Human trafficking in Cardiff is increasing year-on-year, with women being exploited for sex and children forced to work, says a new report.

The number of children at significant risk of exploitation in the city has more than doubled, new figures show.
Trafficking cases across Wales also rose from 34 to 50 in the last year.
But experts say the figures are only the tip of the iceberg - with many cases not officially recorded.
A task force set up by Cardiff council heard from police and many of the 50 different bodies working on the issue.
"The evidence demonstrates that trafficking in Cardiff is increasing, for all types and for all reasons," says its report.
The number of children in the city regarded as being at "significant risk" of sexual exploitation has jumped from 12 to 28 between 2012/2013 and 2013/2104, according to the children's charity Barnardo's.
The council task force found:
The report also points to five court cases in the area in the last three years, including the case in January of a couple jailed for trafficking two Czech women to work as prostitutes.
There was another trafficking case which saw women moved around the UK including to two places in Cardiff.
Cardiff council has been regarded as leading the field in tackling trafficking but it is looking at what more it can do.
This includes raising awareness at spotting signs of trafficking and improving training for staff.
Another concern has been a two-year waiting list for those who have been exploited and need help for post-traumatic stress.
There are also concerns some victims have been offered unsuitable accommodation and qualified social workers have not been available when cases are first referred.
The Black African Women Step Out (Bawso) charity which helps victims of exploitation from ethnic communities, said trafficking has always existed but there is now more awareness from professionals in health and education.
Dr Mwenya Chimba, director of violence against women at Bawso, said: "The problem is very big but the referrals don't reflect the extent of it.
"More recently it's not just the sex trade but forced labour and other forms of exploitation."
Case study - Mary
Mary travelled to the UK from West Africa illegally when she was 14.
She believed she was travelling to a job looking after children in London which would allow her to go to school herself.
But when she arrived in London, after using counterfeit travel documents, she was taken to a house where there were five other girls of various nationalities being forced to work as prostitutes.
She spent a year at the house being made to work as a prostitute and her earnings were confiscated.
Police spotted her during a raid at the house and she was placed in foster care before being referred to the anti-trafficking team.
She was given help and refuge accommodation in Cardiff where it emerged she was pregnant.
She is waiting for a decision to be made on her claim for asylum.
Mary's name has been changed
Yvonne Rodgers, director of Barnardo's Cymru, said closer work between police, councils and the charity had led to more children identified as being at risk of trafficking, more referrals and more protection for victims.
"We need to continue this pattern and see the police authorities in Wales using their full range of law enforcement and disruption tactics to arrest and deter the abusers and protect children from this horrific abuse," she added.
A large number of cases in UK are from countries like Nigeria, Vietnam, China, Albania and Romania.
A council spokesperson said two of its committees had produced a "comprehensive and useful report on this important issue, which takes many forms and which has a profound impact on both children and adults".
It said it looked forward to seeing the recommendations implemented soon.


Aisha Buhari's stark warning to her husband, Nigerian President Muhammadu Buhari, that she may not back him at the next election, and his later response that she "belongs to my kitchen" have triggered an avalanche of comments on social media.

In the BBC interview, the first lady suggested that the Nigerian government had been hijacked, adding that it was time for Mr Buhari to shake things up.
Her comments, which have shocked the nation, were met with overwhelming support on Twitter.
Some praised Mrs Buhari for encouraging free speech in the country:
Others, however, accused Mrs Buhari's supporters of hypocrisy after she was criticised last year for appearing in public sporting expensive accessories:
President Buhari, who is currently visiting Germany, was quick to respond to his wife's criticism.
At a joint news conference with Chancellor Angela Merkel, he said: "I don't know which party my wife belongs to, but she belongs to my kitchen and my living room and the other room."
His remarks have prompted sharp criticism on Twitter, with many also saying they are puzzled what "the other room" was.
In a series of tweets, President Buhari's spokesman Mallam Garba Shehu later tried to downplay the row, saying his boss "was obviously throwing a banter".


A scaffolder who had to have his leg and hands amputated after suffering an electric shock has been "completely overwhelmed" by community support.

Jamie Mines was injured at the Kendrick Industrial Estate in Swindon just before Christmas.
A fund to help the semi-professional football player from Frome has already raised £113,000.
Local people have also organised a football tournament at his former club - Frome Town - to raise more funds.
Mr Mines, who also plays for Radstock, Larkhall and Paulton football clubs, is well-known locally where he is described as a "goal machine".
Following the accident, into which the Health and Safety Executive is investigating, the 33-year-old was placed in an induced coma at Southmead Hospital in Bristol.
He also missed his first Christmas with his five-month-old twins Isabella and Savannah.
Family friend Billy Wright said he was "doing really well" and undergoing "intensive rehabilitation" at a specialist centre in Oxford.
"There's no doubt that the support the town of Frome, the entire country and the footballing community have shown James, has really, really helped him," he said.
"He's completely overwhelmed - the support that's come through has really given him the positivity to fight."


Votes are being counted in Liberia's senate election held on Saturday despite a deadly Ebola outbreak.

Turnout in the poll - which had been planned for October - was low as many people decided to stay away.
Those who came to polling stations had their temperature taken, were told to stand a metre (3ft) apart and wash their hands before and after voting.
Ebola has killed more than 7,373 people in West Africa - with 3,346 deaths in Liberia, the UN says.
Among the 139 candidates vying for 15 seats were former football star George Weah and Robert Sirleaf, the son of Liberia's president.
The election was held just days after neighbouring Sierra Leone clamped down on public gatherings.
It has banned Sunday trading, restricted travel between districts and prohibited public celebrations over Christmas and the New Year.
One of Sierra Leone's top doctors, Victor Willoughby, died from Ebola on Thursday, just hours after the arrival of experimental drug ZMab which could have been used to treat him.
Healthcare workers are among those most at risk of catching Ebola which is spread by bodily fluids and requires close contact with victims.
In November, Liberia's election commission chairman, Jerome Korkoya, urged candidates and supporters to follow public health regulations in the run-up to the senate elections.
"For instance, the transportation of large groups of electorates by candidates clustered in vehicles and the congregation of huge number of people will be regulated," he said in a statement.
UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon was in Liberia on Friday at the start of a two-day visit to countries affected by Ebola in West Africa. He continued on to Guinea on Saturday.
After stepping off the plane, he washed his hands and had his temperature taken - two important practices to help stop the spread of the disease.
Mr Ban urged people to follow strict health regulations until the epidemic was over.
Liberian President Ellen Johnson Sirleaf lifted a state of emergency last month that was imposed in August to control the outbreak.


The US economy saw strong jobs growth in July, helped by a wave of hiring in the hospitality industry.

The Bureau of Labor Statistics said 209,000 jobs were created in July, which was more had been expected.
The unemployment rate edged lower to 4.3%, matching May's figure which was the lowest since 2001.
Employment in food services and drinking places rose 53,000 - that sector has now added 313,000 jobs since July 2016.
Employment in health care and professional and business services also saw strong growth.
The dollar gained ground after the jobs report came out. It added a third of a cent to trade at $1.1843 against the euro.
President Donald Trump welcomed the report. In a tweet he said: "Excellent jobs numbers just released - and I have only just begun."
The US president also hailed the announcement by car companies Toyota and Mazda that they were planning to build a new car plant in the US.
The $1.6bn (Â£1.2bn) investment aims to produce 300,000 vehicles per year, and expects to employ about 4,000 Americans.
End of Twitter post  by @realDonaldTrump
The US has averaged growth of 184,000 jobs per month this year, roughly on pace with last year and well above the level needed to match increases in the working age population.
Many economists believe the gains have put the labour market at or near so-called full employment, and predicted that wages would rise as employers compete for workers.
But wage growth, while steady in July, has not accelerated.
"The mystery continues to be with the labour market this tight, and the level of improvement we continue to see, that wages stubbornly stay at 2% year-over-year wage growth. To me that continues to be the mystery of the jobs report," said Michael Arone, chief investment strategist at State Street Global Advisors.
The average hourly wage in the US was $26.36 (Â£20.22) in July, up 2.5% year-on-year. That was same pace as in June and slower than some prior months.
One reason for the lacklustre wage growth may be that many of the job gains this year have been in lower-paid industries such as leisure and hospitality, where the average hourly wage was less than $15.50 in July.
That sector is responsible for almost a quarter of the more than 1m job gains since January.
There could also be more slack in the labour market than anticipated.
The Bureau of Labor Statistics said there were about 5.3 million people working part-time in July who would have preferred full-time work, little changed since June.
The number of discouraged workers - who are not looking for work because they do not believe there are jobs available - has also changed little since July 2016.
"With the positive numbers in the report, we need to remember the Americans who continue to struggle against the tides of automation and globalisation," said Mark Hamrick, Bankrate.com's senior economic analyst.
For now, wage growth is steady enough that it should keep plans on track for the Federal Reserve to take action to raise interest rates, said Luke Bartholomew, a strategist at Aberdeen Asset Management.
"While far from spectacular, especially given the further fall in unemployment, today's wage numbers are just about enough for now," he wrote.


Plans to build a wind farm at a beauty spot in Swansea have been approved by the Welsh Government.

The Mynydd Y Gwair development, with its 16 turbines, will be built on common land near Felindre.
The decision follows a recommendation from an independent planning inspector who led a public inquiry into RWE Innogy UK's application earlier this year.
The company said the project will bring environmental and economic benefits.
Local people, including some farmers, have been fighting the plans for years, claiming the turbines would spoil the area's natural beauty.
There had already been two previous inquiries into the proposals.
Swansea council originally granted planning permission for the wind farm in 2013.
But the company needed to deregister the common land and provide alternative space.
That was refused last year by deputy minister Rebecca Evans after considering a planning inspector's report.
The company claimed the 48 MW project will provide energy for nearly 25,000 homes and could create up to 104 jobs during each year of its construction.
Gwenllian Elias, development manager for the project, said: "This was the last hurdle required to help unlock a potential Â£52m investment.
"We are delighted with the decision and feel confident that this could have a positive impact on local suppliers and local companies.
"This project will not only bring environmental benefits but also economic benefits too, and we are keen to work with local suppliers where possible to maximise the local opportunities."
Construction of the wind farm could start in October 2016.


Transport NI has been accused of 'not cutting it' over plans to reduce its grass trimming service.

Across Northern Ireland, cutting usually takes place twice annually and up to five times in urban areas.
Due to a funding shortfall, Derry City and Strabane District Council will now see its service diminished from three cuts a year, down to just one.
SDLP councillor Brian Tierney said he was concerned at what it could mean for road maintenance.
"I'm disappointed and concerned that the levels of grass cutting within this council district have again been cut. They have now reduced that to one cut per year," Mr Tierney told BBC Radio Foyle.
"Council have been stepping in to pick up the slack in that and I've asked the road service what exactly it is that they're doing to address this funding deficit."
The issue was raised at a council meeting on Tuesday.
Until recently, district councils could cut grass for aesthetic and amenity reasons, and then be reimbursed for the work by the Department for Infrastructure.
In a statement to the BBC, the Department for Infrastructure confirmed they would have to reduce their routine maintenance service due to the current budget.
"The department is aiming to cut all roadside verges and sightline grassed areas at least once in the period April-October," a spokesperson said.
"With sightlines at bends and junctions being cut more frequently within available resources to ensure public safety is not compromised, regrettably, the department will not be able to fund councils to cut grass this year.
"Given the indicative budget settlement outlined by the secretary of state in April, it is likely there will be knock on impacts for services including routine maintenance of the road network including grass cutting. In this area, the department is likely to be reliant on additional resources becoming available.
"Many councils cut urban grass areas last year for the benefit of their residents and the department is hopeful that this practice will continue."


League One side Charlton Athletic have signed former MK Dons and Brighton & Hove Albion defender Adam Chicksen on a one-year deal.

The 24-year-old left-back was a free agent, having left the Seagulls earlier this summer following a three-year stint at the Amex Stadium.
Chicksen only made two appearances for Brighton last season, in between loan spells at Leyton Orient and Gillingham.
He becomes Charlton's 11th signing of the transfer window.
Find all the latest football transfers on our dedicated page.


Pirates have seized two US sailors from an oil supply ship off the coast of Nigeria, officials say.

The captain and chief engineer of the US-flagged C-Retriever were taken on Wednesday by armed men who stormed the boat, they said.
US officials said it was not a terrorist act, but were concerned about the rise in piracy off West Africa.
In kidnaps in the region, crew members are normally freed unharmed after any oil on board the ships is stolen.
US State Department Deputy Spokeswoman Marie Harf Wednesday's incident was being treated as "an act of piracy" rather than terrorism.
Gunmen attacked the C Retriever, an oil supply vessel, near the coastal town of Brass in Nigeria's oil rich Bayelsa State.
The chief engineer and the captain, both American citizens, were kidnapped. The vessel and 11 other members of the crew were reportedly released.
White House spokesman Jay Carney told reporters: "We are concerned by the disturbing increase in the incidence of maritime crime, including incidents of piracy off the coast of West Africa, specifically in the Gulf of Guinea."
The International Maritime Bureau has recorded more than 40 attacks in the area this year with 132 crew taken hostage.  The gangs usually target the oil vessels to steal the cargo.
"Pirate networks in the Gulf of Guinea are focusing on product theft from tankers and this relatively new type of crime has evolved into a unique and highly lucrative form of maritime crime," said the Risk Intelligence security firm, in its October report.
It is estimated that oil product worth approximately $100m (approximately Â£62m) has been stolen since 2010.
In recent months there have been numerous kidnappings of foreign oil workers and wealthy Nigerians, especially in the oil-producing Niger Delta region.
They have often been held until a ransom payment is made.


The killing of Walter Scott by a police officer in South Carolina was motivated by "overt racism", mourners at his funeral have heard.

Hundreds of people attended the service at the Ministries Christian Centre in North Charleston to remember the father-of-four, who was shot last week.
Officer Michael Slager was charged with his murder, after a video of the shooting emerged.
Reverend George Hamilton said Mr Slager was a disgrace to the police force.
He told mourners: "We will not indict the entire law enforcement community for the act of one racist."
Mr Scott's coffin was draped with an American flag and flanked by members of his family as it entered the church on Saturday.
Chairs were placed outside to accommodate the large number of people who turned out for the service.
The 50-year-old was shot several times as he ran away from Mr Slager, who had initially reprimanded him for a broken rear light on his car.
His relatives said Mr Scott probably fled from the officer out of fear of being jailed over missed child support payments.
The shooting occurred as heightened scrutiny is being placed on police officer shootings, particularly those that involve white officers and unarmed black suspects.
Tyrone Johnson, who went to school with Mr Scott, described him as a friendly person, who "never met an enemy".
"There are a lot of people out here, just paying their respects to him and his legacy," he added.
Mr Slager has been held without bail and faces up to life in prison if convicted of murder.


Celtic Manor boss Sir Terry Matthews has been appointed chairman of a Welsh government body which aims to draw inward investment to south Wales.

The 71-year-old, who lives in Canada, will head up the Swansea Bay City Region following the departure of Swansea council leader David Phillips.
It covers Pembrokeshire, Carmarthenshire, Swansea and Neath Port Talbot.
Sir Terry will advise the government on issues concerning the region.


Carlo Ancelotti gained his first trophy as Bayern Munich coach thanks to their 2-0 victory over Borussia Dortmund in the German Super Cup.

Arturo Vidal scored Bayern's first when he drilled home after his initial shot had been blocked.
Germany striker Thomas Muller then turned in from close range as defender Mats Hummels nodded down from a corner.
Forward Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang and recent signing Ousmane Dembele went close for Dortmund.
"It was difficult and Dortmund played very, very well," said Ancelotti, who took over from Manchester City-bound Pep Guardiola in the summer and has won his 18th title as a coach.
"But things worked much better for us after the break and this gives us some self-confidence for the Bundesliga.
"This team is already very, very strong."
The Bundesliga season starts on Friday, 26 August, when Bayern begin their title defence against Werder Bremen.


A fall in petrol prices pushed the UK inflation rate to a new four-year low of 1.7% last month, figures show.

It is the second consecutive month that the Consumer Prices Index rate has been below the Bank of England's 2% target, having stood at 1.9% in January.
Inflation measured by the Retail Prices Index (RPI) fell to 2.7% in February from 2.8% the month before.
Average petrol prices fell by 0.8p a litre between January and February, compared with a rise of 4p a year ago.
The Office for National Statistics (ONS) also said diesel prices dropped by 0.8p a litre, compared with a 3.7p increase the year before.
The fall in the rate of inflation means that the gap between pay increases and the rise in prices is narrowing.
Average total earnings rose 1.4% in the three months to January, compared with a year ago, according to the ONS' latest figures.
Public sector workers saw a rise of just 0.9% in the same period, but private sector pay growth was 1.7%, meaning it has already caught up with the increase in prices.
Prime Minister David Cameron tweeted that the figures support the government's economic strategy.
Is inflation making you poorer?
Q&A: What is inflation?
"Our long term economic plan is helping provide stability and security for hard-working people," he wrote.
Labour's Shadow Treasury Minister Catherine McKinnell said she welcomed the fall in the inflation rate, but said there was still a "cost-of-living crisis".
"The squeeze continues as prices are still rising faster than wages. Working people facing this cost-of-living crisis are on average Â£1,600 a year worse off since David Cameron came to office," she added.
Economists said the fall in the inflation rate was likely to underline the Bank of England's message that there is no rush to raise interest rates.
Howard Archer, chief UK and European economist at IHS Global Insight, said rates were now likely to stay at 0.5% until early next year despite the improved growth in the economy.
Samuel Tombs of Capital Economics said he expected inflation to fall even further.
"A favourable combination of lower import prices, flat commodity prices and recovering productivity is likely to help CPI inflation fall further, perhaps to about 1% by the end of the year," he said.
As well as the impact of a drop in petrol prices, the ONS said the price of clothing and footwear had also increased at a slower pace than the same period last year, and energy bills also had a downward effect on inflation.
However, the price of furniture and home furnishings rose by more than last year, the ONS said.
A separate survey from the CBI, also released Tuesday, suggested that retail sales had grown in March, but at a slower pace than expected.
The business lobby group said 23% of retailers saw sales volumes fall compared to a year ago, while 36% reported a rise.
However, respondents to the CBI Distributive Trades Survey said they expected sales to pick up again in the year to April.
"If realised, this will bring the growth rate back into line with February, which was the strongest seen since the onset of the financial crisis," the CBI said.
It said the later timing of Mother's Day and Easter this year had contributed to March's sales slowdown.


Labour's Clive Grunshaw has been re-elected Police and Crime Commissioner for Lancashire.

Mr Grunshaw, who did not secure more than 50% of the first round vote, was elected after counting of second preference votes.
He polled 152,714 votes compared to his Conservative rival Andrew Pratt who took 118,941.
Mr Grunshaw described the post as a "a difficult job" which "wasn't going to get any easier."
"The first term has been difficult because of the cuts and establishing the job," he said.
In the first round of votes, Mr Grunshaw received 132,261 votes and Mr Pratt 96,746.
Voter turnout was 29%.
Candidates are listed alphabetically by surname. BBC News App users: tap here to see the results.
More information is available on the Choose my PCC website.


Mike Phelan says he has been offered the manager's job at Hull City.

The 53-year-old, caretaker boss since Steve Bruce's departure in July, was named Premier League manager of the month for August.
But, with a takeover of the club pending, Phelan's long-term future at the club has been uncertain.
"It's a case now of sifting through the offer and getting down to what hopefully will be further discussions," he told BBC Radio Humberside.
"I don't want to talk about the money, I don't want to talk about what the contract entails because, to be frank, it's nobody else's business.
"You do want parity with the Premier League, and going forward hopefully that's what will happen."
Despite starting the season with just 13 fit first-team players, Phelan guided the Tigers to an opening-day win over champions Leicester City, followed by a victory at Swansea.
Only an injury-time Marcus Rashford goal prevented Hull getting a point against Manchester United, before last week's draw at Burnley.
Phelan said there was "no great rush" to agree the deal, adding he was focusing on Saturday's Premier League game against Arsenal (15:00 BST).
"I would like to have got it done weeks ago," said Phelan.
"But it's only in this last 24 hours we've ended up in this state of affairs with pounds, shillings and pence."
Phelan was Manchester United's first-team coach until 2008, when he became assistant manager to Sir Alex Ferguson.
He left Old Trafford in 2013 and spent a year with Norwich City before joining Hull in 2015 as assistant manager.
A takeover of the club by a Chinese consortium recently fell through but Chinese-American businessman Chien Lee is reportedly interested.
Owner Assem Allam, who took charge in 2010, put Hull up for sale in 2014.
"There's still the takeover in the background and I find myself in the middle of that, trying to sort out my future," Phelan added.
"I don't know who is involved any more and how far discussions have gone. It is possibly a frustrating thing from my point of view."


Winning any Nobel Prize - let alone the celebrated Nobel Peace Prize  - is usually a cause for national jubilation.

But in Pakistan the excitement felt by some at the news  that 17-year-old Malala Yousafzai has become the youngest person ever to win the peace prize has been met in equal part by antagonism.
On social media congratulatory messages were followed closely by scornful and sarcastic ones.
It did not even make the grade for Pakistani TV's typically hysterical breaking news marathons. Many Pakistanis would not even have known she was up for the award.
Indeed, journalist Tariq Khattack , actually condemned it, telling the BBC: "It's a political decision and a conspiracy."
"She is a normal, useless type of a girl. Nothing in her is special at all. She's selling what the West will buy."
This kind of talk will seem utterly incomprehensible to most observers, including many  in Pakistan, but it has been an all too common view expressed in the two years since Malala was shot in the head by Taliban militants.
Of course most political leaders said the prize was well-deserved. Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif and former President Asif Zardari congratulated her and the people of Pakistan on this rare achievement, saying she had done the nation proud.
A few girls' schools in Punjab offered thanksgiving prayers.
But in Malala's hometown of Mingora in north-western Pakistan, it remained a quiet Friday.
Many were busy with prayers when the news arrived. Most schools were closed for Eid, and those that were open did not have any special celebrations.
It was in this town that Malala defied the draconian edicts of the Taliban and made a bold stand in favour of education.
As a schoolgirl she wrote a  diary for BBC Urdu under a pseudonym, and when the Taliban were forced out of the region by the military in 2009, she launched an open campaign.
She became an international celebrity after she was shot in the head by militant gunmen in 2012 but she remain in the UK where she received treatment, largely because it is not safe for her to return home.
While many in Pakistan have praised her for her desire for education and her courage to make a stand for it, many others view her as a stooge of the west, as someone the Americans have set up to become a role model and misguide Pakistani Muslims.
"The Americans and Malala's father conspired to get her shot so she can become a hero," was the somewhat surprising conclusion of one editor of a Mingora-based newspaper some months ago.
One Islamabad housewife said: "What has she done to deserve [the Nobel prize]? She may be brave, but she's only a child. They should have waited 10 years and let her make a mark among the deprived sections of the society."
It is a view that has infuriated many more liberal Pakistanis who made their anger known on Twitter, excoriating those who tried to belittle this win.
This division in views on Malala is for the most part symptomatic of a division that dates from the partition of India and the creation of Pakistan.
Malala's father, Ziauddin Yousafzai, who has been her guide and mentor, is associated with ANP, a political party that links up with the Red Shirt movement. This is a secular force of Pashtun nationalists that was allied to Mahatma Gandhi's All India Congress and opposed the Indian partition.
After independence, the Red Shirts were dubbed as traitors and Indian agents, and often persecuted by successive military regimes that used religion and religious groups to garner support and legitimacy.
As the only political party in the Taliban-infested north-west to publicly call itself secular, the ANP suffered major setbacks during the last few years when scores of its leaders and activists were assassinated by militants. And while it still has a large support base, opposition to its outlook has been growing.
Even Tariq Khattack felt the need to make mention of Malala's father in his BBC interview.
"Her father is a good salesman, that's it, and the daughter has also become a salesgirl, dancing to the tune of the West. They don't deserve anything," he said.
So the mixed reaction that Malala has attracted can be partly explained in terms of her political heritage in a society where religion - and an enduring perception of the West as the enemy of Islam - has come to dominate public discourse.
And she is not alone in this.
In fact, she is the second Pakistani to win the Nobel prize.
The country's first Nobel laureate, physicist Dr Abdus Salam, belonged to the Ahmadi community, which was declared un-Islamic in 1970s.
Nobody, not even the government, has in living memory observed either his birthday or the anniversary of his death.
Malala's pedigree may prove to be slightly more tolerable.
Correction 13 October 2014: This article originally referred to Tarik Khattack as editor of the Pakistan Observer. This was not a position he held with the paper, which he left earlier this year.


Three scientists who "revolutionised" understanding of how the body fights infection have shared this year's Nobel prize for medicine.

Bruce Beutler, of the US, Jules Hoffmann from France and Ralph Steinman from Canada all shared the prize.
Profs Beutler and Hoffman discovered how the body's first line of defence was activated.
Prof Steinman discovered the dendritic cell, which helps defeat infection.
The immune system can be broadly divided into two parts: innate and adaptive.
The innate immune system is the immediate response and halts infection by destroying foreign microorganisms and triggering inflammation.
In 1996, Prof Hoffmann discovered that a gene called "Toll" was essential for kick starting the innate system in fruit flies. Without the gene, the flies could not "sense" and then fight bacterial infection.
An equivalent gene, Toll-like receptor, was found by Prof Beutler in 1998 in his study on mice.
More than a dozen Toll-like receptors have since been found in humans.
The adaptive immune system takes longer to activate, but clears the infection and can provide long lasting protection.
Prof Steinman discovered, in 1973, the dendritic cell. He showed that it can act as a bridge between the two immune systems, deciding whether to activate the adaptive system.
The Nobel prize committe said: "Together Bruce Beutler, Jules Hoffmann and Ralph Steinman have revoluntionised understanding of the immune system by discovering key principles for its activation.
"They have opened up new avenues for prevention and therapy."
Professor of clinical allergy research and panel member, Annika Scheynius, said: "We are definitely sure that these discoveries will lead to health improvement, mainly in the terms of new vaccines.
"Different types of vaccines that are targetting the dentritic cells, meaning that we can improve the health of patients with cancer, inflammatory diseases, auto-immune diseases, asthma."


Aberdeen manager Derek McInnes will help to identify his successor if he decides to move to Sunderland.

The two clubs agreed compensation, allowing the English side to speak to McInnes about their managerial vacancy.
Aberdeen director Dave Cormack said they will "move heaven and earth" to try to retain McInnes, but have plans in place for seeking a replacement.
"It's incumbent upon us to have the existing manager involved," Cormack said.
"Any business - and I come from the software world - has succession planning in it.
"So as far as I understand, over time succession planning involves the existing management. We haven't got a specific list but we've looked at plans and succession."
Aberdeen "reluctantly" granted Sunderland permission to speak to McInnes and his assistant Tony Docherty. The Championship club are looking for a successor to David Moyes, who left following relegation at the end of last season.
Cormack sold his software company for £630m last year and the former Pittodrie chief executive has returned to the club as a major shareholder and non-executive director.
He intends to play an active role in the club's development, particularly in the implementation of a marketing system to engage with supporters and seeking investment and partnership agreements in the US, where Cormack lives.
"I feel that I can add some value here, apart from the money. I don't like giving specific amounts but I'm coming in as a major shareholder, so it's several millions," Cormack said.
"It's taken the club many years to get to the position where we're able to write off the debt and get to where we are today.
"We need to be sensible, but we've got the investment there to use both for the capital project that's coming up - particularly phase one with the training and community facility - and also from an operational standpoint, in particular the football operation."
Cormack is eager to harness his American business connections to generate further investment into the club, and insists the proposed move to a new £50m stadium is vital to achieve that aim.
"Moving to a new stadium is crucial," Cormack said. "One of my remits is going to be looking for partnerships and investments in the States.
"There are a lot of people there that love to be involved in sports clubs in the UK. Many of these Americans are golfers, and we have a lot to offer here in Scotland and the Aberdeen area.
"If we're going to attract investment, though, they'll look at it as investment, and Pittodrie just doesn't stack up. We all love Pittodrie, but it's not fit for purpose. By that, I mean there's only a small footprint that's here, there's only so much we can do.
"From a commercial standpoint, from a corporate perspective, the stadium is 100-plus years old. The new stadium is certainly necessary for us to kick on and bring in other investment."


The organisers of the Oscars are suing a company over gift bags that they say have been falsely linked with the Academy Awards.

The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences is suing for trademark infringement and damage to the Academy's reputation.
The legal action claims that press about the bags by Distinctive Assets have implied they are official and have focused on "the less-than-wholesome nature of some of the products contained in the bags".
The Academy does not give out goody bags.
The lawsuit states that the Academy sent a legal letter to the company last year demanding that "all of Distinctive Assets' future communications concerning the gift bags will clearly communicate that the Academy does not award, sponsor, endorse, or provide these gift bags and that any reporting about the gift bags must include that disclaimer".
They claim this was agreed upon but point out that this year Distinctive Assets opted for the tagline "Everyone Wins Nominee Gift Bags in Honor of the OscarsÂ®" in their social media promotions.
There have been a number of articles about the gift bags in a diverse range of publications many focusing on the controversial inclusion of a "vampire breast lift", a sex toy and a $275 (Â£191) roll of toilet paper.
In total the bags are estimated to be valued at $200,000 (Â£139,000).
The lawsuit claims the press coverage around the gift bags has also focused on the "unseemliness of giving such high value gifts, including trips costing tens of thousands of dollars, to an elite group of celebrities".
Contacted by the BBC, a spokesperson for Distinctive Assets said: "Distinctive Assets has not yet had the opportunity to fully review the AMPAS complaint with counsel and therefore has no comment at this time."


The European Space Agency (Esa) is about to lose the use of one of its flagship satellites.

Since 2009, the billion-euro Herschel telescope has been unravelling the complexities of star birth and galaxy evolution.
But its instruments employ special detectors that need to be chilled to fantastically low temperatures.
The helium refrigerant that does this job will run out in a few weeks and when it does, Herschel will go blind.
The coming demise of the telescope is no surprise.  It is occurring just as was forecast at the start of the mission, almost to the month.
Researchers are now busy running through a final list of observations, acquiring as many images as they can in the time left available.
Already, thousands of pictures have been deposited in the Herschel archive, which is set to become a key reference source for decades into the future.
"I think there is a consensus in the community that Herschel has been a tremendous success and that we have made beautiful observations," Esa project scientist Dr Göran Pilbratt told BBC News.
The telescope was launched almost four years ago and sent to an observing position 1.5 million km from Earth.
It was equipped with a 3.5m mirror - the largest monolithic mirror ever flown - and three state-of-the-art instruments sensitive to long wavelengths of light, in the far-infrared and sub-millimetre range (55 to 672 microns).
This technology has allowed Herschel to study the processes at play as large clouds of gas and dust collapse to form new stars.  Its deep vision has also enabled scientists to trace the story of how galaxies have changed through cosmic time.
But the design of the instruments, and in particular of their detectors, has required Herschel be operated close to absolute zero (-273.15C).
Like hot tea behind a bin bag - how does Herschel let us see hidden stars?
This has been achieved with the aid of a cooling system run on superfluid helium, more than 2,000 litres of which were loaded into the telescope at launch.
The cryogen has gradually boiled off during the course of the mission, and the latest calculation from engineers is that it will be gone entirely sometime in the final two weeks of this month.
Once the detectors start to warm from their ultra-frigid state, they will stop working.  The end, when it happens, will be quite sudden.
Those astronomers in the queue to use Herschel at that moment will no doubt be disappointed, but also philosophical: observing time was allocated on the basis that the opportunity could not be guaranteed as the mission moved into its end phase.
Some engineering tests will be conducted on the telescope in April. The Esa operations team will then put the satellite into a slow drift around the Sun before ceasing all communications.
Prof Matt Griffin, from Cardiff University, is team leader on the Spire instrument, which is sensitive to some of the longest wavelengths.  He said the telescope had exceeded all expectations.
"It will be a sad day when it makes its last observation, but the data that it has collected during its lifetime will keep astronomers busy for years," he told BBC News.
"For the next three years, the Spire team will work hard to put all Spire data into the best possible condition to be as easy as possible to access and to use in the future.
"Amongst Herschel's most exciting results have been the detection of many thousands of distant star-forming galaxies that are helping us understand how galaxies formed and evolved over cosmic time, and the mapping out in our own galaxy of the filaments and cores that are the sites of new suns being formed today."


The winds may be blowing a gale but Storm Barbara has not dampened anyone's generosity.

The Dean of St Anne's Cathedral in Belfast, John Mann has said the annual Black Santa charity appeal is nearing its target of £200,000.
It is the sixth year the Dean has taken part in the sit-out.
He said he was overwhelmed by the public's response and that many charities will benefit as a result.
"This is the best year so far, in terms of the amount we have collected.
"Yesterday was a bit bleak for a couple of hours as the storm came through but it wasn't as bad as we thought it might be."
"In January we figure out which charity is getting what. Mostly they are local community based charities.
"About 15% of the money also goes abroad for humanitarian work," he said.
The traditional Christmas vigil was started in 1976 under Dean Sammy Crooks and millions have been raised since then.
Dean Jack Shearer, who died in 2001, was initially dubbed the Black Santa by the media in the 1980s.
This was because of his distinctive black warm woollen clothing and the name caught on with the public.
This is the 40th sit-out .


Cambodia has jailed several opposition activists on insurrection charges, their lawyers say.

The 11 members of the Cambodia National Rescue Party (CNRP) were given jail terms of between seven and 20 years over clashes at a protest in Phnom Penh last year, defence lawyers said.
The clashes erupted during rallies against the closure of the capital's designated protest site, Freedom Park.
A rights group called the proceedings a "show trial" to intimidate the CNRP.
Cambodia became a multi-party democracy in 1993, but opponents accuse Prime Minister Hun Sen of running a violent and authoritarian system.
Hun Sen, who heads the Cambodian People's Party (CPP), has led the country for the last 30 years.
The CPP won disputed general elections in 2013, taking 68 seats compared with 55 for the CNRP.
The CNRP initially boycotted its parliamentary seats, ending it last year following an agreement with the CPP.
In July 2014, protests erupted over a government decision to close Freedom Park, leading to violent clashes and tear gas and batons being deployed. Several people were injured.


Scotland's success makes them "targets" at the World Bowls Championships in New Zealand, according to high performance manager Rhona Howie.

Other nations will be wary of them as competition starts this week, she said.
"Scotland are obviously very successful on the world stage," Howie told BBC Scotland.
"The Commonwealth Games was the last big event and we obviously did well on home soil, so people will be out to beat us."
The outdoor championships in Christchurch start on 29 November and run until 11 December.
It goes ahead despite the 7.8 magnitude earthquake that struck earlier this month, the epicentre of which was just over 100 miles from the venues for this quadrennial event.
Howie admits the venues will be challenging for the Scots.
"They're playing on four different greens, all with very different conditions, and they'll be tough conditions, so it's how the players deal with those as a wee gust of wind here or there could be the difference," she said.
"It's going to be tough but I've got every faith that the guys are prepared and ready to perform."
This is only one of the qualification events for the Commonwealth Games team after Bowls Scotland agreed ranking targets with Commonwealth Games Scotland.
They can qualify for each discipline should they manage a top-six finish in New Zealand, although there will be further opportunities in competition in 2017.
Scotland head coach David Gourlay is adamant that thoughts of qualification for the Gold Coast in 2018 will not be a distraction.
"It's nothing new as we faced this in Adelaide to qualify for Glasgow," he said.
"There is a little bit of added pressure, but we've tried to focus on players performing with distinction and bringing back medals, as last time we came away with three, so it would be good to add to that."
Olympic gold medal winning curler Howie believes bowls needs a culture change to prevent Scotland from falling behind in the sport and, as she did with curling, has been working on both physical and psychological performances.
"The players have played for so long they know {the technical and tactical} side, but it's to push them to that extra level," she said.
"We're not saying they have to bench press 120kg, but they play three games a day and have to be physically fit.
"It is a mental game as you are on the green for a long time, so mentally you have to be fit and that team dynamic is huge.
"Five people aren't going to play well all the time, somebody is going to have a bad game, so the team dynamic and helping each other through that is vital and could add that extra percentage."
While the players focus on this championship, Gourlay told BBC Scotland he and Howie have an eye on the next generation and are working with the governing body on programmes to sustain and build on the success enjoyed in recent years.
"The Commonwealth Games was really important for bowls as a sport," he added. "With the guys doing so well, winning three medals, the media coverage and exposure we got was great, but coming with that is a lot of expectation that we keep that going.
"It's important we put the building blocks, the foundation, in place for future as we can't always rely on the Alex Marshalls, Paul Fosters, Darren Burnetts and that's the process we're doing at the moment."


A consultation will be held on plans to remove an English language stream at a Carmarthenshire primary school.

Some parents at Llangennech school had objected to the county council's policy of extending Welsh medium provision.
The decision was made at a meeting of the council's executive board on Tuesday afternoon.
The plans will have to come back before the full council before a final decision can be made.
The council wants to extend Welsh medium provision in schools, partly in response to census figures which show a fall in Welsh speakers in the county.
It said replacing Llangennech Infant and Llangennech Junior schools with a new Welsh-medium community primary would ensure "bilingualism is increased" in the area.
Carmarthenshire's executive board member for education, Gareth Jones, faced a series of critical questions from parents at the meeting, some of whom accused the council of "social engineering" and "enforcing the Welsh language".
Cllr Jones said the changes were being motivated by "the best interests of children's education".
A petition previously submitted to the council said the move would have a "massive impact" on children in the community who seek an English-medium education.
The council has also been threatened with a judicial review if it presses ahead with the plans.


Former England and Chelsea footballer Kerry Dixon has been jailed for nine months for punching and kicking a man who is said to have called him "fatso".

Dixon, 53, denied assaulting the man at a pub in Bedfordshire in May 2014, but was convicted of the offence last week.
Luton Crown Court heard the assault was captured on CCTV cameras at the Nag's Head in Dunstable.
Judge Barbara Mensah described the attack as "shocking and sickening to watch".
She said the violence was "disproportionate, unnecessary and completely over the top".
The former striker, who scored 193 times for Chelsea, told the court he had been acting in self-defence and thought his victim, Ben Scoble, was going to hit him in the face with a glass.
"He was posing a threat to me as far as I was concerned. I have been glassed in the face before," Mr Dixon told the jury.
The court was shown CCTV footage of Dixon approaching Mr Scoble, 38, before punching him off a bar stool and continuing to hit him when he fell to the floor.
The judge said the film had drawn "a gasp" from jurors when played during the first week of the trial.
Dixon claimed the pair had a confrontation earlier in the evening during which Mr Scoble was disrespectful and then called him "fatso" in the moments before the attack.
"It's absolutely clear to me, if he did say those words - because this was CCTV without words - he didn't move, seek to strike, or get off the chair," the judge said.
"You were annoyed and clearly going to teach him a lesson."
Although Judge Mensah accepted Dixon had shown "genuine remorse" for the attack, she said she had heard nothing to make her consider anything other than a custodial sentence.
"If ever there was a confrontation in a pub where violence did not need resorting to, this must have been it," she said.
Speaking outside court, his barrister Mark Wyeth QC said the Professional Footballers' Association and Chelsea FC had been "very supportive" of Dixon, who was "addressing the difficulties he's had with various problems".
He added that his client had "expressed several times that he felt ashamed and wanted to apologise to Mr Scoble".


Police reinforcements are trying to restore order at Australia's migrant detention centre on Christmas Island, as unrest there enters a third day.

The disturbances began on Sunday after a detainee who had escaped the camp was found dead outside.
The immigration department said police were negotiating with detainees, but some had continued to engage in "non-compliant behaviour" overnight.
Facilities have been damaged and fires started inside, it added.
Immigration Minister Peter Dutton has blamed the disturbances on "a core group of criminals".
"We have been very clear about the fact that the government's not going to cower in the face of the activities of some of these criminals," he said.
Christmas Island is a remote outpost located 2,650km (1,650 miles) north-west of Perth and 380km south of Java in Indonesia.
It is part of Australia's network of offshore processing centres for irregular migrants who arrive by boat, and also houses New Zealanders facing deportation from Australia.
The unrest started when a group of Iranian inmates staged a protest about the death of an Iranian Kurd, Fazel Chegeni.
Mr Chegeni had broken out of the facility on Saturday. His body was found at the bottom of a cliff on Sunday.
Mr Dutton told parliament he had been advised there were no suspicious circumstances.
Reports on Tuesday said a hard core of detainees were still confronting guards and refusing to return to their cells.
One inmate, Tuk Whakatutu, is quoted as telling Radio New Zealand that some protesters with weapons were in one of the compounds, which had been surrounded by  police in riot gear.
The immigration department said it remained committed to resolving the situation at the centre "peacefully and quickly", but it would "take action to protect people and facilities where an imminent threat exists".
People not participating in the unrest had been moved to a secure part of the facility, it said, asking anyone in contact with detainees to "inform them to return to their rooms if safe to do so".
It is difficult to verify information about what happens on Christmas Island as the media are generally barred from reporting there.
The Christmas Island centre
Australia asylum: Why is it controversial?
Australia sends intercepted asylum seekers to Christmas Island, Manus Island in Papua New Guinea and Nauru in the South Pacific.
The government says the journey the asylum seekers make by sea to reach Australia is dangerous and controlled by criminal gangs and they have a duty to stop it. Critics say opposition to asylum is often racially motivated and is damaging Australia's reputation.
The policy was branded a "disaster" by Human Rights Watch's Australia director in July. The group also raised concern over conditions at the Manus camp.
Last February, an Iranian man was killed during a riot at the camp on Manus. The trial of a Salvation Army worker and a camp guard accused over his murder restarts later this month.
Australia is facing renewed criticism from the United Nations over the policies, with the US, Britain and others using a UN forum to say it should stop turning back boats and close the offshore centres.


The BBC's director general has said he hopes Top Gear's "edge" and "sense of danger" will continue when the show returns with Chris Evans hosting.

Tony Hall said he was "thrilled" Evans was replacing Jeremy Clarkson, who was sacked after punching a producer.
He also said he hoped the new Top Gear would appeal to existing fans and bring in people who were "put off by part of how the programme was in the past".
"I'd like to see some women in the presenting team," he added.
Top Gear's close-to-the-knuckle humour and high-octane stunts are all part of the attraction to the show's 6.5 million viewers.
But it has a long history of controversy under its previous stewardship, including accusations of racism and inappropriate comments.
Speaking on the BBC's Andrew Marr Show, Lord Hall said he believed Evans would be able to reinvent the show as he knew "what makes a good programme".
"I hope that edge will be there and that sense of danger will be there.  I need to leave it to Chris and the team to make up their mind about what they think is going to work best," he said.
"You've go to trust the talent and give them confidence to do the things they want to do."
Lord Hall also denied knowledge of claims Clarkson was offered his job back as the host of Top Gear, after the presenter told The Sun an unnamed BBC executive had "asked if I'd come back" last week.
"I have no idea what that's all about," the director general said.
"I made it absolutely clear when I said 'we're going to part company' that was it."
Clarkson's final episode of Top Gear will be broadcast on 28 June at 20:00 BST on BBC Two.


A man dialled 999 after waking up locked in an empty nightclub dressed only in his underpants following a Christmas party.

Police said the last thing the man remembered was leaving a bar in Manchester city centre at 01:00 GMT.
He apparently woke up in a confused state before contacting Greater Manchester Police at about 15:00 GMT.
Thousands of people are expected to celebrate the festive season in what has come to be known as Mad Friday.
GMP tweeted about the man's nightclub ordeal, and said officers were searching for people with access to the building in order to free him.


A council has been criticised after an elderly woman was left "severely" malnourished during her stay in a care home.

The unnamed patient lost a third of her body weight while living at Murdoch House Care Home in Wokingham.
The woman, in her nineties, who has aphasia, arthritis and osteoporosis, entered the care home in 2010 weighing just under ten stone (61kg).
By 2013, her weight was just six-and-a-half stone (41kg).
The Local Government Ombudsman (LGO) criticised Wokingham Borough Council for failing to take action to address the weight loss.
The watchdog heavily criticised the care provided for the woman who left the home malnourished, and with a Body Mass Index of just 15 (government guidance says a healthy BMI is 18 to 25).
It also criticised the care home's record keeping, and that staff did not seek specialist support for her low weight.
Dr Jane Martin, of the LGO, said the council neglected its duty to the family, leaving a vulnerable woman to suffer.
"In this case the woman was bored, lost a considerable amount of weight and her wellbeing was not promoted".
The council admitted the woman's weight was of concern and offered the family Â£500 compensation.
Cllr Julian McGhee-Sumner said: "We are profoundly sorry for the poor care provided in this case, and for the distress this caused our care client and her family.
"The care she received was below the standard we expect from our care providers and we apologise that we did not identify these problems".
Wokingham council has since been asked to pay the mother of the patient Â£3,500 and the patient's daughter Â£500.
A spokesman from Murdoch House said the patient lost a "substantial" amount of weight during time in hospital and that she was regularly reviewed by a GP when back at the home.


Brendan Rodgers is the Scottish Premiership manager of the month for April after guiding Celtic to three wins and two draws.

Rodgers' side opened last month with a 5-0 win at Hearts that clinched the title - the club's sixth successive top-flight success.
And they finished April with their biggest Ibrox victory over Rangers, winning 5-1.
Celtic remain unbeaten domestically this season.
And they can complete a treble if they win the Scottish Cup final against Aberdeen on 27 May, having beaten the Dons in November's League Cup final.
Rodgers also won the August, October and December manager of the month awards.
"We obviously had some great results and even more important was how we played," said Rodgers after receiving his award.
"It is always good to win, but it is even better to win well.
"We had some outstanding performances and the team and the staff, we accept the award on behalf of everyone at the club."


Tens of millions of users who visit Google sites use a browser loaded with malicious add-ons, research suggests.

Most rogue extensions bombard people with ads, but the most malicious steal login names and other valuable data.
Carried out by security experts and Google, the project analysed more than 100 million visits to the search giant's sites.
It led to Google purging almost 200 bad extensions from its online catalogues of browser add-ons.
Extensions and add-ons for web browsers add all kinds of functions and features to the software.
Many of these extensions have hidden extras that cause trouble for people who install them, said UC Santa Barbara computer scientist Alexandros Kapravelos, who worked with Google on the rogue extensions project.
The research found that malicious extensions were available for every major browser.
The findings are due to be published in full in May at the IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy.
Preliminary results revealed that 5% of people accessing Google every day have been caught out by at least one malicious extension.
Of these victims, about a third have four or more bad add-ons installed in their browser.
"It is a very hard problem to deal with," said Mr Kapravelos.
Some bad extensions were easy to spot, he said, because they were so obviously written to steal saleable data such as bitcoins, bank logins or personal data.
However, many used techniques seen in legitimate extensions, he said, and it took a lot of extra analysis to pin down the bad ones.
"Even when we have a complete understanding of what the extension is doing, sometimes it is not clear if that behaviour is malicious or not," he said.
"You would expect that an extension that injects or replaces advertisements is malicious, but then you have AdBlock that creates an ad-free browsing experience and is technically very similar."
Experts from Swedish security firm ScrapeSentry said it had found examples of extensions that gathered data in ways that could easily be abused.
ScrapeSentry's analysis of one extension, called Webpage Screenshot, revealed that it contained code that let it grab copies of all the browser traffic from the PC on which it was installed.
The gathered data was then sent to a server in the US. The extension has been downloaded about 1.2 million times.
"What happens to the personal data and the motives for sending it to the US server is anyone's guess, but we'd take an educated guess that it's not going to be good news," said Martin Zetterlund from ScrapeSentry.
A spokesman for Webpage Screenshot said there was nothing malicious about the data it gathered. Instead, said the spokesman, it was used to understand who the extension's users were and where they were located to help drive development of the code.
Users could opt out of sharing data, he said.
Mr Kapravelos said Google had acted on the early findings of the research by removing 192 actively malicious extensions from its Chrome catalogue. About 14 million people had been tricked into using these extensions, he said.
The UC Santa Barbara team was working with Google to develop tools that can automatically spot malicious extensions and flag them to the search giant's security staff.
In addition, said Mr Kapravelos, firms whose adverts were being injected onto webpages by the rogue extensions had been informed.
Unfortunately, he said, ad injection had become "entrenched" as a way for some unscrupulous developers to make money.
The research found that only a small number of developers were behind the majority of the rogue extensions that pepper people with ads, suggesting that targeted action could help tackle the problem.


Donald Trump has "actively encouraged" foreign powers to hack his presidential rival Hillary Clinton, her camp says.

Mrs Clinton did not hand over 30,000 emails as part of an investigation into her private email server as they contained private details.
"Russia, if you're listening, I hope you're able to find the 30,000 emails that are missing," Mr Trump said on Wednesday.
"I think you'll be rewarded mightily by our press."
The emails would contain some "beauties", he said. Soon after, he wrote on Twitter that if anyone had the emails, they should hand them over to the FBI.
His appeal comes as Russia stands accused of hacking emails from the Democratic National Committee (DNC) for Mr Trump's benefit. Both Russia and Mr Trump deny the allegation.
"This has to be the first time that a major presidential candidate has actively encouraged a foreign power to conduct espionage against his political opponent," Jake Sullivan, Mrs Clinton's senior policy adviser, said.
"This has gone from being a matter of curiosity, and a matter of politics, to being a national security issue."
In a statement released within an hour of Mr Trump's comments, his vice-presidential candidate Mike Pence said there would be "serious consequences" if the FBI could prove Russia was attempting to interfere with the election.
The emails were leaked to the Wikileaks organisation and published on Friday.
The FBI is continuing its investigation into the leak, which included emails that showed DNC officials, who are supposed to remain neutral, favoured Mrs Clinton, and derided her Democratic rival Bernie Sanders.
Mrs Clinton's campaign manager, Robby Mook, said Russia carried out the hack to weaken the Democrats and help Mr Trump.
In an interview with NBC News on Wednesday, President Obama - whose own government has been accused of carrying out hacks on other governments - refused to rule out the possibility Russia was responsible, adding: "What we do know is that the Russians hack our systems. Not just government systems, but private systems."
Kremlin spokesman Dmitry Peskov said on Wednesday that President Putin "more than once has said that Russia would never interfere and does not interfere in the internal affairs of other countries, especially in the electoral process".
When challenged by the press to condemn foreign powers that may be trying to intervene in the US election, Mr Trump replied: "No, it gives me no pause.
"If Russia or China or any of those country gets those emails, I've got to be honest with you, I'd love to see them."
In a news conference in Florida, Mr Trump said he had "nothing to do with Russia".
When asked by reporters if Russian President Vladimir Putin might favour a win for Mr Trump, the billionaire said he had "never met Putin, I don't know who Putin is".
"Russia is a global menace led by a devious thug," said Brendan Buck, a spokesman for Paul Ryan, the Republican House Speaker. "Putin should stay out of this election."
The two issues have been brought together by Mr Trump but, on the surface, have nothing to do with each other.
Shortly before she was sworn in as secretary of state in 2009, Hillary Clinton set up an email server at her home in Chappaqua, New York. She then relied on this server, home to the email address hdr22@clintonemail.com, for all her electronic correspondence - both work-related and personal - during her four years in office.
It was 30,000 of the emails sent here that Mr Trump was encouraging hackers to find.
An FBI investigation concluded that Mrs Clinton should not face charges, but said she and her aides had been "extremely careless" in their handling of classified information.
Read more: Clinton emails in detail
With Democrats from Barack Obama on down raising suspicions that Donald Trump may be the intended beneficiary of Russian hacking, the last thing the Republican nominee should do is essentially tell Vladimir Putin and company to keep up the good work.
Yet that's exactly what Mr Trump did when he suggested Russians would be "rewarded" for efforts to locate "personal" emails Hillary Clinton deleted from her private server.
The purloined DNC emails have been an embarrassment for the Democrats this week. But Mr Trump has given them a clear avenue to push back.
They allege that he may have unsavoury ties to Russian interests and must release his tax returns to prove otherwise, something he has refused to do so far. Those returns could put suspicions to rest or give an unflattering look into the New York billionaire's finances.
Mr Trump often goes off message and emerges unscathed, but this time Republicans have cause for concern.
Vice-presidential nominee Mike Pence quickly stated there will be "serious consequences" if Russia attempts to influence US elections. He then tried to paint Democrats as the party endangering US security Â but Mr Trump ensured continued debate will be conducted on terrain unfavourable for Republicans.


The family of a US pilot who died when his jet crashed in a field said they were "thankful" after the last known photo of him emerged, showing him waving on the runway.

Maj Taj Sareen was killed when his jet came down at Temple Farm in Redmere, Cambridgeshire, on 21 October.
The image was taken the day before the crash, at RAF Lakenheath in Suffolk.
Matthew Varley, 23, from Horning, Norfolk, captured the shot and said it was a "sad and poignant tribute".
Maj Sareen, from Hillsborough, California, was returning home from a six-month tour tackling so-called Islamic State (IS) in Iraq and Syria when the accident happened.
His friend Capt Annie Driscoll created a fund for his 16-month-old daughter Jade, which has raised nearly Â£50,000.
The US Air Force helicopter pilot, who met Maj Sareen more than 10 years ago at pilot school, said the money was in a trust fund that Jade can access when she is 21.
"I've spoken with her mother and she is incredibly grateful for the love and support shown by Taj's friends.
"Jade is so lucky that she'll get to know her father through everyone and their thoughts."
Capt Driscoll said she had passed the picture along to his family. "I know it's hard to see but they are thankful to have it," she added.
The photo is one of a set taken by Mr Varley, who said he has only made a few visits to the base to take pictures.
The plumber and part-time photographer said Maj Sareen was the only pilot to wave at him.
Maj Sareen was called a "hero" by the farmer who owns the field where he crashed, after he avoided hitting him and his son.
His plane is reported to have encountered issues with refuelling before taking off from RAF Lakenheath, but the cause of the crash will not be known until an investigation by the Marine Corps finishes.


Human remains including parts of a skull and leg bones have been found during an archaeological dig at an Iron Age site in Caithness.

The police and procurator fiscal service have been notified of the finds at Thrumster, near Wick, as normal procedure by archaeologists.
The remains have still to be radiocarbon dated to determine how old they are.
Ancient human remains have previously been uncovered in Caithness.
AOC Archaeology and Yarrows Heritage Trust have been leading teams of 12 to 15 volunteers on the dig.
Dr Andy Heald, of AOC Archaeology, said they had established the site held the ruins of a broch, a massive stone wall Iron Age roundhouse.
He said the bones found could be those of a man.
Dr Heald said: "At the moment we have no idea on a date. They could be 50 years old, or 3,000 years old."
If analysis finds that the remains were ancient then they could have been placed as part of a ritual honouring the dead.
Dr Heald said: "When skulls were found in the 19th Century people thought it had to do with cannibalism, or were war trophies.
"Cannibalism is just nonsense."
He added: "At another Caithness site at Whitegate human remains, horses and even puppies were placed at a broch 300 years after it was abandoned.
"It was done in some sort of memory ritual, or for it to be a monument on the landscape."
Caithness has more brochs per square mile than any other part of Scotland, according to Highland Council.
Examples of the ancient buildings are also found on Orkney.


Australian actor Maggie Kirkpatrick, star of TV drama Prisoner, has been cleared of sexually abusing a girl.

In August, a Melbourne court had ruled she had abused the 14-year-girl at her Melbourne home in 1984.
She was given community service, placed on a sex offenders' register and ordered to undergo a rehabilitation assessment.
Ms Kirkpatrick, 74, had consistently denied the charges of assault and gross indecency with a person under 16.
Judge Geoffrey Chettle said on Tuesday the accusations could not be proved beyond reasonable doubt.
The unnamed victim had told the court said she had organised a meeting with Ms Kirkpatrick through a TV producer while she was a patient in a psychiatric hospital.
She said she had not reported the abuse before because she feared people would call her "crazy".
Judge Chettle said Ms Kirkpatrick's reason for inviting the girl for dinner at her home unchaperoned was in line with evidence the actress was a caring person who had helped other young people in the past.
Ms Kirkpatrick broke into tears after the decision was handed down.
Speaking outside court, she thanked her legal team, family and "the hundreds of fans and members of the acting fraternity who have stood by me for the last two years".
"It's been rather difficult, but I am very happy with the result."
Ms Kirkpatrick played a warden called Joan, nicknamed the Freak, in Prisoner, a popular series set in a women's prison.
She later appeared in a host of other Australian TV shows and in 1991 played Marilyn's aunt Jean Chambers in Home and Away. Her most recent role was in a stage production of the musical Wicked.


Liam Polworth is relishing the prospect of testing himself against the best of France's emerging talent.

The Inverness Caledonian Thistle midfielder hopes to make his Scotland Under-21 debut in Angers on Thursday.
"Everyone would look forward to playing against such a high calibre of player," the 21-year-old said.
"I didn't see the first game at home but I heard Ryan [Christie] speaking about it when he came back. He said the quality was very high."
Having lost 2-1 to the French at Pittodrie last year in Euro 2017 qualifying, Scotland are currently fourth in Group 2.
However, Polworth insists that the squad believe they can revive their hopes of making the finals in Poland.
"Every game you're going to go out and try to get three points," he said.
"You know that against France it's going to be difficult,  but to get a point or anything and to come back to a home game against Northern Ireland, you'd be hoping to take the three points to get us right back into the group.
"Everyone is upbeat and looking forward to the game."
Ricky Sbragia's side has already defeated Northern Ireland away but the loss to France and draws with Iceland and Ukraine have left the team six points behind leaders Iceland and five points behind France in second place, but with one game in hand over the two countries, and two points behind Macedonia in third.
Polworth says that he has adapted quickly to life with the squad, helped by sharing a room with his former Inverness team-mate Christie, now at Celtic.
He does admits that he feared missing out on international recognition, despite having established himself in the Inverness starting line-up this season.
"Once you start playing, you need to get to a level where you need to be showing [your best] on a weekly basis, and that was just in time," he said.
"I feel that over the course of this season, I've been on the bench a few times, but apart from that it's been week in, week out and hopefully my performances have shown that I'm there to play every week and not be a bit-part player."
Polworth also revealed that Caley Thistle manager John Hughes had little sympathy for him after accidentally punching the player while celebrating an equaliser in the 1-1 draw with Hibernian at Easter Road in the Scottish Cup quarter final.
"[I had] a real sore face, for about a week after, but he just seemed to find it funny," Polworth said. "There was nothing I could really do about it. No chance [of an apology]."


A former police officer has been cleared of charges of historical indecent assault.

Last week, a jury found ex-PC Colin Hart, 61, from Nelson, Caerphilly County, not guilty of five counts of indecent assault and one of raping a girl under 16.
The jury failed to reach a verdict on two counts of indecent assault.
He was formally cleared of the remaining charges at a hearing at Cardiff Crown Court on Monday.


Sunderland have sealed the signing of West Brom defender Billy Jones on a free transfer after he rejected a new deal at the Hawthorns.

The 27-year-old has agreed a four-year deal, and will officially join the Black Cats on 1 July.
We're obviously disappointed by Billy's decision but wish him well
"I'm really happy to be here and I'm looking forward to getting back for pre-season and kicking on," said Jones.
"I've played at the Stadium of Light a number of times so I know what great backing the club has."
He added: "I knew I was signing for a massive club with everything in place to kick on up the league and carry on moving forward."
Jones joined West Brom from Preston in 2011, going on to make 74 appearances for the club, having begun his career at Crewe Alexandra.
West Brom said they had been in contract negotiations with Jones since October 2013 and were "disappointed" by the full-back's decision to reject what they described as "vastly-improved terms".
"Billy rejected this and has exercised his right to run down his contract with a view to joining Sunderland," said West Brom director of football administration Richard Garlick.
"We're obviously disappointed by Billy's decision but wish him well in his future career.
"With there being no guarantees that Billy would re-sign, we have been preparing for this scenario and will pursue the options we have been exploring in the right-back position."


Dover Athletic have signed Femi Ilesanmi on a one-year contract after the left-back's departure from National League rivals Boreham Wood.

The 26-year-old ex-Dagenham and York defender started all but four of Wood's league matches last season.
Meanwhile, striker Ryan Bird has joined from Newport, signing a one-year deal with an option of a further year.
The 29-year-old scored six goals in 19 appearances for the League Two side last season.
The duo are Chris Kinnear's seventh and eighth summer signings, with Tobi Sho-Silva and Connor Essam among those to arrive at the Crabble Athletic Ground.


The beach at Ramsgate has been closed after sewage leaked from a burst pipe.

Southern Water engineers shut off the sewer as soon as the leak, in Military Road, was discovered, but some sewage had already reached the beach.
A fleet of tankers is removing the wastewater for treatment, allowing householders to continue using their facilities as normal.
Temporary traffic lights are operating in Military Road while the spillage is cleared up and the pipe repaired.
The latest pollution alert follows a major spillage in the summer, which closed more than 20 of Thanet's beaches over the Diamond Jubilee weekend.
The district council launched an inquiry following the spill in June when the Southern Water pumping station at Foreness Point failed, allowing raw sewage to flow directly into the sea.
A Southern Water spokesman said the latest problem was caused by a cracked sewage pipe, the cause of which is being investigated.
The beach has been closed "as a precaution", and signs have been placed on entrances at the Western Undercliff advising the public not to go on it.


A £10,000 reward is being offered in the case of a man who disappeared three years ago and police believe has been murdered.

Robert Hutchinson, 57, was last seen leaving his home in the Hendon area of Sunderland on 23 June 2014.
His car was later found abandoned and Northumbria Police are treating his disappearance as a murder.
Crimestoppers has offered the reward for information about what happened to him.
Det Insp Ed Small said: "Our condolences very much remain with Robert's family.
"I'm sure it has been a very difficult few years and the not having the answers only prolongs their grief.
"We need answers to what happened to him.
"There will be people in the community who will have information about his murder."
He was last seen leaving his home in Corporation Road at about 18:20 BST. His car was found several days later abandoned at the end of Stewart Street, just off Chester Road.
Crimestoppers previously offered a £3,000 reward for information.
Two men were arrested but no charges were ever brought.


Imax has struck a deal to more than double the number of its large screens in European cinemas run by the continent's biggest operator.

AMC - which owns Odeon among other brands - plans to create 25 new Imax theatres over the next three years, about 10 of which will be in the UK.
Some will also be built in Germany, Italy, Spain and Scandinavia.
One expert said Imax had proved popular with those seeking a "premium experience".
AMC and Imax expect to jointly spend about $25m (Â£20m) on the expansion plan and will subsequently share the revenues.
"One of the things that has really frustrated me over my 23 years [in charge] has been our inability to properly penetrate Europe," Imax's chief executive, Rich Gelfond, told the BBC.
"Europe has been challenging because of its infrastructure - the theatres are smaller, they are dated and don't really fit the Imax specs, and the build-out [of new cinemas] has been slow.
"So, today is really a historic day for us."
AMC is making the investment five months after taking over Odeon and a month after its acquisition of Nordic Cinemas. The company is itself controlled by China's Dalian Wanda Group.
It is now engaged in a wider effort to upgrade its cinemas.
"One of the ways you get people not to watch a movie in their home or on their iPad is you offer them a 60ft [18.3m] screen," said AMC's chief executive Adam Aron.
"When consumers have so many choices... one of the smartest things we can do is put in more and more Imax or Imax-like experiences, because that is one of the long-term guarantors that people are going to still go out."
The initiative will bring the total number of Imax cinemas run by all chains in Europe close to 250.
However, that figure will still lag behind the 800 in existence or in development in China and the 350 in the US.
"Imax has already proven its worth in many countries, and wouldn't have built the brand it has, unless it had been able to attract the public," commented Robert Mitchell from the trade magazine Variety.
"The question mark is whether it will succeed in countries like Germany, where cinema attendance has been dropping for the last couple of years and [where] Imax only has a few screens at present, so is less well known."
Imax has developed a projection system that allows images to be shown on screens up to 100ft wide without becoming blurry.
It also offers filmmakers cameras that are able to capture higher resolution footage than normal.
Directors including Christopher Nolan and Michael Bay are fans, but the tech is normally restricted to blockbuster projects because of the additional costs it incurs.
In addition, Imax offers software to convert footage shot with normal cinema cameras, and has developed a proprietary sound system for its theatres.
It faces competition from other large-screen formats including Dolby Cinema, RealD Luxe and an in-house effort from AMC.
To help distinguish itself, Imax recently announced plans to start screening original content unavailable elsewhere.
The first "exclusive" is a deal to show the first two episodes of a forthcoming Marvel TV show - The Inhumans - in September, several weeks before they come to television.
"Other companies like HBO went from Hollywood-content only to original programming," Mr Gelfond explained.
"We're following in those footsteps and thinking: why not bring a great original content experience at a slower time of the year?"
In addition, Imax recently launched a standalone virtual reality centre in Los Angeles and will shortly open different versions of the concept attached to cinemas in New York and London.
Members of the public pay to try out short experiences using StarVR headsets, which offer a wider field-of-view than rival tech.
The firm already offers content linked to the movies John Wick, Star Wars and The Walk, and has struck a deal with Warner Bros to create new experiences based on its DC superhero films.
Mr Gelfond said he hoped that this would attract Millennials - those born after mid-1990 - who had proved harder to attract to cinemas than older age groups.
But he acknowledged that it was early days for the tech.
"We are starting with about five to 10 VR centres that will all be open this year," he said.
"We'll look at the results. If they look good we'll build it out at a much more significant way.
"And if they don't we'll have not lost much."


Indian captain Virat Kohli has joined  mourners at the funeral of Australian cricketer Phillip Hughes in New South Wales.

Kohli was accompanied by team manager Ravi Shastri at the service in Hughes' hometown of Macksville.
Hughes, 25, died on Thursday two days after being struck on the neck by a ball during a domestic cricket match.
His tragic death has prompted the rescheduling of Australia's upcoming Test series with India.
Instead of starting in Brisbane on Thursday, the series will now begin in Adelaide on 9 December.
The changes have been made because of welfare concerns for Australia's players grieving for Hughes.
Around 1,000 people packed into Macksville High School, which Hughes attended, for the 80-minute service as thousands more watched on screens outside
Kohli, along with Shastri and Indian coach Duncan Fletcher, joined cricketers from around the world in the funeral procession after the service.
Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi tweeted that Wednesday's service was "heart rending":
And Sambit Bal, editor of ESPNcricinfo.comâ€Ž, tweeted that Hughes "died doing what he loved the most":
Indian players, including cricket legend Sachin Tendulkar have paid rich tributes to Hughes in the days after his death.
Batsman Ambati Rayudu, who played with Hughes in the IPL team Mumbai Indians, described his death as "tragic".
"He was always smiling and was a tough competitor. He was very friendly and you can say he was the nicest Australian I knew," Rayudu told The Times of India newspaper.


The suspected rape of a girl by a six-year-old boy was one of 28 sexual offences involving children aged under 10 recorded in the last four years by North Wales Police.

Figures show that 160 crimes involving under-10s were recorded by the force since 2011.
However, anyone under the age of 10 cannot be legally held responsible for a crime.
But the offence or allegation of a crime is still recorded by police.
The figures, released after a Freedom of Information request, show that a six-year-old boy is believed to have raped a girl under 13 in 1997. The offence was registered in 2013.
It was among four rapes recorded by the force in the last four years - the three other rapes involved suspects who were all aged nine.
One of those took place in 1971, although it was recorded this year.


Michael Phelps now has 19 Olympic gold medals to his name after helping the United States clinch the men's 4x100m freestyle relay title on day two in Rio.

The 31-year-old came to Brazil as the most decorated Olympian in history and has now won 23 medals at five Games.
But how does the American's tally compare to current Olympic countries?
A selected all-time medal table shows Phelps in joint 35th position, ahead of the likes of India, which has a population of over 1.2 billion.
Great Britain's own leading Olympic gold medal-winner, cyclist Sir Chris Hoy, has six to his name, which leaves him joint 50th in the table along with Indonesia, Croatia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Morocco and Lithuania.
There are 206 countries with delegates competing in the 2016 Rio Olympics.
Phelps has more gold medals than 170 of those countries - more than 80%.
Greenland and Western Sahara are both grey on this map as they are not currently Olympic countries.
All stats are accurate as of the end of day two in Rio.


Oscar-winning actor Al Pacino has delighted fans at the London Palladium with an evening of conversation about his life and career.

The star had previously put on his one-man Q&A show in New York and Sydney, but much was made of his first on-stage interview in London.
This would never be shown on screen, never to be repeated again, host Emma Freud assured the crowd.
He's turned down chat shows and even the most respected feature writers for interviews, so this will be your chance to meet "the real Al Pacino", she said.
Not quite true, The Telegraph's David Gritten leaned over to tell me, saying he's had the privilege.
After arriving on stage nearly half an hour late, the 73-year-old entered to a standing ovation from the audience.
This was more of a Pacino fan convention/love-in than serious talk with brevity.
Friendly heckles
Even Freud made no secret of her lust, using her first question to ask if she could lick Pacino's face.
Fans were presented with a showreel of Pacino's work including Scarface, The Godfather, Dog Day Afternoon and Serpico - punctuated by cheers and applause from a crowd who had paid up to Â£250 to be in their hero's presence.
Each clip was supported with an anecdote about the star's experience on the film like how he was cast for The Godfather and how he learned to disassemble and reassemble a gun for Scent of a Woman.
Playing up on her lineage, Freud ran through Pacino's childhood, touching on him smoking a pipe by the age of 11, drinking at 13 and the friends he lost to drug abuse.
It was while watching a performance of Chekhov's The Seagull in New York when he was 14 that the star was inspired to become an actor, he revealed.
It is clear that Pacino is a masterful storyteller - playing to the crowd well and easily handling friendly heckles from excitable audience members.
And although he sometimes lost track of what he was saying, his punchlines were always met with more cheers and applause.
The star's most lively responses came mid-interview.
Who was his best leading lady? "She's out there and we've not met yet," he quipped. And his worst? He wouldn't name her, but said it was someone he was very fond of who had once critiqued his performance while on set - a big no-no in his book.
Best kisser? "Michelle was a good kisser, Michelle Pfeiffer," referring to their time on 1991's Frankie and Johnny.
What about films he turned down? Gasps came from the crowd when Pacino confirmed he passed over Richard Gere's role in Pretty Woman and Bruce Willis' lead in Die Hard.
"I gave that boy a career!" he joked. "You know who else I gave a career to? Harrison Ford in Star Wars - that role was mine for the taking but I couldn't understand the script."
But he denied being offered the leading roles in Goodfellas, Midnight Cowboy and Misery, made famous by Robert De Niro, Dustin Hoffman and James Caan.
Poetry recital
Fans literally lined up in the aisles during the half-hour open Q&A session.
A couple asked about his acting method and motivation; one man used his time to merely thank Pacino for signing an autograph for his wife, and another woman asked the star to re-enact a line from her favourite film, Scent of a Woman.
"Which part have you have played that is the closest to your character?" asked another fan. "If I knew who me was, I wouldn't be an actor," the star shot back.
Perhaps saving the best for last, Pacino ended the show reciting poetry. First was Somewhere I Have Never Travelled by EE Cummings.
Then came Oscar Wilde's The Ballad of Reading Gaol - performed in the dark with a single spotlight on the star.
He held the crowd captivated as he showed off the acting skills that have earned him Oscar, Emmy and Tony awards.
Whether or not "the real Al Pacino" revealed anything his die-hard fans didn't already know is questionable.
But it was clear that getting the chance to spend two hours in the company of their acting hero was money well spent.


Europe is to press ahead with its Earthcare space laser mission, despite a 30% rise in its probable final cost.

The satellite will study the role clouds and atmospheric particles play in a changing climate.
But the difficulty in finding a workable design for the spacecraft's lidar instrument means its total budget will now top 590m euros (Â£500m).
Member states of the European Space Agency are convinced though that Earthcare will deliver invaluable data.
Delegates to the 18-nation alliance this week accepted the findings of a review that assessed the technical risks of proceeding.
They also heard a clear message from the scientific community that Earthcare would do pioneering research.
"The Programme Board confirmed the conclusions of the independent assessment," said Dr Volker Liebig, Esa's director of Earth observation.
"This re-affirmed the high scientific value of the Earthcare mission - that there are unique synergies between all the instruments and it makes no sense to remove any of them.  The board is confident that all has been done to reach the mission objectives in the 'costs at completion' which are at the moment foreseen," he told BBC News.
Earthcare is one of Esa's proposed Earth Explorers - a series of spacecraft that will do innovative science in obtaining data on issues of pressing environmental concern.
Three missions have so far gone into orbit, returning remarkable new information on gravity, polar ice cover, soil moisture and ocean salinity.
Earthcare will study how clouds and aerosols (fine particles) form, evolve and affect our climate, the weather and air quality.
Scientists say knowledge gaps in such areas severely hamper their ability to forecast future change.
Different sorts of cloud have different effects. For example, low cloud can help cool the planet while high cloud can act as a blanket.
Developing the primary instrument on Earthcare to get at this information has proved extremely problematic, however.
Prime contractor, Astrium-France, has had a torrid time arriving at a design that will reliably work in the vacuum of space.
A fundamental re-configuration of the lidar has added significantly (140m euros) to the projected total mission cost.
It has also delayed the mission's probable launch date to 2016 - two years later than recent estimates.
Concerned about developments, member state delegations had requested a review of the project's status.
The lidar will fire pulses of ultraviolet light down into the atmosphere.
From the way this light is scattered back to the spacecraft, scientists can build up a picture of where in the atmosphere different cloud types and aerosols reside.
Combined with the data from three other instruments onboard, it should then be possible to work out the implications for the energy budget of the Earth.
"The board was asked to look into a potential de-scoping of the mission, but it was the clear view of all the scientists that the breakthrough Earthcare will deliver comes from the combination of all the instruments," Dr Liebig said.
Europe has yet to fly a space lidar mission and so developing this expertise is seen as an important technology goal for Esa.
Earth observation is currently the agency's biggest programme, representing a fifth of its total budget or 844m euros in 2011.
The extra cost of Earthcare will need to be absorbed, but Dr Liebig said the tendency of all high-technology missions to slip over time meant the additional expenditure could be managed in an affordable way.
Like all Esa missions, Earthcare will be a pan-European effort.  However, the mission has particular significance for the UK.
The main structure of the spacecraft will be built in Britain (Astrium-UK at Stevenage), as will two of its instruments, at SSTL (Guildford) and SEA Group Ltd (Frome).
The fourth instrument on Earthcare is being supplied by Japan.
Jonathan.Amos-INTERNET@bbc.co.uk


A search for 2,000 visitors for an archaeology dig at an Iron Age fort on the outskirts of Cardiff is under way by Cardiff University.

The Caerau hill fort near Ely is thought to have been occupied from the 5th Century BC by the Silurian tribe.
A dig last year involving 1,000 people found its use may have continued into the late Roman era or even later.
The Caerau And Ely Rediscovering Heritage (Caer) Project runs until 25 July.
Organisers say work on the site since 2011 has helped rewrite the history of early Cardiff, revealing an early occupation date for a hill fort with "massive" ramparts.
Last year's excavations revealed:
Caer Heritage Project co-director Olly Davis said: "During the 2013 dig, more than 1,000 local people visited the dig while it was happening, and 120 more were directly involved in the archaeological work.
"Our challenge this year is to attract twice as many visitors and to get the people of South Wales to value this amazing site and celebrate the remarkable communities which live in its shadow."


Scotland prop Zander Fagerson says his Glasgow Warriors team have targeted winning the European Champions Cup.

The Warriors pulled off a huge result to beat French champions Racing 92 in Paris last weekend and host the return game at Scotstoun on Friday.
Fagerson says the focus has to be on one game at a time but admits the Warriors have big ambitions.
"That's every team's aim in the Champions Cup - to win it. If I told you otherwise, I'd be lying," he said.
"But I'm not thinking about that at all - just focused on the task ahead this weekend."
Warriors are second in Pool One, one point behind Munster, who have a game in hand along with Racing, although the French side sit bottom without a point.
Fagerson has four caps for Scotland but is still surprised to be starting in a side so close to qualifying for the quarter-finals of Europe's top club competition.
"We've been close before and had some tough pools a few times and this is definitely the goal," said the 20-year-old.
"It is amazing to be part of and I have to pinch myself at times. I didn't expect any of this at all."
Fagerson broke into the Warriors side as they won the 2014-15 Pro12 title and agrees that the win over Racing was their best achievement since then.
However, the forward stressed that "the job is only half done" and coach Gregor Townsend pointed out that, with only three pool games played, it is too early to think beyond qualifying for the last eight.
"We will have to win two out of our next three games and we have Racing, Munster and Leicester still to go, so these are very tough matches," said Townsend.
"Munster have been on fire for the last six or seven weeks. They beat Leicester easily at home.
"We are going to have to play very well just to get out of our pool and, if we did so, it would be historic."
Townsend was coy about Warriors' chances of winning the trophy.
"No Glasgow team has made it to the quarter-finals of the Champions Cup and, once you are into the last eight, anything can happen," he said.
"If you look at history, we have never got out of our pool, so let's just deal with the difficulty that is qualifying for the quarter-final stage.
"For a one-off game, that was tremendous at the weekend. We've had them before - going to Montpellier a couple of years ago, Bath at home.
"The European Champions Cup is much more difficult to get through than it used to be and we've never achieved it in the past.
"Now, with the 20 best teams in Europe, all qualifying by merit bar one team, it shows you have to play your best rugby to have a chance of getting through."