What were conscientious objectors sent to Montana to do?


About how many bison were in Montana in 1870?

Simultaneously with these conflicts, bison, a keystone species and the primary protein source that Native people had survived on for centuries were being destroyed. Some estimates say there were over 13 million bison in Montana in 1870. In 1875, General Philip Sheridan pleaded to a joint session of Congress to authorize the slaughtering of herds in order to deprive the Indians of their source of food. By 1884, commercial hunting had brought bison to the verge of extinction; only about 325 bison remained in the entire United States.


Who pleaded to Congress for slaughtering bison?


What year did General Sheridan approach Congress about killing bison?


When did the Northern Pacific Railroad reach Montana from the west?

Tracks of the Northern Pacific Railroad (NPR) reached Montana from the west in 1881 and from the east in 1882. However, the railroad played a major role in sparking tensions with Native American tribes in the 1870s. Jay Cooke, the NPR president launched major surveys into the Yellowstone valley in 1871, 1872 and 1873 which were challenged forcefully by the Sioux under chief Sitting Bull. These clashes, in part, contributed to the Panic of 1873 which delayed construction of the railroad into Montana. Surveys in 1874, 1875 and 1876 helped spark the Great Sioux War of 1876. The transcontinental NPR was completed on September 8, 1883, at Gold Creek.


When did the Northern Pacific Railroad reach Montana from the east?


What years were the railroad challenged by Chief Sitting Bull?


What year was the Great White Sioux War?


When was the transcontinental National Pacific Railroad finished?


When was the first constitutional convention held in Montana?

Under Territorial Governor Thomas Meagher, Montanans held a constitutional convention in 1866 in a failed bid for statehood. A second constitutional convention was held in Helena in 1884 that produced a constitution ratified 3:1 by Montana citizens in November 1884. For political reasons, Congress did not approve Montana statehood until 1889. Congress approved Montana statehood in February 1889 and President Grover Cleveland signed an omnibus bill granting statehood to Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota and Washington once the appropriate state constitutions were crafted. In July 1889, Montanans convened their third constitutional convention and produced a constitution acceptable by the people and the federal government. On November 8, 1889 President Benjamin Harrison proclaimed Montana the forty-first state in the union. The first state governor was Joseph K. Toole. In the 1880s, Helena (the current state capital) had more millionaires per capita than any other United States city.


Why was this constitutional convention held?


When was the second constitutional convention held?


What year was Montana's statehood approved?


What other three states were approved in the same year?


What year did the Homestead Act provide land to settlers?

The Homestead Act of 1862 provided free land to settlers who could claim and "prove-up" 160 acres (0.65 km2) of federal land in the midwest and western United States. Montana did not see a large influx of immigrants from this act because 160 acres was usually insufficient to support a family in the arid territory. The first homestead claim under the act in Montana was made by David Carpenter near Helena in 1868. The first claim by a woman was made near Warm Springs Creek by Miss Gwenllian Evans, the daughter of Deer Lodge Montana Pioneer, Morgan Evans. By 1880, there were farms in the more verdant valleys of central and western Montana, but few on the eastern plains.


How much land did the Homestead Act allow?


What year was the first homestead claim claimed?


The Desert Land Act of 1877 was passed to allow settlement of arid lands in the west and allotted 640 acres (2.6 km2) to settlers for a fee of $.25 per acre and a promise to irrigate the land. After three years, a fee of one dollar per acre would be paid and the land would be owned by the settler. This act brought mostly cattle and sheep ranchers into Montana, many of whom grazed their herds on the Montana prairie for three years, did little to irrigate the land and then abandoned it without paying the final fees. Some farmers came with the arrival of the Great Northern and Northern Pacific Railroads throughout the 1880s and 1890s, though in relatively small numbers.


How much land did the Desert Land Act allot?


How much was the charge per acre at first?


Who promoted settlement in Montana in the early 1900s

In the early 1900s, James J. Hill of the Great Northern began promoting settlement in the Montana prairie to fill his trains with settlers and goods. Other railroads followed suit. In 1902, the Reclamation Act was passed, allowing irrigation projects to be built in Montana's eastern river valleys. In 1909, Congress passed the Enlarged Homestead Act that expanded the amount of free land from 160 to 320 acres (0.6 to 1.3 km2) per family and in 1912 reduced the time to "prove up" on a claim to three years. In 1916, the Stock-Raising Homestead Act allowed homesteads of 640 acres in areas unsuitable for irrigation. This combination of advertising and changes in the Homestead Act drew tens of thousands of homesteaders, lured by free land, with World War I bringing particularly high wheat prices. In addition, Montana was going through a temporary period of higher-than-average precipitation. Homesteaders arriving in this period were known as "Honyockers", or "scissorbills." Though the word "honyocker", possibly derived from the ethnic slur "hunyak," was applied in a derisive manner at homesteaders as being "greenhorns", "new at his business" or "unprepared", the reality was that a majority of these new settlers had previous farming experience, though there were also many who did not.


In what year was the Reclamation Act passed?


What year was the Enlarged Homestead Act passed?


How much land was alloted in the new Enlarged Homestead Act?


When did Congress pass the Espionage Act?

In June 1917, the U.S. Congress passed the Espionage Act of 1917 which was later extended by the Sedition Act of 1918, enacted in May 1918. In February 1918, the Montana legislature had passed the Montana Sedition Act, which was a model for the federal version. In combination, these laws criminalized criticism of the U.S. government, military, or symbols through speech or other means. The Montana Act led to the arrest of over 200 individuals and the conviction of 78, mostly of German or Austrian descent. Over 40 spent time in prison. In May 2006, then-Governor Brian Schweitzer posthumously issued full pardons for all those convicted of violating the Montana Sedition Act.


How many people were arrested from the Montana Act?


How many of the 200 arrested in the Montana Act were convicted?


How many Montanans entered the miltary in the first year of the war?

When the U.S. entered World War II on December 8, 1941, many Montanans already had enlisted in the military to escape the poor national economy of the previous decade. Another 40,000-plus Montanans entered the armed forces in the first year following the declaration of war, and over 57,000 joined up before the war ended. These numbers constituted about 10 percent of the state's total population, and Montana again contributed one of the highest numbers of soldiers per capita of any state. Many Native Americans were among those who served, including soldiers from the Crow Nation who became Code Talkers. At least 1500 Montanans died in the war. Montana also was the training ground for the First Special Service Force or "Devil's Brigade," a joint U.S-Canadian commando-style force that trained at Fort William Henry Harrison for experience in mountainous and winter conditions before deployment. Air bases were built in Great Falls, Lewistown, Cut Bank and Glasgow, some of which were used as staging areas to prepare planes to be sent to allied forces in the Soviet Union. During the war, about 30 Japanese balloon bombs were documented to have landed in Montana, though no casualties nor major forest fires were attributed to them.


How many Montanans joined the military in the war total?


About how many Montanans died in the war?


Who trained at the military grounds in Montana?


In the judgement, it is stated that the aim of the Genocide Convention, at its most simplest, is preventing the destruction of which victims?

The phrase "in whole or in part" has been subject to much discussion by scholars of international humanitarian law. The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia found in Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Trial Chamber I – Judgment – IT-98-33 (2001) ICTY8 (2 August 2001) that Genocide had been committed. In Prosecutor v. Radislav Krstic – Appeals Chamber – Judgment – IT-98-33 (2004) ICTY 7 (19 April 2004) paragraphs 8, 9, 10, and 11 addressed the issue of in part and found that "the part must be a substantial part of that group. The aim of the Genocide Convention is to prevent the intentional destruction of entire human groups, and the part targeted must be significant enough to have an impact on the group as a whole." The Appeals Chamber goes into details of other cases and the opinions of respected commentators on the Genocide Convention to explain how they came to this conclusion.


In addressing the issue of "in part," the Appeals Chamber found that the part must be a substantial part of what?


Which phrase is especially contentious within international humanitarian law?


What 2001 case was declared genocide by the International Criminal Tribune for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY)?


Who contributed to guiding the Appeals chamber in its conclusion?


Two bodies of the United Nations agreed with what restricted provision in defining genocide?

In the same judgement the ECHR reviewed the judgements of several international and municipal courts judgements. It noted that International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and the International Court of Justice had agreed with the narrow interpretation, that biological-physical destruction was necessary for an act to qualify as genocide. The ECHR also noted that at the time of its judgement, apart from courts in Germany which had taken a broad view, that there had been few cases of genocide under other Convention States municipal laws and that "There are no reported cases in which the courts of these States have defined the type of group destruction the perpetrator must have intended in order to be found guilty of genocide".


A definition of what, by the States, was necessary to preserve and expand genocidal law?


Which country's courts were noted by the ECHR for taking a wider stance on provisions of genocide laws?


The ECHR found most states to have largely undefined definitions of group destruction, despite what factor?


In its preparations, what was the source of other considerations by the ECHR?


In 1948, what general assembly resolution established genocide as a prosecutable act?

After the Holocaust, which had been perpetrated by the Nazi Germany and its allies prior to and during World War II, Lemkin successfully campaigned for the universal acceptance of international laws defining and forbidding genocides. In 1946, the first session of the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution that "affirmed" that genocide was a crime under international law, but did not provide a legal definition of the crime. In 1948, the UN General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG) which defined the crime of genocide for the first time.


In which war-era country was the Holocaust immortalized?


Following World War II, whose bid was successful in establishing the worldwide acceptance and the nascent legal definition of genocide?


Which group convened officially for the first time in 1946?


While recognizing genocide, what did the UN General Assembly fail to do in its resolution?


Which provision was initially included in the first write-up of the Convention and then removed?

The first draft of the Convention included political killings, but these provisions were removed in a political and diplomatic compromise following objections from some countries, including the USSR, a permanent security council member. The USSR argued that the Convention's definition should follow the etymology of the term, and may have feared greater international scrutiny of its own Great Purge. Other nations feared that including political groups in the definition would invite international intervention in domestic politics. However leading genocide scholar William Schabas states: “Rigorous examination of the travaux fails to confirm a popular impression in the literature that the opposition to inclusion of political genocide was some Soviet machination. The Soviet views were also shared by a number of other States for whom it is difficult to establish any geographic or social common denominator: Lebanon, Sweden, Brazil, Peru, Venezuela, the Philippines, the Dominican Republic, Iran, Egypt, Belgium, and Uruguay. The exclusion of political groups was in fact originally promoted by a non-governmental organization, the World Jewish Congress, and it corresponded to Raphael Lemkin’s vision of the nature of the crime of genocide.”


What is one of the countries that objected to the inclusion of political killings in the early version of the Convention?


What was the primary concern of other nations who objected to including political groups in the definition of genocide?


Which distinguished academic of genocide highlighted several other countries opposed to including political genocide in the Convention?


What atrocity motivated a self-serving USSR to object to the provision of political killings drafted into the Convention?


Which group was accused by the ECHR of having an overly constricted idea of the meaning of destruction in defining genocide?

In 2007 the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), noted in its judgement on Jorgic v. Germany case that in 1992 the majority of legal scholars took the narrow view that "intent to destroy" in the CPPCG meant the intended physical-biological destruction of the protected group and that this was still the majority opinion. But the ECHR also noted that a minority took a broader view and did not consider biological-physical destruction was necessary as the intent to destroy a national, racial, religious or ethnic group was enough to qualify as genocide.


What groups did the ECHR feel should be included as potential victims of genocide?


In 2007 what former case did the European Court of Human Rights draw on to further refine qualifiers of genocide?


What form of destruction was considered too limited by a smaller group of experts?


Prior to being a formal legal term, how was the word "genocide" used in an indictment scenario?

The word genocide was later included as a descriptive term to the process of indictment, but not yet as a formal legal term According to Lemming, genocide was defined as "a coordinated strategy to destroy a group of people, a process that could be accomplished through total annihilation as well as strategies that eliminate key elements of the group's basic existence, including language, culture, and economic infrastructure.” He created a concept of mobilizing much of the international relations and community, to working together and preventing the occurrence of such events happening within history and the international society. Australian anthropologist Peg LeVine coined the term "ritualcide" to describe the destruction of a group's cultural identity without necessarily destroying its members.


Who ultimately defined genocide as a series of strategies leading up to the annihilation of an entire group?


Lemming's concept of genocide triggered legal action in which realm?


What was the nationality of anthropologist Peg LeVine?


What relative term did LeVine coin to refer to cultural destruction, without the death of its members?


What term was coined to describe the destruction of culture?


What elements of group existence, other than people themselves, can be targets of genocide?


What has been the primary focus in the study of genocide?

The study of genocide has mainly been focused towards the legal aspect of the term. By formally recognizing the act of genocide as a crime, involves the undergoing prosecution that begins with not only seeing genocide as outrageous past any moral standpoint but also may be a legal liability within international relations. When genocide is looked at in a general aspect it is viewed as the deliberate killing of a certain group. Yet is commonly seen to escape the process of trial and prosecution due to the fact that genocide is more often than not committed by the officials in power of a state or area. In 1648 before the term genocide had been coined, the Peace of Westphalia was established to protect ethnic, national, racial and in some instances religious groups. During the 19th century humanitarian intervention was needed due to the fact of conflict and justification of some of the actions executed by the military.


In prosecuting genocide, what must the act be formally acknowledged as?


In a general aspect, what is genocide viewed as?


In trials of genocidal crimes, what responsibly party is difficult to prosecute?


Long before genocide was established as a legal term, what treaty was in place to protect various groups from persecution and mass killings?


Who was the Peace of Westphalia designed to protect?


What year was the Peace of Westphalia signed?


When was the word "genocide" first used?

Genocide has become an official term used in international relations. The word genocide was not in use before 1944. Before this, in 1941, Winston Churchill described the mass killing of Russian prisoners of war and civilians as "a crime without a name". In that year, a Polish-Jewish lawyer named Raphael Lemkin, described the policies of systematic murder founded by the Nazis as genocide. The word genocide is the combination of the Greek prefix geno- (meaning tribe or race) and caedere (the Latin word for to kill). The word is defined as a specific set of violent crimes that are committed against a certain group with the attempt to remove the entire group from existence or to destroy them.


What is the etymology of the term "genocide"?


Who referred to acts of genocide in 1941?


The word "genocide" was unknown until what year?


In 1941, how did Winston Churchill refer to the mass killings of Russian prisoners of war?


What was the name of the Polish-Jewish lawyer who first described Nazi atrocities as "genocide?"


What is the etymological basis of the word "genocide?"


As it pertains to violent crimes against targeted groups, what is the ultimate motivation within the actions of genocide?


Several considerations were involved in meeting the requirement to determine what?

The judges continue in paragraph 12, "The determination of when the targeted part is substantial enough to meet this requirement may involve a number of considerations. The numeric size of the targeted part of the group is the necessary and important starting point, though not in all cases the ending point of the inquiry. The number of individuals targeted should be evaluated not only in absolute terms, but also in relation to the overall size of the entire group. In addition to the numeric size of the targeted portion, its prominence within the group can be a useful consideration. If a specific part of the group is emblematic of the overall group, or is essential to its survival, that may support a finding that the part qualifies as substantial within the meaning of Article 4 [of the Tribunal's Statute]."


What is the key aspect of the targeted part of the group at the starting point of the inquiry?


The number of people targeted in a genocide should not be solely evaluated by what?


In addition to the numeric size of a targeted group, what other consideration was useful to the ICTY?


The issue of what is raised by judges in Paragraph 13?

In paragraph 13 the judges raise the issue of the perpetrators' access to the victims: "The historical examples of genocide also suggest that the area of the perpetrators’ activity and control, as well as the possible extent of their reach, should be considered. ... The intent to destroy formed by a perpetrator of genocide will always be limited by the opportunity presented to him. While this factor alone will not indicate whether the targeted group is substantial, it can—in combination with other factors—inform the analysis."


What is the basis for suggesting that several factors regarding the activity of the perpetrators be considered?


The extent of what by the perpetrators was considered in an examination of their activity and level of control?


What will always be restricted in terms of a perpetrator's intent to destroy?


While the factor cannot independently indicate if the targeted group is substantial, it can do what?


On which date did the Genocide Convention become effective?

The Convention came into force as international law on 12 January 1951 after the minimum 20 countries became parties. At that time however, only two of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council were parties to the treaty: France and the Republic of China. The Soviet Union ratified in 1954, the United Kingdom in 1970, the People's Republic of China in 1983 (having replaced the Taiwan-based Republic of China on the UNSC in 1971), and the United States in 1988. This long delay in support for the Convention by the world's most powerful nations caused the Convention to languish for over four decades. Only in the 1990s did the international law on the crime of genocide begin to be enforced.


What was the minimum number of countries necessary to form parties?


Of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council, how many were parties to the treaty?


The delay in support by certain powerful members meant the Convention was largely powerless for over how many decades?


In 1998 it was written that the CPPCG was a legal entity resulting in which type of compromise?

Writing in 1998 Kurt Jonassohn and Karin Björnson stated that the CPPCG was a legal instrument resulting from a diplomatic compromise. As such the wording of the treaty is not intended to be a definition suitable as a research tool, and although it is used for this purpose, as it has an international legal credibility that others lack, other definitions have also been postulated. Jonassohn and Björnson go on to say that none of these alternative definitions have gained widespread support for various reasons.


Rather than a definition, the text of the treaty is considered as what type of tool?


What does the treaty possess that others lack?


The writers Jonassohn and Bjornson cite various reasons for the lack of widespread support of what?


What two writers examined the lack of an accepted and singular definition for genocide?

Jonassohn and Björnson postulate that the major reason why no single generally accepted genocide definition has emerged is because academics have adjusted their focus to emphasise different periods and have found it expedient to use slightly different definitions to help them interpret events. For example, Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn studied the whole of human history, while Leo Kuper and R. J. Rummel in their more recent works concentrated on the 20th century, and Helen Fein, Barbara Harff and Ted Gurr have looked at post World War II events. Jonassohn and Björnson are critical of some of these studies, arguing that they are too expansive, and conclude that the academic discipline of genocide studies is too young to have a canon of work on which to build an academic paradigm.


The two writers suggested that academics adjusted what in their different definitions to assist them in interpreting events?


What writer joined Jonassohn in the study of the whole of human history?


With whom was Leo Kuper paired in research that focused on 20th century works?


Two women and what man concentrated on post World War II events?


Some historians were critical of what exclusion in the definition of victims of genocide?

The exclusion of social and political groups as targets of genocide in the CPPCG legal definition has been criticized by some historians and sociologists, for example M. Hassan Kakar in his book The Soviet Invasion and the Afghan Response, 1979–1982 argues that the international definition of genocide is too restricted, and that it should include political groups or any group so defined by the perpetrator and quotes Chalk and Jonassohn: "Genocide is a form of one-sided mass killing in which a state or other authority intends to destroy a group, as that group and membership in it are defined by the perpetrator." While there are various definitions of the term, Adam Jones states that the majority of genocide scholars consider that "intent to destroy" is a requirement for any act to be labelled genocide, and that there is growing agreement on the inclusion of the physical destruction criterion.


In what book did Kakar contend that the international definition of genocide was too narrow?


Kakar argued that the definition should include any group defined by the perpetrator and which other group?


In the writing of Chalk and Jonassohn, what is stated to be a form of one-sided mass killing?


In further elaborating on the definition, how did Chalk and Jonassohn phrase the intention of the perpetrator?


Harff and Gurr's definition of genocide included the promotion and execution of what, by a state or its agents?

Barbara Harff and Ted Gurr defined genocide as "the promotion and execution of policies by a state or its agents which result in the deaths of a substantial portion of a group ...[when] the victimized groups are defined primarily in terms of their communal characteristics, i.e., ethnicity, religion or nationality." Harff and Gurr also differentiate between genocides and politicides by the characteristics by which members of a group are identified by the state. In genocides, the victimized groups are defined primarily in terms of their communal characteristics, i.e., ethnicity, religion or nationality. In politicides the victim groups are defined primarily in terms of their hierarchical position or political opposition to the regime and dominant groups. Daniel D. Polsby and Don B. Kates, Jr. state that "... we follow Harff's distinction between genocides and 'pogroms,' which she describes as 'short-lived outbursts by mobs, which, although often condoned by authorities, rarely persist.' If the violence persists for long enough, however, Harff argues, the distinction between condonation and complicity collapses."


Harff and Gurr further defined what in terms of ethnicity, religion or nationality?


What was important to Harff and Gurr to distinguish from genocides?


Along with ethnicity and and religion, what other characteristic defined a member of a victimized group?


What did Harff define as "short-lived outbursts by mobs...?"


In the writings of Rummel, what is the first and ordinary meaning of genocide?

According to R. J. Rummel, genocide has 3 different meanings. The ordinary meaning is murder by government of people due to their national, ethnic, racial, or religious group membership. The legal meaning of genocide refers to the international treaty, the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. This also includes non-killings that in the end eliminate the group, such as preventing births or forcibly transferring children out of the group to another group. A generalized meaning of genocide is similar to the ordinary meaning but also includes government killings of political opponents or otherwise intentional murder. It is to avoid confusion regarding what meaning is intended that Rummel created the term democide for the third meaning.


Rummel postulates that murder of people of government is due to national, ethnic, racial and which other membership?


The legal meaning of genocide is contained in which international treaty?


Included in the CPPCG is non-killings that ultimately achieve what end?


In the interpretation of non-killings, the CPPCG cites the forceful relocation of children along with what other factor?


In terms of failed states and non-state actors, the possession of weapons of mass destruction was an issue examined by which writer?

Highlighting the potential for state and non-state actors to commit genocide in the 21st century, for example, in failed states or as non-state actors acquire weapons of mass destruction, Adrian Gallagher defined genocide as 'When a source of collective power (usually a state) intentionally uses its power base to implement a process of destruction in order to destroy a group (as defined by the perpetrator), in whole or in substantial part, dependent upon relative group size'. The definition upholds the centrality of intent, the multidimensional understanding of destroy, broadens the definition of group identity beyond that of the 1948 definition yet argues that a substantial part of a group has to be destroyed before it can be classified as genocide (dependent on relative group size).


In Gallagher's definition of genocide, a source of what is malicious in it implementation of the destruction of a group?


Gallagher's definition upholds the centrality of what?


The centrality of intent broadens what definition, beyond the 1948 one?


In order for a genocide classification to happen, a major part of a group has to be what?


Signatories to the CPPC are required to prevent and punish what?

All signatories to the CPPCG are required to prevent and punish acts of genocide, both in peace and wartime, though some barriers make this enforcement difficult. In particular, some of the signatories—namely, Bahrain, Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, the United States, Vietnam, Yemen, and former Yugoslavia—signed with the proviso that no claim of genocide could be brought against them at the International Court of Justice without their consent. Despite official protests from other signatories (notably Cyprus and Norway) on the ethics and legal standing of these reservations, the immunity from prosecution they grant has been invoked from time to time, as when the United States refused to allow a charge of genocide brought against it by former Yugoslavia following the 1999 Kosovo War.


During which times can a perpetrator of genocide be charged?


In enforcing a charge of genocide, what loophole do many of the signatories possess?


What major western power is exempt from charges or claims of genocide against itself?


Along with Cyprus, what other major signatory official protested the the immunity of others from prosecution of genocide?


In 1948 the worldwide acceptance of international laws that defined and forbade genocide was promulgated by which treaty?

Because the universal acceptance of international laws which in 1948 defined and forbade genocide with the promulgation of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG), those criminals who were prosecuted after the war in international courts for taking part in the Holocaust were found guilty of crimes against humanity and other more specific crimes like murder. Nevertheless, the Holocaust is universally recognized to have been a genocide and the term, that had been coined the year before by Raphael Lemkin, appeared in the indictment of the 24 Nazi leaders, Count 3, which stated that all the defendants had "conducted deliberate and systematic genocide—namely, the extermination of racial and national groups..."


Perpetrators who were tried after World War II were in general found guilty of crimes against what?


An example of a more specific genocidal crime of which one could be accused was what?


After WWII criminals were largely prosecuted under CPPCG for their involvement in what massive genocidal effort?


Who is notable for coining the term "Holocaust?"


Which court dismissed Nikola Jorgic's appeal against his conviction for genocide by a German court?

On 12 July 2007, European Court of Human Rights when dismissing the appeal by Nikola Jorgić against his conviction for genocide by a German court (Jorgic v. Germany) noted that the German courts wider interpretation of genocide has since been rejected by international courts considering similar cases. The ECHR also noted that in the 21st century "Amongst scholars, the majority have taken the view that ethnic cleansing, in the way in which it was carried out by the Serb forces in Bosnia and Herzegovina in order to expel Muslims and Croats from their homes, did not constitute genocide. However, there are also a considerable number of scholars who have suggested that these acts did amount to genocide, and the ICTY has found in the Momcilo Krajisnik case that the actus reu, of genocide was met in Prijedor "With regard to the charge of genocide, the Chamber found that in spite of evidence of acts perpetrated in the municipalities which constituted the actus reus of genocide".


In Jorgic v. Germany, what about the German courts was later rejected by international courts hearing similar cases?


The ECHR noted that among certain academics, what act carried out by the Serbs agains Bosnian Muslims and Croats did not constitute genocide?


The ethnic cleansing perpetrated by the Serbs against Bosnia-Herzegovina was conducted with what ultimate goal in mind?


Conversely the scholars who did view the Serbs' acts as constituting genocide, were backed up by what Tribunal?


In the 1990s, how many people were indicted for war crimes that were officially defined as genocide?

About 30 people have been indicted for participating in genocide or complicity in genocide during the early 1990s in Bosnia. To date, after several plea bargains and some convictions that were successfully challenged on appeal two men, Vujadin Popović and Ljubiša Beara, have been found guilty of committing genocide, Zdravko Tolimir has been found guilty of committing genocide and conspiracy to commit genocide, and two others, Radislav Krstić and Drago Nikolić, have been found guilty of aiding and abetting genocide. Three others have been found guilty of participating in genocides in Bosnia by German courts, one of whom Nikola Jorgić lost an appeal against his conviction in the European Court of Human Rights. A further eight men, former members of the Bosnian Serb security forces were found guilty of genocide by the State Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina (See List of Bosnian genocide prosecutions).


Convicted perpetrators Popovic and Beara were found guilty of genocide despite what evasive action?


Tolimir was found guilty of both genocide and what other charge?


Another charge beyond the act of genocide and for which Krstic and Nikolic were found guilty was what?


Three others were charged with participating in genocides in Bosnia by which country's courts?


What event occurred in March 2006 that essentially ended Milosevic's trial?

Slobodan Milošević, as the former President of Serbia and of Yugoslavia, was the most senior political figure to stand trial at the ICTY. He died on 11 March 2006 during his trial where he was accused of genocide or complicity in genocide in territories within Bosnia and Herzegovina, so no verdict was returned. In 1995, the ICTY issued a warrant for the arrest of Bosnian Serbs Radovan Karadžić and Ratko Mladić on several charges including genocide. On 21 July 2008, Karadžić was arrested in Belgrade, and he is currently in The Hague on trial accused of genocide among other crimes. Ratko Mladić was arrested on 26 May 2011 by Serbian special police in Lazarevo, Serbia. Karadzic was convicted of ten of the eleven charges laid against him and sentenced to 40 years in prison on March 24 2016.


Where was Karadzic when he was finally arrested?


With Milosevic dead, who did the ICTY next charge with crimes of genocide in 1995?


Had Milosevic not died, what charges might he have been convicted of?


Which former president was by far the most senior politician to be accused of genocidal crimes by the ICTY?


What court was established under the aegis of the United Nations to prosecute genocidal crimes in Rwanda?

The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) is a court under the auspices of the United Nations for the prosecution of offenses committed in Rwanda during the genocide which occurred there during April 1994, commencing on 6 April. The ICTR was created on 8 November 1994 by the Security Council of the United Nations in order to judge those people responsible for the acts of genocide and other serious violations of the international law performed in the territory of Rwanda, or by Rwandan citizens in nearby states, between 1 January and 31 December 1994.


The prosecutorial efforts of the ICTR focused on genocidal acts that took place during which time period?


the ICTR was created in November 1995 by which branch of the UN?


The ICTR was established for the purpose of convicting those responsible for acts of genocide and what other charges?


The charges of genocide brought up by the ICTR were against what group of people?


What has been widely debated as a possible act of genocide in Sudan?

There has been much debate over categorizing the situation in Darfur as genocide. The ongoing conflict in Darfur, Sudan, which started in 2003, was declared a "genocide" by United States Secretary of State Colin Powell on 9 September 2004 in testimony before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. Since that time however, no other permanent member of the UN Security Council followed suit. In fact, in January 2005, an International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur, authorized by UN Security Council Resolution 1564 of 2004, issued a report to the Secretary-General stating that "the Government of the Sudan has not pursued a policy of genocide." Nevertheless, the Commission cautioned that "The conclusion that no genocidal policy has been pursued and implemented in Darfur by the Government authorities, directly or through the militias under their control, should not be taken in any way as detracting from the gravity of the crimes perpetrated in that region. International offences such as the crimes against humanity and war crimes that have been committed in Darfur may be no less serious and heinous than genocide."


In 2003 what well known U.S. Secretary of State declared the situation in Darfur as an act of genocide?


In front of which committee did Powell testify?


What did UN Security Council Resolution 1564 authorize in 2004?


Despite some concessions, what act did the Commission ultimately state that Sudan had not pursued?


To whom did the Security Council officially refer the situation in Darfur?

In March 2005, the Security Council formally referred the situation in Darfur to the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, taking into account the Commission report but without mentioning any specific crimes. Two permanent members of the Security Council, the United States and China, abstained from the vote on the referral resolution. As of his fourth report to the Security Council, the Prosecutor has found "reasonable grounds to believe that the individuals identified [in the UN Security Council Resolution 1593] have committed crimes against humanity and war crimes," but did not find sufficient evidence to prosecute for genocide.


What was taken into account, without mentioning specific crimes?


China and what other permanent member of the Security Council abstained from the vote on the referral resolution?


In which number report to the Council did the Prosecutor concede that crimes had been committed but evidence for prosecution was insufficient?


In the build-up to genocide, what have other authors focused on?

Other authors have focused on the structural conditions leading up to genocide and the psychological and social processes that create an evolution toward genocide. Ervin Staub showed that economic deterioration and political confusion and disorganization were starting points of increasing discrimination and violence in many instances of genocides and mass killing. They lead to scapegoating a group and ideologies that identified that group as an enemy. A history of devaluation of the group that becomes the victim, past violence against the group that becomes the perpetrator leading to psychological wounds, authoritarian cultures and political systems, and the passivity of internal and external witnesses (bystanders) all contribute to the probability that the violence develops into genocide. Intense conflict between groups that is unresolved, becomes intractable and violent can also lead to genocide. The conditions that lead to genocide provide guidance to early prevention, such as humanizing a devalued group, creating ideologies that embrace all groups, and activating bystander responses. There is substantial research to indicate how this can be done, but information is only slowly transformed into action.


What processes are thought to create an evolution toward genocide?


Who revealed the starting points of this evolution to be economic deterioration and political confusion?


A history of what is just one factor that contributes to the probability of violence developing into genocide?


What is one preventive effort in circumventing conditions that lead to genocide?


What is a modern common occurence with antibiotics?

The emergence of resistance of bacteria to antibiotics is a common phenomenon. Emergence of resistance often reflects evolutionary processes that take place during antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic treatment may select for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to survive high doses of antibiotics. Under certain conditions, it may result in preferential growth of resistant bacteria, while growth of susceptible bacteria is inhibited by the drug. For example, antibacterial selection for strains having previously acquired antibacterial-resistance genes was demonstrated in 1943 by the Luria–Delbrück experiment. Antibiotics such as penicillin and erythromycin, which used to have a high efficacy against many bacterial species and strains, have become less effective, due to the increased resistance of many bacterial strains.


What is resistance to antibiotics a cause of?


Which two antibiotics that have high efficacy are much less useful now?


What does emergence of resistance reflect?


What is the purpose of antibiotic treatment?


When was antibacterial-resistance demonstrated?


What does the potency of antibacterials depend upon?

The successful outcome of antimicrobial therapy with antibacterial compounds depends on several factors. These include host defense mechanisms, the location of infection, and the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the antibacterial. A bactericidal activity of antibacterials may depend on the bacterial growth phase, and it often requires ongoing metabolic activity and division of bacterial cells. These findings are based on laboratory studies, and in clinical settings have also been shown to eliminate bacterial infection. Since the activity of antibacterials depends frequently on its concentration, in vitro characterization of antibacterial activity commonly includes the determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration of an antibacterial. To predict clinical outcome, the antimicrobial activity of an antibacterial is usually combined with its pharmacokinetic profile, and several pharmacological parameters are used as markers of drug efficacy.


What does the bactericidal activitty of antibacterials depend on what?


What besides ongoing metabolic activity is required in bactericidal activity?


What does the activity of antibacterials depends on?


What does a successful treatment using antibiotics entail?


Antibacterial antibiotics are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity. Most target bacterial functions or growth processes. Those that target the bacterial cell wall (penicillins and cephalosporins) or the cell membrane (polymyxins), or interfere with essential bacterial enzymes (rifamycins, lipiarmycins, quinolones, and sulfonamides) have bactericidal activities. Those that target protein synthesis (macrolides, lincosamides and tetracyclines) are usually bacteriostatic (with the exception of bactericidal aminoglycosides). Further categorization is based on their target specificity. "Narrow-spectrum" antibacterial antibiotics target specific types of bacteria, such as Gram-negative or Gram-positive bacteria, whereas broad-spectrum antibiotics affect a wide range of bacteria. Following a 40-year hiatus in discovering new classes of antibacterial compounds, four new classes of antibacterial antibiotics have been brought into clinical use in the late 2000s and early 2010s: cyclic lipopeptides (such as daptomycin), glycylcyclines (such as tigecycline), oxazolidinones (such as linezolid), and lipiarmycins (such as fidaxomicin).


Which two types of antibiotics target the cell wall?


Which type of antibiotic goes after the cell membrane?


What 3 types go after protein synthesis?


Besides sprectrum of activity and chemical structure, how can antibacterial antibiotics classified?


What is another name used for bacterial cell wall?


How many new classes of antibacterial antibiotics was introduced in the late 2000's/


What three ways are antibiotics classified?


With advances in medicinal chemistry, most modern antibacterials are semisynthetic modifications of various natural compounds. These include, for example, the beta-lactam antibiotics, which include the penicillins (produced by fungi in the genus Penicillium), the cephalosporins, and the carbapenems. Compounds that are still isolated from living organisms are the aminoglycosides, whereas other antibacterials—for example, the sulfonamides, the quinolones, and the oxazolidinones—are produced solely by chemical synthesis. Many antibacterial compounds are relatively small molecules with a molecular weight of less than 2000 atomic mass units.[citation needed]


What type of antibiotics include penicilin?


What are the type of antibiotics which are taken from still living things?


How are the slufonamides,quinolones, and oxazolidinones created?


Besides semisytetic modifications, what advances in medicinal chemistry regarding antibacterials?


What is the molecular weight loss of antibacterial compounds?


What is included in the beta-lactam antibiotics?


What is one disease that has been nearly eradicated thanks to vaccines and antibiotics?

Antibiotics revolutionized medicine in the 20th century, and have together with vaccination led to the near eradication of diseases such as tuberculosis in the developed world. Their effectiveness and easy access led to overuse, especially in livestock raising, prompting bacteria to develop resistance. This has led to widespread problems with antimicrobial and antibiotic resistance, so much as to prompt the World Health Organization to classify antimicrobial resistance as a "serious threat [that] is no longer a prediction for the future, it is happening right now in every region of the world and has the potential to affect anyone, of any age, in any country".


What is one issue that can arise from overuse of antibiotics?


What organization called antimicrobial resistance a 'serious threat?'


In which century were antibiotics first introduced?


What can be affected by issues resulting from overuse of antibiotics?


What does there medicines do for livestock?


What organization classifies this as a current serious threat in the whole world??


In what century did antibiotics revolutionized medicine?


Besides antimicrobial, what did the overused medicine cause?


What other medicine worked along antibiotics to eradicate diseases like tuberculosis?


When did antibiotics revolutinzed medicine?


What happened when antibiotics was over used in livestock?


What organization stated that the world has this serious problem?


What regions in the world does this apply in?


What is a common problem in antibiotic use?


Who else uses antibiotics besides the medical industry?


What disease did antibiotics help eliminate?


What is one kind of therapy that may be used when a patience has an infection, but it has not been identified?

In empirical therapy, a patient has proven or suspected infection, but the responsible microorganism is not yet unidentified. While the microorgainsim is being identified the doctor will usually administer the best choice of antibiotic that will be most active against the likely cause of infection usually a broad spectrum antibiotic. Empirical therapy is usually initiated before the doctor knows the exact identification of microorgansim causing the infection as the identification process make take several days in the laboratory.


Where do doctors perform microorganism identification testing?


What kinds of antibiotics are most commonly used for empirical therapy?


At what stage does a doctor begin empirical therapy?


How long does the identification process take?


What happens when a doctor doesn't know the microorganism yet?


What are two examples of minor side effects caused by some antibiotics?

Antibiotics are screened for any negative effects on humans or other mammals before approval for clinical use, and are usually considered safe and most are well tolerated. However, some antibiotics have been associated with a range of adverse side effects. Side-effects range from mild to very serious depending on the antibiotics used, the microbial organisms targeted, and the individual patient. Side effects may reflect the pharmacological or toxicological properties of the antibiotic or may involve hypersensitivity reactions or anaphylaxis. Safety profiles of newer drugs are often not as well established as for those that have a long history of use. Adverse effects range from fever and nausea to major allergic reactions, including photodermatitis and anaphylaxis. Common side-effects include diarrhea, resulting from disruption of the species composition in the intestinal flora, resulting, for example, in overgrowth of pathogenic bacteria, such as Clostridium difficile. Antibacterials can also affect the vaginal flora, and may lead to overgrowth of yeast species of the genus Candida in the vulvo-vaginal area. Additional side-effects can result from interaction with other drugs, such as elevated risk of tendon damage from administration of a quinolone antibiotic with a systemic corticosteroid. Some scientists have hypothesized that the indiscriminate use of antibiotics alter the host microbiota and this has been associated with chronic disease.


What negative effects can antibiotics have on the vaginal area?


What is one example of antibiotics that may have a possible side effect of tendon damage?


What is one possible serious side effect of over-using antibiotics?


What are antibiotics screened for on mammals and humans?


What besides the individual patient is targeted when antibiotics is being used?


Photodermatitis, nausea, allergic reactions and anaphylaxis are all what type of side effect?


What was altered during the hypothesis of indiscriminate use of antibiotics?


What can happen when antibiotics are used with other drugs?


What is one common result of using antibiotics from a young age?

Exposure to antibiotics early in life is associated with increased body mass in humans and mouse models. Early life is a critical period for the establishment of the intestinal microbiota and for metabolic development. Mice exposed to subtherapeutic antibiotic treatment (STAT)– with either penicillin, vancomycin, penicillin and vancomycin, or chlortetracycline had altered composition of the gut microbiota as well as its metabolic capabilities. Moreover, research have shown that mice given low-dose penicillin (1 μg/g body weight) around birth and throughout the weaning process had an increased body mass and fat mass, accelerated growth, and increased hepatic expression of genes involved in adipogenesis, compared to controlled mice. In addition, penicillin in combination with a high-fat diet increased fasting insulin levels in mice. However, it is unclear whether or not antibiotics cause obesity in humans. Studies have found a correlation between early exposure of antibiotics (<6 months) and increased body mass (at 10 and 20 months). Another study found that the type of antibiotic exposure was also significant with the highest risk of being overweight in those given macrolides compared to penicillin and cephalosporin. Therefore, there is correlation between antibiotic exposure in early life and obesity in humans, but whether or not there is a causal relationship remains unclear. Although there is a correlation between antibiotic use in early life and obesity, the effect of antibiotics on obesity in humans needs to be weighed against the beneficial effects of clinically indicated treatment with antibiotics in infancy.


What are some antibiotics can be used for STAT?


Why do physicians use antibiotics on infants when the relationship has been proven?


What can happen if people are exposed to antibiotics at a young age?


Do antibiotics increase the chance of getting fat for humans?


Do antibiotics interact with birth control pills?

The majority of studies indicate antibiotics do interfere with contraceptive pills, such as clinical studies that suggest the failure rate of contraceptive pills caused by antibiotics is very low (about 1%). In cases where antibacterials have been suggested to affect the efficiency of birth control pills, such as for the broad-spectrum antibacterial rifampicin, these cases may be due to an increase in the activities of hepatic liver enzymes' causing increased breakdown of the pill's active ingredients. Effects on the intestinal flora, which might result in reduced absorption of estrogens in the colon, have also been suggested, but such suggestions have been inconclusive and controversial. Clinicians have recommended that extra contraceptive measures be applied during therapies using antibacterials that are suspected to interact with oral contraceptives.


What percentage of birth control pill failure is attributed to antibiotics?


What are the potential effects on intestinal flora?


Have these potential effects been proven through testing?


What do physicians recommend to counteract this potential issue?


What percent is the failure rate of contraceptive pills?


In therapy, what does the antibacterial interact with?


Do antibiotics mess with birth control pills?


What should women do if they are using antibiotics and birth control pills?


What is birth control failure rate due to antibiotics?


What is one potential issue with drinking alcohol while taking antibiotics?

Interactions between alcohol and certain antibiotics may occur and may cause side-effects and decreased effectiveness of antibiotic therapy. While moderate alcohol consumption is unlikely to interfere with many common antibiotics, there are specific types of antibiotics with which alcohol consumption may cause serious side-effects. Therefore, potential risks of side-effects and effectiveness depend on the type of antibiotic administered. Despite the lack of a categorical counterindication, the belief that alcohol and antibiotics should never be mixed is widespread.


Do all antibiotics interact dangerously with alcohol?


Is it OK to drink alcohol while taking any antibiotic?


How common is the belief that alcohol and antibiotics should never be mixed?


What can alcohol and certain antibiotics cause?


What is unlikely to interfere with with many common antibiotics?


What belief should bever be mixed widespread?


What common drug can reduce antibiotic effectiveness?


What type of antibiotic is most likely to be a problem with alcohol?


Should alcohol be used while on antibiotics?


What is part of hje the make up of bacterial strains?

Several molecular mechanisms of antibacterial resistance exist. Intrinsic antibacterial resistance may be part of the genetic makeup of bacterial strains. For example, an antibiotic target may be absent from the bacterial genome. Acquired resistance results from a mutation in the bacterial chromosome or the acquisition of extra-chromosomal DNA. Antibacterial-producing bacteria have evolved resistance mechanisms that have been shown to be similar to, and may have been transferred to, antibacterial-resistant strains. The spread of antibacterial resistance often occurs through vertical transmission of mutations during growth and by genetic recombination of DNA by horizontal genetic exchange. For instance, antibacterial resistance genes can be exchanged between different bacterial strains or species via plasmids that carry these resistance genes. Plasmids that carry several different resistance genes can confer resistance to multiple antibacterials. Cross-resistance to several antibacterials may also occur when a resistance mechanism encoded by a single gene conveys resistance to more than one antibacterial compound.


What is exchanged between between bacterial strains or species via plasmids that have this resistance?


What can be absent from the bacterial genome?


When does the spread of antibacterial resistance frequently occurs/


What method of spread can occur in antibacterial resistance?


What are strains that are resistant to antibiotics called sometimes?

Antibacterial-resistant strains and species, sometimes referred to as "superbugs", now contribute to the emergence of diseases that were for a while well controlled. For example, emergent bacterial strains causing tuberculosis (TB) that are resistant to previously effective antibacterial treatments pose many therapeutic challenges. Every year, nearly half a million new cases of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) are estimated to occur worldwide. For example, NDM-1 is a newly identified enzyme conveying bacterial resistance to a broad range of beta-lactam antibacterials. The United Kingdom's Health Protection Agency has stated that "most isolates with NDM-1 enzyme are resistant to all standard intravenous antibiotics for treatment of severe infections."


What was a once almost controlled disease that is coming back do to resistance?


How many new infections of resistant TB are reported per year?


What is the acronym used to describe resistant TB?


What are the two biggest reasons for resistance?

Inappropriate antibiotic treatment and overuse of antibiotics have contributed to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Self prescription of antibiotics is an example of misuse. Many antibiotics are frequently prescribed to treat symptoms or diseases that do not respond to antibiotics or that are likely to resolve without treatment. Also, incorrect or suboptimal antibiotics are prescribed for certain bacterial infections. The overuse of antibiotics, like penicillin and erythromycin, has been associated with emerging antibiotic resistance since the 1950s. Widespread usage of antibiotics in hospitals has also been associated with increases in bacterial strains and species that no longer respond to treatment with the most common antibiotics.


What is an example of bad treatment causing resistance?


What is a way of improperly using antibiotics for those traveling?

Common forms of antibiotic misuse include excessive use of prophylactic antibiotics in travelers and failure of medical professionals to prescribe the correct dosage of antibiotics on the basis of the patient's weight and history of prior use. Other forms of misuse include failure to take the entire prescribed course of the antibiotic, incorrect dosage and administration, or failure to rest for sufficient recovery. Inappropriate antibiotic treatment, for example, is their prescription to treat viral infections such as the common cold. One study on respiratory tract infections found "physicians were more likely to prescribe antibiotics to patients who appeared to expect them". Multifactorial interventions aimed at both physicians and patients can reduce inappropriate prescription of antibiotics.


What can happen if a doctor doesn't prescribe to a person's weight and prior use?


What are 3 other common forms of bad antibiotic practices?


What happens when a cold is treated with antibiotics?


What do doctors usually do when a patient seems to want antibiotics even though they may not be right?


What is the name of a US government agency tasked with trying to stop improper use of antibiotics?

Several organizations concerned with antimicrobial resistance are lobbying to eliminate the unnecessary use of antibiotics. The issues of misuse and overuse of antibiotics have been addressed by the formation of the US Interagency Task Force on Antimicrobial Resistance. This task force aims to actively address antimicrobial resistance, and is coordinated by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and the National Institutes of Health (NIH), as well as other US agencies. An NGO campaign group is Keep Antibiotics Working. In France, an "Antibiotics are not automatic" government campaign started in 2002 and led to a marked reduction of unnecessary antibiotic prescriptions, especially in children.


When did the French start going after overuse of antibiotics?


When did the EU ban antibiotics for speeding up growth?

The emergence of antibiotic resistance has prompted restrictions on their use in the UK in 1970 (Swann report 1969), and the EU has banned the use of antibiotics as growth-promotional agents since 2003. Moreover, several organizations (e.g., The American Society for Microbiology (ASM), American Public Health Association (APHA) and the American Medical Association (AMA)) have called for restrictions on antibiotic use in food animal production and an end to all nontherapeutic uses.[citation needed] However, commonly there are delays in regulatory and legislative actions to limit the use of antibiotics, attributable partly to resistance against such regulation by industries using or selling antibiotics, and to the time required for research to test causal links between their use and resistance to them. Two federal bills (S.742 and H.R. 2562) aimed at phasing out nontherapeutic use of antibiotics in US food animals were proposed, but have not passed. These bills were endorsed by public health and medical organizations, including the American Holistic Nurses' Association, the American Medical Association, and the American Public Health Association (APHA).


What report caused the UK to worry about resistance?


What 3 US organizations have called for the banning of antibiotics in the production of food animals?


Name two US bills that want to ban antibiotics in food production?


What 3 medical associations supported the bills?


What besides sick people are antibiotics used for?

There has been extensive use of antibiotics in animal husbandry. In the United States, the question of emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains due to use of antibiotics in livestock was raised by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1977. In March 2012, the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, ruling in an action brought by the Natural Resources Defense Council and others, ordered the FDA to revoke approvals for the use of antibiotics in livestock, which violated FDA regulations.


When was resistance first discussed as a problem in the raising of farm animals?


When did a district court order the FDA to stop approving antibiotics in animals?


What methods did people use before antibiotics to treat infections?

Before the early 20th century, treatments for infections were based primarily on medicinal folklore. Mixtures with antimicrobial properties that were used in treatments of infections were described over 2000 years ago. Many ancient cultures, including the ancient Egyptians and ancient Greeks, used specially selected mold and plant materials and extracts to treat infections. More recent observations made in the laboratory of antibiosis between microorganisms led to the discovery of natural antibacterials produced by microorganisms. Louis Pasteur observed, "if we could intervene in the antagonism observed between some bacteria, it would offer perhaps the greatest hopes for therapeutics". The term 'antibiosis', meaning "against life", was introduced by the French bacteriologist Jean Paul Vuillemin as a descriptive name of the phenomenon exhibited by these early antibacterial drugs. Antibiosis was first described in 1877 in bacteria when Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch observed that an airborne bacillus could inhibit the growth of Bacillus anthracis. These drugs were later renamed antibiotics by Selman Waksman, an American microbiologist, in 1942. Synthetic antibiotic chemotherapy as a science and development of antibacterials began in Germany with Paul Ehrlich in the late 1880s. Ehrlich noted certain dyes would color human, animal, or bacterial cells, whereas others did not. He then proposed the idea that it might be possible to create chemicals that would act as a selective drug that would bind to and kill bacteria without harming the human host. After screening hundreds of dyes against various organisms, in 1907, he discovered a medicinally useful drug, the synthetic antibacterial salvarsan now called arsphenamine.


When were some kinds of antimicrobials first used?


What type of things did Egyptians and Greeks use?


What type of organism has been reported to have worked on infections?

The effects of some types of mold on infection had been noticed many times over the course of history (see: History of penicillin). In 1928, Alexander Fleming noticed the same effect in a Petri dish, where a number of disease-causing bacteria were killed by a fungus of the genus Penicillium. Fleming postulated that the effect is mediated by an antibacterial compound he named penicillin, and that its antibacterial properties could be exploited for chemotherapy. He initially characterized some of its biological properties, and attempted to use a crude preparation to treat some infections, but he was unable to pursue its further development without the aid of trained chemists.


Who noticed in a lab the antibacterial characteristics of mold?


What mold did Fleming notice had antibacterial properties?


What did Fleming initially think a good use would be for it?


What was the first available antibiotic?

The first sulfonamide and first commercially available antibacterial, Prontosil, was developed by a research team led by Gerhard Domagk in 1932 at the Bayer Laboratories of the IG Farben conglomerate in Germany. Domagk received the 1939 Nobel Prize for Medicine for his efforts. Prontosil had a relatively broad effect against Gram-positive cocci, but not against enterobacteria. Research was stimulated apace by its success. The discovery and development of this sulfonamide drug opened the era of antibacterials.


Who led the team that came up with Prontosil?


What was the first antibiotic developed from nature?

In 1939, coinciding with the start of World War II, Rene Dubos reported the discovery of the first naturally derived antibiotic, tyrothricin, a compound of 20% gramicidin and 80% tyrocidine, from B. brevis. It was one of the first commercially manufactured antibiotics universally and was very effective in treating wounds and ulcers during World War II. Gramicidin, however, could not be used systemically because of toxicity. Tyrocidine also proved too toxic for systemic usage. Research results obtained during that period were not shared between the Axis and the Allied powers during the war.


What also happened in 1939 besides tyrothricin?


What was tyrothricin used for during the war?


Florey and Chain succeeded in purifying the first penicillin, penicillin G, in 1942, but it did not become widely available outside the Allied military before 1945. Later, Norman Heatley developed the back extraction technique for efficiently purifying penicillin in bulk. The chemical structure of penicillin was determined by Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin in 1945. Purified penicillin displayed potent antibacterial activity against a wide range of bacteria and had low toxicity in humans. Furthermore, its activity was not inhibited by biological constituents such as pus, unlike the synthetic sulfonamides. The discovery of such a powerful antibiotic was unprecedented, and the development of penicillin led to renewed interest in the search for antibiotic compounds with similar efficacy and safety. For their successful development of penicillin, which Fleming had accidentally discovered but could not develop himself, as a therapeutic drug, Ernst Chain and Howard Florey shared the 1945 Nobel Prize in Medicine with Fleming. Florey credited Dubos with pioneering the approach of deliberately and systematically searching for antibacterial compounds, which had led to the discovery of gramicidin and had revived Florey's research in penicillin.


When did penicillin G become available outside of military use?


Who came up with a way to quickly produce penicillin?


When was the chemical make-up of penicillin discovered?


Who discovered the chemical structure of penicillin?


Vaccines rely on immune modulation or augmentation. Vaccination either excites or reinforces the immune competence of a host to ward off infection, leading to the activation of macrophages, the production of antibodies, inflammation, and other classic immune reactions. Antibacterial vaccines have been responsible for a drastic reduction in global bacterial diseases. Vaccines made from attenuated whole cells or lysates have been replaced largely by less reactogenic, cell-free vaccines consisting of purified components, including capsular polysaccharides and their conjugates, to protein carriers, as well as inactivated toxins (toxoids) and proteins.


What type of vaccines have saved millions of lives?


What types of vaccines have been phased out?


What has been talked about to treat resistant bacteria?

Phage therapy is another option that is being looked into for treating resistant strains of bacteria. The way that researchers are doing this is by infecting pathogenic bacteria with their own viruses, more specifically, bacteriophages. Bacteriophages, also known simply as phages, are precisely bacterial viruses that infect bacteria by disrupting pathogenic bacterium lytic cycles. By disrupting the lytic cycles of bacterium, phages destroy their metabolism, which eventually results in the cell's death. Phages will insert their DNA into the bacterium, allowing their DNA to be transcribed. Once their DNA is transcribed the cell will proceed to make new phages and as soon as they are ready to be released, the cell will lyse. One of the worries about using phages to fight pathogens is that the phages will infect "good" bacteria, or the bacteria that are important in the everyday function of human beings. However, studies have proven that phages are very specific when they target bacteria, which makes researchers confident that bacteriophage therapy is the definite route to defeating antibiotic resistant bacteria.


How many antibiotics have been created in the last 7 years?

In April 2013, the Infectious Disease Society of America (IDSA) reported that the weak antibiotic pipeline does not match bacteria's increasing ability to develop resistance. Since 2009, only 2 new antibiotics were approved in the United States. The number of new antibiotics approved for marketing per year declines continuously. The report identified seven antibiotics against the Gram-negative bacilli (GNB) currently in phase 2 or phase 3 clinical trials. However, these drugs do not address the entire spectrum of resistance of GNB. Some of these antibiotics are combination of existent treatments:


How many are in the pipelin to fight GNB?


What year did the Infectious Disease Society of America say that production of new antibiotics does not keep up with resistance?


Possible improvements include clarification of clinical trial regulations by FDA. Furthermore, appropriate economic incentives could persuade pharmaceutical companies to invest in this endeavor. Antibiotic Development to Advance Patient Treatment (ADAPT) Act aims to fast track the drug development to combat the growing threat of 'superbugs'. Under this Act, FDA can approve antibiotics and antifungals treating life-threatening infections based on smaller clinical trials. The CDC will monitor the use of antibiotics and the emerging resistance, and publish the data. The FDA antibiotics labeling process, 'Susceptibility Test Interpretive Criteria for Microbial Organisms' or 'breakpoints', will provide accurate data to healthcare professionals. According to Allan Coukell, senior director for health programs at The Pew Charitable Trusts, "By allowing drug developers to rely on smaller datasets, and clarifying FDA's authority to tolerate a higher level of uncertainty for these drugs when making a risk/benefit calculation, ADAPT would make the clinical trials more feasible."


What could help to spur pharmaceuticals to make new antibiotics?


What are resistant bacteria called in the media?


Who is a director at the Pew Charitable Trusts?


Frédéric François Chopin (/ˈʃoʊpæn/; French pronunciation: [fʁe.de.ʁik fʁɑ̃.swa ʃɔ.pɛ̃]; 22 February or 1 March 1810 – 17 October 1849), born Fryderyk Franciszek Chopin,[n 1] was a Polish and French (by citizenship and birth of father) composer and a virtuoso pianist of the Romantic era, who wrote primarily for the solo piano. He gained and has maintained renown worldwide as one of the leading musicians of his era, whose "poetic genius was based on a professional technique that was without equal in his generation." Chopin was born in what was then the Duchy of Warsaw, and grew up in Warsaw, which after 1815 became part of Congress Poland. A child prodigy, he completed his musical education and composed his earlier works in Warsaw before leaving Poland at the age of 20, less than a month before the outbreak of the November 1830 Uprising.


For what instrument did Frédéric write primarily for?


At what age did Frédéric depart from Poland?


What instrument did he mostly compose for?


The majority of Chopin's compositions were for what instrument?


In what city was Chopin born and raised?


In what era of music did Chopin compose?


At the age of 21 he settled in Paris. Thereafter, during the last 18 years of his life, he gave only some 30 public performances, preferring the more intimate atmosphere of the salon. He supported himself by selling his compositions and teaching piano, for which he was in high demand. Chopin formed a friendship with Franz Liszt and was admired by many of his musical contemporaries, including Robert Schumann. In 1835 he obtained French citizenship. After a failed engagement to Maria Wodzińska, from 1837 to 1847 he maintained an often troubled relationship with the French writer George Sand. A brief and unhappy visit to Majorca with Sand in 1838–39 was one of his most productive periods of composition. In his last years, he was financially supported by his admirer Jane Stirling, who also arranged for him to visit Scotland in 1848. Through most of his life, Chopin suffered from poor health. He died in Paris in 1849, probably of tuberculosis.


How many public performances was Frédéric estimated to have given during the remainder of his life?


In what year did Frédéric obtain citizenship in France?


In what area had Frédéric's most productive period of composition taken place?


What was Frédéric's most likely cause of death?


Where did he end up living when he was 21?


How many public shows did he perform during the last years of his life?


What other composer did Chopin develop a friendship with?


What year did he gain citizenship in France?


What is the name of the woman he had a relationship with from 1837-847?


During the last 18 years he lived about how many times did Chopin perform in public?


What year did Chopin become a citizen of France?


In the last years of his life who was the person that supported him financially?


In what year did Chopin become a French citizen?


Who gave Chopin money in the last years of his life?


What was the likely cause of death for Chopin?


What instrument did every composition by Frédéric include?

All of Chopin's compositions include the piano. Most are for solo piano, though he also wrote two piano concertos, a few chamber pieces, and some songs to Polish lyrics. His keyboard style is highly individual and often technically demanding; his own performances were noted for their nuance and sensitivity. Chopin invented the concept of instrumental ballade. His major piano works also include mazurkas, waltzes, nocturnes, polonaises, études, impromptus, scherzos, preludes and sonatas, some published only after his death. Influences on his compositional style include Polish folk music, the classical tradition of J. S. Bach, Mozart and Schubert, the music of all of whom he admired, as well as the Paris salons where he was a frequent guest. His innovations in style, musical form, and harmony, and his association of music with nationalism, were influential throughout and after the late Romantic period.


What concept was Frédéric credited with creating?


Whose music did Frédéric admire the most and thus provide influence on his work?


What features marked Frédéric's performance style and made them unique?


What establishments did Frédéric frequently visit in Paris that influenced his career?


Which instrument do every one of his compositions include?


What are two things Chopin's performances were known for?


What three composers influenced Chopin's work?


Chopin wrote some music to lyrics, what language were the lyrics?


What instrument is involved in all of Chopin's work?


Chopin composed several songs to lyrics of what language?


Chopin's performances were known for what?


What three composers did Chopin take inspiration from?


What instrument was all of Chopin's compositions written for?


What language were some songs written in that Chopin wrote music for?


Of what venue was Chopin an often invited guest?


What was the degree of Frédéric's association with political insurrection?

In his native Poland, in France, where he composed most of his works, and beyond, Chopin's music, his status as one of music's earliest superstars, his association (if only indirect) with political insurrection, his love life and his early death have made him, in the public consciousness, a leading symbol of the Romantic era. His works remain popular, and he has been the subject of numerous films and biographies of varying degrees of historical accuracy.


What parts of Frédéric's personal life influenced his legacy as a leading symbol of the era?


In which era was Frédéric leave a legacy of as a leading symbol?


In what forms of media has Frédéric been the subject of?


Where did Chopin create the majority of his compositions?


He had a non-direct association with what?


Chopin is closely associated with what era?


Where did Chopin create most of his works?


Chopin is considered a prominent symbol of what?


Fryderyk Chopin was born in Żelazowa Wola, 46 kilometres (29 miles) west of Warsaw, in what was then the Duchy of Warsaw, a Polish state established by Napoleon. The parish baptismal record gives his birthday as 22 February 1810, and cites his given names in the Latin form Fridericus Franciscus (in Polish, he was Fryderyk Franciszek). However, the composer and his family used the birthdate 1 March,[n 2] which is now generally accepted as the correct date.


Despite the birthdate given by parish baptismal, what date is given by the composer and his family instead?


What was the latin form of Frédéric's full name?


How many miles was the village Frédéric born in located to the west of Warsaw?


Who was responsible for the creation of the Duchy of Warsaw?


When was his birthday recorded as being?


What birth date is now considered as his actual birthday?


The Duchy of Warsaw was created by whom?


What birth date is now considered correct for Chopin?


What is the Latin form of Chopin's name?


Chopin was actually born outside of Warsaw at what location?


What famous French leader had established the Polish state at this time?


Who did Frédéric's father marry in 1806?

Fryderyk's father, Nicolas Chopin, was a Frenchman from Lorraine who had emigrated to Poland in 1787 at the age of sixteen. Nicolas tutored children of the Polish aristocracy, and in 1806 married Justyna Krzyżanowska, a poor relative of the Skarbeks, one of the families for whom he worked. Fryderyk was baptized on Easter Sunday, 23 April 1810, in the same church where his parents had married, in Brochów. His eighteen-year-old godfather, for whom he was named, was Fryderyk Skarbek, a pupil of Nicolas Chopin. Fryderyk was the couple's second child and only son; he had an elder sister, Ludwika (1807–55), and two younger sisters, Izabela (1811–81) and Emilia (1812–27). Nicolas was devoted to his adopted homeland, and insisted on the use of the Polish language in the household.


What language did Frédéric's father, Nicolas, insist on using in the household?


What was the given name of Chopin's father?


What is the name of Chopin's eldest sister?


From where id Chopin's father emigrate from?


During what month did Frédéric move to Warsaw with his family?

In October 1810, six months after Fryderyk's birth, the family moved to Warsaw, where his father acquired a post teaching French at the Warsaw Lyceum, then housed in the Saxon Palace. Fryderyk lived with his family in the Palace grounds. The father played the flute and violin; the mother played the piano and gave lessons to boys in the boarding house that the Chopins kept. Chopin was of slight build, and even in early childhood was prone to illnesses.


What language did Frédéric's father teach after they had moved to Warsaw?


Where did Frédéric live with his family while they were in Warsaw?


What two instruments did Frédéric's father play during this time?


What was Frédéric prone to during early childhood as a result of his slight build?


When did Chopin's family move to Warsaw?


Where did Chopin's father get a teaching position?


What instruments did Chopin's father play?


What instrument did Chopin's mother teach?


How old was Chopin when his family moved to Warsaw?


What language did Chopin's father teach?


What two instruments did Chopin's father play?


What instrument did Chopin's mother teach at the boarding house?


Where did Chopin live with his family in Warsaw?


Who was Frédéric's first professional teacher in music?

Fryderyk may have had some piano instruction from his mother, but his first professional music tutor, from 1816 to 1821, was the Czech pianist Wojciech Żywny. His elder sister Ludwika also took lessons from Żywny, and occasionally played duets with her brother. It quickly became apparent that he was a child prodigy. By the age of seven Fryderyk had begun giving public concerts, and in 1817 he composed two polonaises, in G minor and B-flat major. His next work, a polonaise in A-flat major of 1821, dedicated to Żywny, is his earliest surviving musical manuscript.


Which sister did Frédéric play duets with sometimes while being tutored at this time?


At what age did Frédéric start giving public concerts?


What did Frédéric compose during the year of 1817?


What is the earliest surviving musical notation composed by Frédéric?


Which of his sisters did Chopin sometimes duet with?


At what age did Chopin start playing publicly?


What year did Chopin compose his first work?


During what years did Chopin receive instruction from Żywny?


What is the name of Chopin's first music teacher that was not an amateur musician?


Which of Chopin's sisters would play music with him?


How old was Chopin when he began to perform for the public?


Who was Chopin's earliest piece of music, that there is a record of, dedicated to?


In what year was the Saxon Palace taken by the Russian governor for use regarding the military?

In 1817 the Saxon Palace was requisitioned by Warsaw's Russian governor for military use, and the Warsaw Lyceum was reestablished in the Kazimierz Palace (today the rectorate of Warsaw University). Fryderyk and his family moved to a building, which still survives, adjacent to the Kazimierz Palace. During this period, Fryderyk was sometimes invited to the Belweder Palace as playmate to the son of the ruler of Russian Poland, Grand Duke Constantine; he played the piano for the Duke and composed a march for him. Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz, in his dramatic eclogue, "Nasze Przebiegi" ("Our Discourses", 1818), attested to "little Chopin's" popularity.


What establishment today contains what was known as the Warsaw Lyceum during that time?


What building was Frédéric's new home adjacent to?


What palace was Frédéric sometimes invited to as a companion of the ruler's son?


What short poem spoke of Frédéric's popularity as a child?


The Saxon Palace was taken over for military use in what year?


As a child Chopin was invited to play with the son of whom?


What did Chopin create for Grand Duke Constantine?


In one of his works who affirmed the popularity of Chopin as a child?


What was the place Chopin was invited to as a friend of ruler's son?


What is the title and name of the ruler whose son Chopin was friends with?


What type of musical piece did Chopin compose for his friend's ruling father?


Who wrote in 1818 about the popularity of Chopin?


During what years did Frédéric visit the Warsaw Lyceum for lessons?

From September 1823 to 1826 Chopin attended the Warsaw Lyceum, where he received organ lessons from the Czech musician Wilhelm Würfel during his first year. In the autumn of 1826 he began a three-year course under the Silesian composer Józef Elsner at the Warsaw Conservatory, studying music theory, figured bass and composition.[n 3] Throughout this period he continued to compose and to give recitals in concerts and salons in Warsaw. He was engaged by the inventors of a mechanical organ, the "eolomelodicon", and on this instrument in May 1825 he performed his own improvisation and part of a concerto by Moscheles. The success of this concert led to an invitation to give a similar recital on the instrument before Tsar Alexander I, who was visiting Warsaw; the Tsar presented him with a diamond ring. At a subsequent eolomelodicon concert on 10 June 1825, Chopin performed his Rondo Op. 1. This was the first of his works to be commercially published and earned him his first mention in the foreign press, when the Leipzig Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung praised his "wealth of musical ideas".


Who was Frédéric a student of involving music theory starting in 1826?


What was the name of the mechanical organ Frédéric performed on during 1825?


Which tsar did Frédéric perform for due to his success in previous concerts?


On what date was Frédéric's first performance that earned international esteem?


Chopin had three years of lessons with whom?


What instrument did Chopin play in front of Tsar Alexander I?


What gift did Tsar Alexander I give to Chopin?


What was the first of Chopin's works to gain international renown?


Who gave Chopin instruction on how to play the organ?


What was the name of the teacher of Chopin's three year course that began in the fall of 1826?


What is th ename of the mechanical organ Chopin played in 1825?


What did Tsar Alexander I give to Chopin?


What is the title of his first commercially successful work?


Who was Frédéric a guest of during his visit of Szafarnia in 1824 and 1825?

During 1824–28 Chopin spent his vacations away from Warsaw, at a number of locales.[n 4] In 1824 and 1825, at Szafarnia, he was a guest of Dominik Dziewanowski, the father of a schoolmate. Here for the first time he encountered Polish rural folk music. His letters home from Szafarnia (to which he gave the title "The Szafarnia Courier"), written in a very modern and lively Polish, amused his family with their spoofing of the Warsaw newspapers and demonstrated the youngster's literary gift.


In which village did Frédéric first experience rural Polish folk music?


To whom did Frédéric write letters to during his stay in Szafarnia?


What did Frédéric write parodies of in his letters?


During his vacation in 1824 and 1825 who did Chopin spend his vacation with?


What type of music did Chopin discover for the first time while staying in Szafarnia?


What was the name of the person who hosted Chopin as a guest when he discovered Polish rural folk music?


What was the title chopin gave of some spoof letters he wrote?


Where did Chopin spend his vacation in 1824 and 1825?


During what year did Frédéric's youngest sister, Emilia, pass away?

In 1827, soon after the death of Chopin's youngest sister Emilia, the family moved from the Warsaw University building, adjacent to the Kazimierz Palace, to lodgings just across the street from the university, in the south annex of the Krasiński Palace on Krakowskie Przedmieście,[n 5] where Chopin lived until he left Warsaw in 1830.[n 6] Here his parents continued running their boarding house for male students; the Chopin Family Parlour (Salonik Chopinów) became a museum in the 20th century. In 1829 the artist Ambroży Mieroszewski executed a set of portraits of Chopin family members, including the first known portrait of the composer.[n 7]


What street did Frédéric's family move to after the death of his youngest sister?


What year did Frédéric leave Warsaw after moving with his family to the south annex of Krasiński Palace?


What did the Chopin's family business become in the 20th century?


Which artist created the first known portrait of Frédéric?


What year did Chopin's sister Emilia die?


Who in Chopin's family died shortly before they moved in 1827?


What was the Chopin boarding house called in English?


What artist made portraits of the Chopin family in 1829?


Was the Chopin family boarding house for male or female students?


Of the individuals that became intimate with Frédéric during their stay at the family apartments, which two became part of Frédéric's social environment in Paris?

Four boarders at his parents' apartments became Chopin's intimates: Tytus Woyciechowski, Jan Nepomucen Białobłocki, Jan Matuszyński and Julian Fontana; the latter two would become part of his Paris milieu. He was friendly with members of Warsaw's young artistic and intellectual world, including Fontana, Józef Bohdan Zaleski and Stefan Witwicki. He was also attracted to the singing student Konstancja Gładkowska. In letters to Woyciechowski, he indicated which of his works, and even which of their passages, were influenced by his fascination with her; his letter of 15 May 1830 revealed that the slow movement (Larghetto) of his Piano Concerto No. 1 (in E minor) was secretly dedicated to her – "It should be like dreaming in beautiful springtime – by moonlight." His final Conservatory report (July 1829) read: "Chopin F., third-year student, exceptional talent, musical genius."


Which singer was cited specifically as someone Frédéric was attracted to?


What four boys from his family's boarding house became friends with Chopin?


Which singer did Chopin become fascinated with?


Which of Chopin's works was unknowingly dedicated to Gladkowska?


When did Chopin receive his last Conservatory report?


Which two of Chopin's friends became part of his Paris milieu?


What was the name of the singing student Chopin was attracted to?


To whom did Chopin reveal in letters which parts of his work were about the singing student he was infatuated with?


What musical piece had a Larghetto dedicated to the female singing student Chopin was infatuated with?


How many boarders of his family's boarding house became intimate friends with Chopin?


Who did Frédéric visit Berlin with in September 1828?

In September 1828 Chopin, while still a student, visited Berlin with a family friend, zoologist Feliks Jarocki, enjoying operas directed by Gaspare Spontini and attending concerts by Carl Friedrich Zelter, Felix Mendelssohn and other celebrities. On an 1829 return trip to Berlin, he was a guest of Prince Antoni Radziwiłł, governor of the Grand Duchy of Posen—himself an accomplished composer and aspiring cellist. For the prince and his pianist daughter Wanda, he composed his Introduction and Polonaise brillante in C major for cello and piano, Op. 3.


Which opera director did Frédéric see works of during his stay in Berlin?


Who was Frédéric a guest of during his stay in Berlin in 1829?


What piece did Frédéric create specifically for the prince and the prince's daughter, Wanda?


While in Berlin he saw the operatic work of who?


In 1829 on a trip back to Berlin Chopin was a guest of who?


What piece did Chopin create for Prince Antoni?


What year did Chopin visit Berlin while still a student?


What did the person who Chopin went with to Berlin do for his work?


Who directed the operas they enjoyed in Berlin?


What did Frédéric compose after hearing Niccolò Paganini perform on the violin?

Back in Warsaw that year, Chopin heard Niccolò Paganini play the violin, and composed a set of variations, Souvenir de Paganini. It may have been this experience which encouraged him to commence writing his first Études, (1829–32), exploring the capacities of his own instrument. On 11 August, three weeks after completing his studies at the Warsaw Conservatory, he made his debut in Vienna. He gave two piano concerts and received many favourable reviews—in addition to some commenting (in Chopin's own words) that he was "too delicate for those accustomed to the piano-bashing of local artists". In one of these concerts, he premiered his Variations on Là ci darem la mano, Op. 2 (variations on an aria from Mozart's opera Don Giovanni) for piano and orchestra. He returned to Warsaw in September 1829, where he premiered his Piano Concerto No. 2 in F minor, Op. 21 on 17 March 1830.


During what month did Frédéric make his first appearance in Vienna?


How many piano concerts did Frédéric perform in Vienna during this time?


On what date did Frédéric give his first performance of Piano Concerto No. 2 in F minor, Op. 21?


What did Chopin compose after hearing Niccolo Paganini?


Where did Chopin debut after completing his studies?


What piece did Chopin debut after returning to Warsaw?


Why did some critics say that Chopin was too delicate?


Who did Chopin hear play violin in 1829 that prompted him to write a composisition?


Where did Chopin make his debut after completing his education?


How many public performances did Chopin do where he made his debut after completing his education?


How many weeks after completing school was it before Chopin made his public debut?


On what date did Frédéric begin his journey into Western Europe?

Chopin's successes as a composer and performer opened the door to western Europe for him, and on 2 November 1830, he set out, in the words of Zdzisław Jachimecki, "into the wide world, with no very clearly defined aim, forever." With Woyciechowski, he headed for Austria, intending to go on to Italy. Later that month, in Warsaw, the November 1830 Uprising broke out, and Woyciechowski returned to Poland to enlist. Chopin, now alone in Vienna, was nostalgic for his homeland, and wrote to a friend, "I curse the moment of my departure." When in September 1831 he learned, while travelling from Vienna to Paris, that the uprising had been crushed, he expressed his anguish in the pages of his private journal: "Oh God! ... You are there, and yet you do not take vengeance!" Jachimecki ascribes to these events the composer's maturing "into an inspired national bard who intuited the past, present and future of his native Poland."


Which country did Frédéric go to first after setting out for Western Europe?


In what year did his companion Woyciechowski depart to Poland to enlist for the uprising in Warsaw?


What historian commented that the events involving Frédéric's friend in Poland contributed to his maturing?


Who said that Chopin set out "into the wide world, with no very clearly defined aim, forever?"


Where did Chopin intend to go after Austria?


Woyciechowski left Chopin to enlist in what?


What geographicla region was opened for Chopin due to his composing and performances?


When Chopin started to take his music to the world, what is the last name of the person who went with him to Austria?


What year did the uprising begin in Warsaw?


What were the words Chopin wrote to a friend when he was alone and homesick?


What year did Chopin learn that the uprising in Warsaw was crushed?


What event was Frédéric a part of when he arrived in Paris during the later part of September in 1831?

Chopin arrived in Paris in late September 1831; he would never return to Poland, thus becoming one of many expatriates of the Polish Great Emigration. In France he used the French versions of his given names, and after receiving French citizenship in 1835, he travelled on a French passport. However, Chopin remained close to his fellow Poles in exile as friends and confidants and he never felt fully comfortable speaking French. Chopin's biographer Adam Zamoyski writes that he never considered himself to be French, despite his father's French origins, and always saw himself as a Pole.


What version of Frédéric's birth name did he begin using after arriving in France?


In what year did Frédéric officially acquire French citizenship?


What were the two kinds of relationships stated as Frédéric having with his fellow Poland natives in exile?


What nationality is stated as the one Frédéric felt most identified by?


By not going back to Poland Chopin became part of what?


In what year did Chopin become a French citizen?


What is the name of Chopin's biographer?


After 1831, what country did Chopin never return to?


What country's passport did he have from 1835?


What language was Chopin never completely at ease speaking?


What biographer of Chopin wrote that Chopin never considered himself French?


Due to the numbers of expatriates of Poland after the uprising, what did it become to be known as?


In what city did Frédéric achieve celebrity status?

In Paris, Chopin encountered artists and other distinguished figures, and found many opportunities to exercise his talents and achieve celebrity. During his years in Paris he was to become acquainted with, among many others, Hector Berlioz, Franz Liszt, Ferdinand Hiller, Heinrich Heine, Eugène Delacroix, and Alfred de Vigny. Chopin was also acquainted with the poet Adam Mickiewicz, principal of the Polish Literary Society, some of whose verses he set as songs.


Who was the principal of the Polish Literary Society that Frédéric became acquainted with?


What did Frédéric create from verses of the poet Adam Mickiewicz?


What poet did Chopin use verses from for songs?