South, and in particular, whether border controls would be reintroduced after Brexit.
It was while I was in Northern Ireland, a part of the UK where the mainland parties neither stand nor campaign, that Mrs May's election seemed to come unstuck.
Just days after launching her party's manifesto, she abandoned a key part of it, thus undermining her main slogan that she was the only politician offering "strong and stable" leadership.
The terror attack in Manchester temporarily put the election campaign on hold. When it resumed, the bombing seemed not to have had much effect on the polls.
Whether the 3 June attack in London will have a bigger effect on the final outcome, given the more political reaction of the parties, is hard to say.
Extensive academic research in other countries suggests attacks during election campaigns don't tend to have much effect. Maybe the UK will prove different, but maybe not.
Despite Jeremy Corbyn's past support for groups many voters would consider to be terrorists, attention once again focused on Mrs May and her somewhat tarnished image as a rather wooden politician, campaigning more on slogans than clear policies.
Ultimately Mrs May continues to hope that, whatever her flaws, on 8 June the voters will decide she rather than Jeremy Corbyn would get the best deal on Brexit.
As to this being dubbed the Brexit election, it may well be that Brexit decides the outcome, rather than concerns about security or austerity.
But any voters, countries or companies hoping to learn much more from the campaigns about what Britain's post-EU future holds will have been sadly disappointed.
Above all, this has felt like an election that has failed to come to life, despite the stakes being higher than in decades.
It seems to be an election where the key questions affecting millions of people won't be answered until after the votes are counted and the Brexit negotiations begin.


UK shares have risen and the pound has fallen after Bank of England governor Mark Carney hinted at fresh stimulus measures after the Brexit vote.

The FTSE 100 index closed 2.27% higher, while the FTSE 250 closed up 1.68%.
The pound fell 1.2% against the dollar to $1.3264 after Mr Carney said a deteriorating outlook meant action from the Bank was likely during the summer.
Shares in the US rose, with both the Dow Jones and S&P 500 index up by 0.6% in morning trading.
The past few days have seen huge swings on the world's financial markets as traders and investors struggled to assess the impact of the UK's vote to leave the European Union.
After two days of heavy falls following the vote, shares spent two days recovering, and on Wednesday, the FTSE 100 ended above the level it had closed at last Thursday.
However, the FTSE 250 index - which contains more UK-focused companies - still remains well below its pre-referendum level.
"The blue chip [FTSE 100] index is stuffed full with big international firms and it is these companies propelling the rise. The heavy weighting towards these groups is very misleading," said Joe Rundle, head of trading at ETX Capital.
"The likes of Fresnillo, Randgold, AstraZeneca, Royal Dutch Shell, British American Tobacco - these are hardly dependent on, or reflective of, the UK economy. They're listed in London but their earnings come from abroad.
"There is a key distinction. UK-focused firms are doing much, much worse. Easyjet, Lloyds, Barclays, RBS, Barratt, Taylor Wimpey - they've all recorded 20% losses since the Brexit vote."
Shares in RBS were one of the biggest fallers on the FTSE 100 on Thursday, dropping 4.8%.
The pound is well below the $1.50 rate it touched last Thursday before the outcome of the referendum became clear.
As well as falling against the dollar after Mr Carney's speech, it also tumbled 1.1% against the euro at â‚¬1.1962.
Analysts continued to warn that the recent market recovery might only be temporary.
"The odds may be against them, but investors are hoping that the worst is over for currencies and equities," Kathy Lien, managing director of foreign exchange strategy at BK Asset Management, said in a note.
"But considering there's been no additional clarity on the terms of Brexit or the outlook for the UK economy and global economy since Britain's decision to leave the European Union on Friday, we don't see fundamental support for the recent moves."
Analysts at Swiss bank UBS have cut their end of year forecast for the FTSE 100 to 5,500 from 6,500.
"We see a significant amount of uncertainty around the UK over the next few months. We do not know who the prime minister will be, or when, or if, Article 50 is invoked and there are even possibilities of a general election given the current fluidity of UK politics," UBS said.
The price of gold was little changed at $1,318.10 an ounce on Thursday. The precious metal is viewed as a safe investment in times of uncertainty and gold price hit a near two-year high of $1,358.20 on Friday in the wake of the referendum.


England international Jordan Nobbs has signed a new contract with FA Women's Super League 1 side Arsenal Ladies.

The 23-year-old midfielder has scored 21 goals in 53 league appearances since joining the Gunners from Sunderland Ladies in 2010.
Nobbs has won two league titles, three FA Cups and four Continental Cups during her time in north London.
She has won 24 international caps and helped England finish third at the World Cup in Canada last summer.
Arsenal Ladies have not disclosed the length of Nobbs' new deal.


Russian MPs have given initial approval to an anti-blasphemy law with tougher jail terms or fines for anyone found guilty of offending religious feelings.

The bill was drafted last year after the punk band Pussy Riot performed a protest song against President Vladimir Putin in Moscow's main cathedral.
Two Pussy Riot members are now serving prison terms in remote penal colonies.
The bill says blasphemy could incur up to three years in jail or a fine of up to 300,000 roubles ($9,700;Â£6,300).
Russian commentators say the bill appears to have strong backing from Mr Putin. It was passed by the Duma - Russia's lower house - in a first reading on Tuesday.
To become law it has to pass two more readings in the Duma, then a vote in the upper house - the Federation Council - and get a final sign-off by Mr Putin. The entire parliament is dominated by Mr Putin's supporters.
The text refers to offences against religions that are "an integral part of Russia's historical inheritance" - implying that it covers Christianity, Islam, Judaism and Buddhism.
Last August two Pussy Riot performers - Maria Alyokhina and Nadezhda Tolokonnikova - were sentenced to two years each in jail for "hooliganism motivated by religious hatred" over their obscenity-laced "punk prayer" against Mr Putin.
The sentences provoked widespread international condemnation.
Human rights activists and some critics of the new anti-blasphemy bill in the Duma say its wording is too vague and could lead to unjustified prosecutions.
Yuri Sinelshchikov, a Communist MP and former prosecutor, warned that it could provoke "an outburst of combative atheism, in its most aggressive form, and enmity between believers and non-believers".
Some human rights activists warned that "insults to believers" might include the teaching of Darwin's theory of evolution or the Big Bang theory about the universe.
A co-author of the bill, Yaroslav Nilov of the nationalist Liberal Democrats (LDPR), insisted that the text would be amended before the next Duma votes.


A woman is critically ill in hospital following an incident at a house in Downpatrick, County Down.

It happened at Thomas Russell Park where it is understood she has been living with her young child for a number of years.
Police said a 30-year-old man had been arrested by officers investigating the incident, which was reported on Friday.
SDLP MP Margaret Ritchie said she hoped the woman would "fully recover from her injuries".
She said people in the area "were in a state of shock" and "appalled" at what had happened.
Ms Ritchie added that those people she had spoken to wanted to pass on their "sympathy and support" to the woman.


A red panda which was recently moved from France to a zoo in Sussex has died unexpectedly.

The female panda, named Qui, arrived at Drusillas Park in Alfriston from Les Sables Zoo in Vendee in September.
She was undergoing the required six months quarantine in an enclosure out of public view and was due to go on show in April.
Keepers at Drusillas said they were at a loss to explain the death and post-mortem tests failed to show a cause.
Zoo director Laurence Smith said: "We are incredibly sad for the loss of our beautiful red panda. In the short time that she was with us, Qiu proved to be a sweet natured, friendly animal who was very inquisitive.
"The unexpected and unexplained nature of her departure has been a real shock to the whole zoo."
In November, staff at the zoo appealed to the public to help to feed Qui after a shipment of bamboo from Italy was delayed and they were running low on food for the panda.
Drusillas was then "inundated" with offers of help, receiving more than 100 phone calls and emails from the local community and abroad.


Hackers allegedly from Russia have released more athletes' medical files stolen from the World Anti-Doping Agency (Wada).

The athletes include British cyclists Sir Bradley Wiggins, the country's most-decorated Olympian, and three-time Tour de France champion Chris Froome.
There is no suggestion the athletes are involved in any wrongdoing.
Wada says the cyber attack is an attempt to undermine the global anti-doping system.
The records released by the group calling itself "Fancy Bears" mostly detail "Therapeutic Use Exemptions" (TUEs) allowing banned substances to be taken for athletes' verified medical needs.
The group says the TUEs are "licenses for doping" and that Wada is "corrupt and deceitful".
Wada Director General Olivier Niggli, strongly criticised the leak.
"Wada is very mindful that this criminal attack, which to date has recklessly exposed personal data of 29 athletes, will be very distressing for the athletes that have been targeted; and, cause apprehension for all athletes that were involved in the Rio 2016 Olympic Games,"  he said.
Mr Niggli said there was "no doubt" that the hack was retaliation against Wada for its report into Russian state-sponsored cheating and appealed to the Russian government to help stop it. The Russian authorities have denied any involvement.
Dan Roan, BBC sports editor
They may have been braced for it, but this second leak will dismay the anti-doping authorities.
None of the athletes named has broken any rules, and several of the medical exemptions detailed were already known.
But these leaks will intensify the debate around TUEs and force sport to ask itself some uncomfortable questions about the legal use of certain banned substances.
Is the system being exploited by some athletes? Should TUEs be allowed at all, especially in competition? And given the lack of trust in sport now, is it time to make all TUEs public, even if it means athletes' private medical details are revealed?
The documents relate to 10 American, five British and five German athletes as well as one athlete each from Denmark, Russia, Poland, the Czech Republic and Romania.
Among the names is the Czech Republic's two-time Wimbledon champion Petra Kvitova and London 2012 discus gold medallist Robert Harting of Germany.
The list also names 11 medallists from Rio, including American Bethanie Mattek-Sands, who won tennis gold in the mixed doubles.
It follows an earlier leak of documents relating to US athletes including multiple gold-winning US gymnast Simone Biles.
The records show that Wiggins was given permission to take two banned substances on several occasions between 2008 and 2013 during competitions including the 2011 Tour de France and the 2013 Giro d'Italia.
One of the substances, triamcinolone acetonide, was taken for an allergy to pollen, according to the certificates.
Froome was granted permission to take the banned steroid prednisolone on occasions between 2013 and 2014, including during the 2014 Tour de Romandie race.
In 2014 French newspaper Le Journal de Dimanche reported that Froome had been given permission to take the steroid-based drug because he was suffering from a chill. The International Cycling Union said at the time that the TUE complied with Wada guidelines.
In a statement, Froome said: "I've openly discussed my TUEs with the media and have no issues with the leak, which only confirms my statements. In nine years as a professional I've twice required a TUE for exacerbated asthma, the last time was in 2014."
A spokesperson for Froome's Team Sky added: "Applications made by Team Sky for TUEs have all been managed and recorded in line with the processes put in place by the governing bodies."
A spokesperson for Wiggins said: "There's nothing new here. Everyone knows Brad suffers from asthma; his medical treatment is British Cycling and UCI [cycling's governing body] approved and like all Team GB athletes he follows Wada regulations to the letter.
"The leak of these records is an attempt to undermine the credibility of Wada."
British Cycling said it was "proud" of its anti-doping culture. A spokesperson added: "We condemn the publication of any individual's medical information without their permission."
The other British athletes whose records have been leaked are golfer Charley Hull, rugby sevens player Heather Fisher and rower Sam Townsend.
Russia's track and field team were banned from the Rio Olympics over an alleged state-backed doping programme. All of its athletes are barred from the ongoing Paralympics.
The Russian authorities have denied running a doping programme and maintain Russia is being made a scapegoat for a much larger problem.
On Wednesday, Russian government spokesman Dmitry Peskov said it was "out of the question" that the Kremlin or secret services were involved in the hacking, while the country's sports minister Vitaly Mutko asked: "How can you prove that the hackers are Russian? You blame Russia for everything. It is very 'in' now.''
However, Peskov later said there was "no question" that Russia would be prepared to help Wada if asked.
"Russia consistently backs fighting cybercrime, consistently invites all states and international organisations to co-operate in this area, and this position of Russia is well known," he added.