Who was the president of the Bishops' Conference of Yugoslavia?

Prime Minister Josip Broz Tito met with the president of the Bishops' Conference of Yugoslavia, Aloysius Stepinac on 4 June 1945, two days after his release from imprisonment. The two could not reach an agreement on the state of the Catholic Church. Under Stepinac's leadership, the bishops' conference released a letter condemning alleged Partisan war crimes in September, 1945. The following year Stepinac was arrested and put on trial. In October 1946, in its first special session for 75 years, the Vatican excommunicated Tito and the Yugoslav government for sentencing Stepinac to 16 years in prison on charges of assisting Ustaše terror and of supporting forced conversions of Serbs to Catholicism. Stepinac received preferential treatment in recognition of his status and the sentence was soon shortened and reduced to house-arrest, with the option of emigration open to the archbishop. At the conclusion of the "Informbiro period", reforms rendered Yugoslavia considerably more religiously liberal than the Eastern Bloc states.


How long after his release from imprisonment did TIto attend the Bishops' Conference of Yugoslavia?


What topic was a sticking point at the Bishops' Conference?


Under whose leadership did the bishops' conference release a letter condemning alleged Partisan war crimes?


What was Stepinac's sentence shortened to?


Who had a leading role in liberating Yugoslavia?

Unlike other new communist states in east-central Europe, Yugoslavia liberated itself from Axis domination with limited direct support from the Red Army. Tito's leading role in liberating Yugoslavia not only greatly strengthened his position in his party and among the Yugoslav people, but also caused him to be more insistent that Yugoslavia had more room to follow its own interests than other Bloc leaders who had more reasons (and pressures) to recognize Soviet efforts in helping them liberate their own countries from Axis control. Although Tito was formally an ally of Stalin after World War II, the Soviets had set up a spy ring in the Yugoslav party as early as 1945, giving way to an uneasy alliance.[citation needed]


Who was Tito formally an ally of after WWII?


Who set up a spy ring in the Yugoslav party?


As early as what year was a spy ring set up in the Yugoslav party?


From what domination did Yugoslavia liberate itself?


What Italian territory did Yugoslavia acquire after the war?

In the immediate aftermath of World War II, there occurred several armed incidents between Yugoslavia and the Western Allies. Following the war, Yugoslavia acquired the Italian territory of Istria as well as the cities of Zadar and Rijeka. Yugoslav leadership was looking to incorporate Trieste into the country as well, which was opposed by the Western Allies. This led to several armed incidents, notably attacks by Yugoslav fighter planes on US transport aircraft, causing bitter criticism from the west. From 1945 to 1948, at least four US aircraft were shot down.[better source needed] Stalin was opposed to these provocations, as he felt the USSR unready to face the West in open war so soon after the losses of World War II and at the time when US had operational nuclear weapons whereas USSR had yet to conduct its first test. In addition, Tito was openly supportive of the Communist side in the Greek Civil War, while Stalin kept his distance, having agreed with Churchill not to pursue Soviet interests there, although he did support the Greek communist struggle politically, as demonstrated in several assemblies of the UN Security Council. In 1948, motivated by the desire to create a strong independent economy, Tito modeled his economic development plan independently from Moscow, which resulted in a diplomatic escalation followed by a bitter exchange of letters in which Tito affirmed that


What territory did Yugoslavia leadership want to incorporate?


At least how many American aircraft were shot down between 1945 and 1948?


Who openly supported the Communist side in the Greek Civil War?


In what year did Tito model his economic development plan independently from Moscow?


Tito did not attend the second meeting of this.

The Soviet answer on 4 May admonished Tito and the Communist Party of Yugoslavia (CPY) for failing to admit and correct its mistakes, and went on to accuse them of being too proud of their successes against the Germans, maintaining that the Red Army had saved them from destruction. Tito's response on 17 May suggested that the matter be settled at the meeting of the Cominform to be held that June. However, Tito did not attend the second meeting of the Cominform, fearing that Yugoslavia was to be openly attacked. In 1949 the crisis nearly escalated into an armed conflict, as Hungarian and Soviet forces were massing on the northern Yugoslav frontier. On 28 June, the other member countries expelled Yugoslavia, citing "nationalist elements" that had "managed in the course of the past five or six months to reach a dominant position in the leadership" of the CPY. The assumption in Moscow was that once it was known that he had lost Soviet approval, Tito would collapse; 'I will shake my little finger and there will be no more Tito,' Stalin remarked. The expulsion effectively banished Yugoslavia from the international association of socialist states, while other socialist states of Eastern Europe subsequently underwent purges of alleged "Titoists". Stalin took the matter personally and arranged several assassination attempts on Tito, none of which succeeded. In a correspondence between the two leaders, Tito openly wrote:


In what year did the crisis nearly escalate into armed conflict?


What was the name of those purged in other socialist states in Eastern Europe?


Who made several assasination attempts on Tito?


Whose methods did Tito use to fight Yugoslav Stalinists?

One significant consequence of the tension arising between Yugoslavia and Soviet Union, was that Tito fought Yugoslav Stalinists with Stalin's methods. In other words, Aleksandar Ranković and the State Security Service (UBDA) employed the same inhumane methods against their opponents as Stalin did in the Soviet Union against his. Not every person accused of a political crime was convicted and nobody was sentenced to death for his or her pro-Soviet feelings. However this repression, which lasted until 1956, was marked by significant violations of human rights.


Who used inhumane methods against oponents through the UBDA?


Until what year did the repression of the UBDA last?


The work of the UBDA was due to tension between Yugoslavia and what country?


Which country gave Yugoslavia aid when Tito became estranged from the USSR?

Tito's estrangement from the USSR enabled Yugoslavia to obtain US aid via the Economic Cooperation Administration (ECA), the same US aid institution which administered the Marshall Plan. Still, he did not agree to align with the West, which was a common consequence of accepting American aid at the time. After Stalin's death in 1953, relations with the USSR were relaxed and he began to receive aid as well from the COMECON. In this way, Tito played East-West antagonism to his advantage. Instead of choosing sides, he was instrumental in kick-starting the Non-Aligned Movement, which would function as a 'third way' for countries interested in staying outside of the East-West divide.


What agency distributed aid to Yugoslavia?


What plan was also administered by the ECA?


Which leader feared that accepting American aid meant aligning with the West?


What name refers to the period of instability during the rift between Tito and the USSR?

The event was significant not only for Yugoslavia and Tito, but also for the global development of socialism, since it was the first major split between Communist states, casting doubt on Comintern's claims for socialism to be a unified force that would eventually control the whole world, as Tito became the first (and the only successful) socialist leader to defy Stalin's leadership in the COMINFORM. This rift with the Soviet Union brought Tito much international recognition, but also triggered a period of instability often referred to as the Informbiro period. Tito's form of communism was labeled "Titoism" by Moscow, which encouraged purges against suspected "Titoites'" throughout the Eastern bloc.


What was Tito's form of communism called?


Throughout what area did purges of Titoites occur?


Who became the first leader to defy Stalin's leadership?


In what year did the National Assembly support a crucial bill about "self Management"?

On 26 June 1950, the National Assembly supported a crucial bill written by Milovan Đilas and Tito about "self-management" (samoupravljanje): a type of cooperative independent socialist experiment that introduced profit sharing and workplace democracy in previously state-run enterprises which then became the direct social ownership of the employees. On 13 January 1953, they established that the law on self-management was the basis of the entire social order in Yugoslavia. Tito also succeeded Ivan Ribar as the President of Yugoslavia on 14 January 1953. After Stalin's death Tito rejected the USSR's invitation for a visit to discuss normalization of relations between two nations. Nikita Khrushchev and Nikolai Bulganin visited Tito in Belgrade in 1955 and apologized for wrongdoings by Stalin's administration. Tito visited the USSR in 1956, which signaled to the world that animosity between Yugoslavia and USSR was easing. However, the relationship between the USSR and Yugoslavia would reach another low in the late 1960s. Commenting on the crisis, Tito concluded that:


Who wrote the bill with Tito about "self management"?


Tito succeeded who as the President of Yugoslavia?


Whose invitation did Tito reject after Stalin's death?


When did Tito visit the USSR to signal that his country's animosity was decreasing?


How many high-level Communists were purged in the Slansky trial?

The Tito-Stalin split had large ramifications for countries outside the USSR and Yugoslavia. It has, for example, been given as one of the reasons for the Slánský trial in Czechoslovakia, in which 14 high-level Communist officials were purged, with 11 of them being executed. Stalin put pressure on Czechoslovakia to conduct purges in order to discourage the spread of the idea of a "national path to socialism," which Tito espoused.


How many Communists were executed at the Slansky trial?


What country had pressure put on it by Stalin to conduct purges?


Who espoused the "national path to socialism"?


Who put pressure on Checkoslovakia to conduct purges?


Under whose leadership did Yugoslavia become a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement?

Under Tito's leadership, Yugoslavia became a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement. In 1961, Tito co-founded the movement with Egypt's Gamal Abdel Nasser, India's Jawaharlal Nehru, Indonesia's Sukarno and Ghana's Kwame Nkrumah, in an action called The Initiative of Five (Tito, Nehru, Nasser, Sukarno, Nkrumah), thus establishing strong ties with third world countries. This move did much to improve Yugoslavia's diplomatic position. On 1 September 1961, Josip Broz Tito became the first Secretary-General of the Non-Aligned Movement.


In what year did Tito co-found the Non-Aligned Movement?


Which Indonesian leader co-founded the Non-Aligned movement with Tito?


Who became the first Secretary General of the Non-Aligned Movement?


When did Tito first visit Emperor Haile Selassie?

Tito's foreign policy led to relationships with a variety of governments, such as exchanging visits (1954 and 1956) with Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia, where a street was named in his honor.


When did Tito last visit Emperor Selassie?


What country does Emperor Selassie rule?


In what country does Tito have a street named in his honor?


During what period did Tito pursue a policy of neutrality?

Tito was notable for pursuing a foreign policy of neutrality during the Cold War and for establishing close ties with developing countries. Tito's strong belief in self-determination caused early rift with Stalin and consequently, the Eastern Bloc. His public speeches often reiterated that policy of neutrality and cooperation with all countries would be natural as long as these countries did not use their influence to pressure Yugoslavia to take sides. Relations with the United States and Western European nations were generally cordial.


With whom did Tito's belief in self-determination cause a rift?


What type of countries did Tito develop relations with?


Who had a strong belief in self-determination and was opposed to Stalin because of this?


Tito had cordial relations with the United States and what other Western area?


Yugoslavia had a liberal travel policy permitting foreigners to freely travel through the country and its citizens to travel worldwide, whereas it was limited by most Communist countries. A number[quantify] of Yugoslav citizens worked throughout Western Europe. Tito met many world leaders during his rule, such as Soviet rulers Joseph Stalin, Nikita Khrushchev and Leonid Brezhnev; Egypt's Gamal Abdel Nasser, Indian politicians Jawaharlal Nehru and Indira Gandhi; British Prime Ministers Winston Churchill, James Callaghan and Margaret Thatcher; U.S. Presidents Dwight D. Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy, Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford and Jimmy Carter; other political leaders, dignitaries and heads of state that Tito met at least once in his lifetime included Che Guevara, Fidel Castro, Yasser Arafat, Willy Brandt, Helmut Schmidt, Georges Pompidou, Queen Elizabeth II, Hua Guofeng, Kim Il Sung, Sukarno, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, Suharto, Idi Amin, Haile Selassie, Kenneth Kaunda, Gaddafi, Erich Honecker, Nicolae Ceaușescu, János Kádár and Urho Kekkonen. He also met numerous celebrities.


Eisenhower was a president of what country?


Tito visited India from December 22, 1954 through January 8, 1955. After his return, he removed many restrictions on churches and spiritual institutions in Yugoslavia.


After his return from where did Tito remove many restrictions on churches in Yugoslavia?


After returning from India, Tito removed restrictions on what type of institutions?


Tito also developed warm relations with Burma under U Nu, travelling to the country in 1955 and again in 1959, though he didn't receive the same treatment in 1959 from the new leader, Ne Win.


What was the only Communist country allowed to have an embassy in Stroessner's Paraguay?

Because of its neutrality, Yugoslavia would often be rare among Communist countries to have diplomatic relations with right-wing, anti-Communist governments. For example, Yugoslavia was the only communist country allowed to have an embassy in Alfredo Stroessner's Paraguay. One notable exception to Yugoslavia's neutral stance toward anti-communist countries was Chile under Pinochet; Yugoslavia was one of many countries which severed diplomatic relations with Chile after Salvador Allende was overthrown. Yugoslavia also provided military aid and arms supplies to staunchly anti-Communist regimes such as that of Guatemala under Kjell Eugenio Laugerud García.


Yugoslavia was the only communist country to have an embassy where?


What country did Kjell Eugenio Laugerud Garcia lead?


When did Yugoslavia change its name to the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia?

On 7 April 1963, the country changed its official name to the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Reforms encouraged private enterprise and greatly relaxed restrictions on freedom of speech and religious expression. Tito subsequently went on a tour of the Americas. In Chile, two government ministers resigned over his visit to that country. In the autumn of 1960 Tito met President Dwight D. Eisenhower at the United Nations General Assembly meeting. Tito and Eisenhower discussed a range of issues from arms control to economic development. When Eisenhower remarked that Yugoslavia's neutralism was "neutral on his side", Tito replied that neutralism did not imply passivity but meant "not taking sides".


Two government ministers resigned over Tito's visit to what region?


Who said that neutralism did not imply passivity but mean "not taking sides"?


When did Tito meet Eisenhower at the U.N.?


What anti-communist archbisoph died in 1960?

In 1966 an agreement with the Vatican, fostered in part by the death in 1960 of anti-communist archbishop of Zagreb Aloysius Stepinac and shifts in the church's approach to resisting communism originating in the Second Vatican Council, accorded new freedom to the Yugoslav Roman Catholic Church, particularly to catechize and open seminaries. The agreement also eased tensions, which had prevented the naming of new bishops in Yugoslavia since 1945. Tito's new socialism met opposition from traditional communists culminating in conspiracy headed by Aleksandar Ranković. In the same year Tito declared that Communists must henceforth chart Yugoslavia's course by the force of their arguments (implying an abandonment of Leninist orthodoxy and development of liberal Communism). The State Security Administration (UDBA) saw its power scaled back and its staff reduced to 5000.


Stepinac's death gave new freedom to what branch of the Roman Catholic Church?


What agency had its staff reduced to 5000 after Lenninist orthodoxy was abandoned?


What acronym describes the State Security Administration?


What ideology did Tito abandon as part of his new socialism?


Who was the first communist country to open its borders to all foreign visitors?

On 1 January 1967, Yugoslavia was the first communist country to open its borders to all foreign visitors and abolish visa requirements. In the same year Tito became active in promoting a peaceful resolution of the Arab–Israeli conflict. His plan called for Arabs to recognize the state of Israel in exchange for territories Israel gained.


In what year did the first communist country open its borders to all foreign visitors?


When did Tito start promoting a peaceful resolution to the Arab-Israeli conflict?


Whose plan called for Arabs to recognize the state of Israel in exchange for territories Israel gained?


In what year did Tito start working in Arab Israeli peace processes?


In 1968, Tito offered Czechoslovak leader Alexander Dubček to fly to Prague on three hours notice if Dubček needed help in facing down the Soviets. In April 1969, Tito removed generals Ivan Gošnjak and Rade Hamović in the aftermath of the invasion of Czechoslovakia due to the unpreparedness of the Yugoslav army to respond to a similar invasion of Yugoslavia.


How much time did Tito give Dubcek to fly to Prague?


Who removed generals Gosnjak and Hamovic?


What army was unprepared for the invasion of Czechoslovakia?


In what year was Tito reelected president of Yugoslavia for the sixth time?

In 1971, Tito was re-elected as President of Yugoslavia by the Federal Assembly for the sixth time. In his speech before the Federal Assembly he introduced 20 sweeping constitutional amendments that would provide an updated framework on which the country would be based. The amendments provided for a collective presidency, a 22-member body consisting of elected representatives from six republics and two autonomous provinces. The body would have a single chairman of the presidency and chairmanship would rotate among six republics. When the Federal Assembly fails to agree on legislation, the collective presidency would have the power to rule by decree. Amendments also provided for stronger cabinet with considerable power to initiate and pursue legislature independently from the Communist Party. Džemal Bijedić was chosen as the Premier. The new amendments aimed to decentralize the country by granting greater autonomy to republics and provinces. The federal government would retain authority only over foreign affairs, defense, internal security, monetary affairs, free trade within Yugoslavia, and development loans to poorer regions. Control of education, healthcare, and housing would be exercised entirely by the governments of the republics and the autonomous provinces.


How many sweeping constitutional amendments did Tito introduce in 1971?


Who was chosen as a premier in 1971 in Yugoslavia?


What branch of the Yugoslav government would retain control over foreign affairs, defense and internal security?


What person's calls for unity is credited by western communists of holding together Yugoslavia?

Tito's greatest strength, in the eyes of the western communists, had been in suppressing nationalist insurrections and maintaining unity throughout the country. It was Tito's call for unity, and related methods, that held together the people of Yugoslavia. This ability was put to a test several times during his reign, notably during the Croatian Spring (also referred as the Masovni pokret, maspok, meaning "Mass Movement") when the government suppressed both public demonstrations and dissenting opinions within the Communist Party. Despite this suppression, much of maspok's demands were later realized with the new constitution, heavily backed by Tito himself against opposition from the Serbian branch of the party.[citation needed] On 16 May 1974, the new Constitution was passed, and the aging Tito was named president for life, a status which he would enjoy for five years.


What was referred to as the "Mass Movement"?


When was the new Yugoslavian constitution passed?


Who was named President for Life of Yugoslavia in 1974?


How long did the person named "president for life" serve?


What flag did protesters of Tito often burn?

Tito's visits to the United States avoided most of the Northeast due to large minorities of Yugoslav emigrants bitter about communism in Yugoslavia. Security for the state visits was usually high to keep him away from protesters, who would frequently burn the Yugoslav flag. During a visit to the United Nations in the late 1970s emigrants shouted "Tito murderer" outside his New York hotel, for which he protested to United States authorities.


What did protesters scream during Tito's visit to the United Nations in the late 1970's?


Which authorities fielded complaints from TIto about protesters?


What American state did Tito visit when he saw the U.N.?


Security for Tito's visit was unusually high to keep Tito away from what individuals?


Where did Tito travel in 1977 to reconcile with Chinese leadership?

After the constitutional changes of 1974, Tito began reducing his role in the day-to-day running of the state. He continued to travel abroad and receive foreign visitors, going to Beijing in 1977 and reconciling with a Chinese leadership that had once branded him a revisionist. In turn, Chairman Hua Guofeng visited Yugoslavia in 1979. In 1978, Tito traveled to the U.S. During the visit strict security was imposed in Washington, D.C. owing to protests by anti-communist Croat, Serb and Albanian groups.


In what year did Tito travel to China to reconcile with Chinese leadership?


What Chinese leader traveled to Yugoslavia in 1979?


After the constitutional changes made in what year did Tito reduce his role in the day-to-day running of the state.


In what year did Tito travel to the U.S. to visit Washington D.C., amist protest by anti-communist Croat, Serb and Albanian groups?


During what year did Tito become increasingly ill?

Tito became increasingly ill over the course of 1979. During this time Vila Srna was built for his use near Morović in the event of his recovery. On 7 January and again on 11 January 1980, Tito was admitted to the Medical Centre in Ljubljana, the capital city of the SR Slovenia, with circulation problems in his legs. His left leg was amputated soon afterward due to arterial blockages and he died of gangrene at the Medical Centre Ljubljana on 4 May 1980 at 15:05, three days short of his 88th birthday. His funeral drew many world statesmen. Based on the number of attending politicians and state delegations, at the time it was the largest state funeral in history; this concentration of dignitaries would be unmatched until the funeral of Pope John Paul II in 2005 and the memorial service of Nelson Mandela in 2013. Those who attended included four kings, 31 presidents, six princes, 22 prime ministers and 47 ministers of foreign affairs. They came from both sides of the Cold War, from 128 different countries out of 154 UN members at the time.


What was built near Morovic for Tito to use in the event of his recovery?


Where was Tito admitted on 7 January and again on 11 January 1980 with circulatory problems?


Tito was interred in a mausoleum in Belgrade, which forms part of a memorial complex in the grounds of the Museum of Yugoslav History (formerly called "Museum 25 May" and "Museum of the Revolution"). The actual mausoleum is called House of Flowers (Kuća Cveća) and numerous people visit the place as a shrine to "better times". The museum keeps the gifts Tito received during his presidency. The collection also includes original prints of Los Caprichos by Francisco Goya, and many others. The Government of Serbia has planned to merge it into the Museum of the History of Serbia. At the time of his death, speculation began about whether his successors could continue to hold Yugoslavia together. Ethnic divisions and conflict grew and eventually erupted in a series of Yugoslav wars a decade after his death.


What museum was formerly called "Museum 25 May"?


What name was given to Tito's mausoleum?


Who made the original print of Los Caprichos?


After whose death did speculation begin concerning whether his successors could continue to hold Yugoslavia together?


During his life and especially in the first year after his death, several places were named after Tito. Several of these places have since returned to their original names, such as Podgorica, formerly Titograd (though Podgorica's international airport is still identified by the code TGD), and Užice, formerly Titovo Užice, which reverted to its original name in 1992. Streets in Belgrade, the capital, have all reverted to their original pre–World War II and pre-communist names as well. In 2004, Antun Augustinčić's statue of Broz in his birthplace of Kumrovec was decapitated in an explosion. It was subsequently repaired. Twice in 2008, protests took place in Zagreb's Marshal Tito Square, organized by a group called Circle for the Square (Krug za Trg), with an aim to force the city government to rename it to its previous name, while a counter-protest by Citizens' Initiative Against Ustašism (Građanska inicijativa protiv ustaštva) accused the "Circle for the Square" of historical revisionism and neo-fascism. Croatian president Stjepan Mesić criticized the demonstration to change the name. In the Croatian coastal city of Opatija the main street (also its longest street) still bears the name of Marshal Tito, as do streets in numerous towns in Serbia, mostly in the country's north. One of the main streets in downtown Sarajevo is called Marshal Tito Street, and Tito's statue in a park in front of the university campus (ex. JNA barrack "Maršal Tito") in Marijin Dvor is a place where Bosnians and Sarajevans still today commemorate and pay tribute to Tito (image on the right). The largest Tito monument in the world, about 10 m (33 ft) high, is located at Tito Square (Slovene: Titov trg), the central square in Velenje, Slovenia. One of the main bridges in Slovenia's second largest city of Maribor is Tito Bridge (Titov most). The central square in Koper, the largest Slovenian port city, is as well named Tito Square.


When did Uziece revert to its original name?


Where is the birthplace of Antun Augustincic?


What country is Stejpan Mesic president of?


Where is the largest Tito monument located?


Where does the annual "Brotherhood and Unity" relay race end?

Every year a "Brotherhood and Unity" relay race is organized in Montenegro, Macedonia and Serbia which ends at the "House of Flowers" in Belgrade on May 25 – the final resting place of Tito. At the same time, runners in Slovenia, Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina set off for Kumrovec, Tito's birthplace in northern Croatia. The relay is a left-over from Yugoslav times, when young people made a similar yearly trek on foot through Yugoslavia that ended in Belgrade with a massive celebration.


Where is the final resting place of Tito?


How often is the "Brotherhood and Unity" relay race done?


On what day in May does the "Brotherhood and Unity" relay race end?


On what year did a Slovenian court find a 2009 naming of a street after Tito to be unconstitutional?

In the years following the dissolution of Yugoslavia, some historians stated that human rights were suppressed in Yugoslavia under Tito, particularly in the first decade up until the Tito-Stalin split. On 4 October 2011, the Slovenian Constitutional Court found a 2009 naming of a street in Ljubljana after Tito to be unconstitutional. While several public areas in Slovenia (named during the Yugoslav period) do already bear Tito's name, on the issue of renaming an additional street the court ruled that:


Where was the street named after Tito that was found unconstitutional located?


Several public area of Slovenia bear which person's name.


Under which ruler do historians argue human rights were suppressed in Yugoslavia?


Tito Square is located in what Slovenian city?

The court, however, explicitly made it clear that the purpose of the review was "not a verdict on Tito as a figure or on his concrete actions, as well as not a historical weighing of facts and circumstances". Slovenia has several streets and squares named after Tito, notably Tito Square in Velenje, incorporating a 10-meter statue.


Where is a 10-meter statue of Tito located?


What is the ethnic origin of the Danube Swabian people?

Tito has also been named as responsible for systematic eradication of the ethnic German (Danube Swabian) population in Vojvodina by expulsions and mass executions following the collapse of the German occupation of Yugoslavia at the end of World War II, in contrast to his inclusive attitude towards other Yugoslav nationalities.


Where is the location of the Danube Swabian population?


There were mass executions of Danube Swabian populations in what city?


Which group of people occupied Yugoslavia at the end of World War II?


At the end of what World War did the Germans occupy Yugoslavia?


Where in Russia was Tito brought as a prisoner of war in 1918?

Tito carried on numerous affairs and was married several times. In 1918 he was brought to Omsk, Russia, as a prisoner of war. There he met Pelagija Belousova who was then thirteen; he married her a year later, and she moved with him to Yugoslavia. Pelagija bore him five children but only their son Žarko Leon (born 4 February, 1924) survived. When Tito was jailed in 1928, she returned to Russia. After the divorce in 1936 she later remarried.


When was Tito brought to Russia as a prisoner of war?


How old was Pelagija Belousava when Tito met her?


How many children did Pelagija bore for Tito?


Who was the only surviving child of Tito's?


Where is the Hotel Lux located in Russia?

In 1936, when Tito stayed at the Hotel Lux in Moscow, he met the Austrian comrade Lucia Bauer. They married in October 1936, but the records of this marriage were later erased.


What is the name of the Austrian comrade Tito met in Moscow in 1936?


Tito's marriage to what person was later erased in records?


His next relationship was with Herta Haas, whom he married in 1940. Broz left for Belgrade after the April War, leaving Haas pregnant. In May 1941, she gave birth to their son, Aleksandar "Mišo" Broz. All throughout his relationship with Haas, Tito had maintained a promiscuous life and had a parallel relationship with Davorjanka Paunović, who, under the codename "Zdenka", served as a courier in the resistance and subsequently became his personal secretary. Haas and Tito suddenly parted company in 1943 in Jajce during the second meeting of AVNOJ after she reportedly walked in on him and Davorjanka. The last time Haas saw Broz was in 1946. Davorjanka died of tuberculosis in 1946 and Tito insisted that she be buried in the backyard of the Beli Dvor, his Belgrade residence.


What was the name of Tito's son born to him and Haas?


With whom did Tito have a parallel life during his marriage to Haas?


When did Davorjanka die of Tuberculosis?


His best known wife was Jovanka Broz. Tito was just shy of his 59th birthday, while she was 27, when they finally married in April 1952, with state security chief Aleksandar Ranković as the best man. Their eventual marriage came about somewhat unexpectedly since Tito actually rejected her some years earlier when his confidante Ivan Krajacic brought her in originally. At that time, she was in her early 20s and Tito, objecting to her energetic personality, opted for the more mature opera singer Zinka Kunc instead. Not one to be discouraged easily, Jovanka continued working at Beli Dvor, where she managed the staff and eventually got another chance after Tito's strange relationship with Zinka failed. Since Jovanka was the only female companion he married while in power, she also went down in history as Yugoslavia's first lady. Their relationship was not a happy one, however. It had gone through many, often public, ups and downs with episodes of infidelities and even allegations of preparation for a coup d'état by the latter pair. Certain unofficial reports suggest Tito and Jovanka even formally divorced in the late 1970s, shortly before his death. However, during Tito's funeral she was officially present as his wife, and later claimed rights for inheritance. The couple did not have any children.


How old was Jovanka Broz when she married Tito?


In what year did Tito and Jovanka marry?


Who was the best man at the wedding of Jovanka and Tito?


Who went down in history as Yugoslavia's first lady?


Which of Tito's grandchildren is a theatre director?

Tito's notable grandchildren include Aleksandra Broz, a prominent theatre director in Croatia; Svetlana Broz, a cardiologist and writer in Bosnia-Herzegovina; and Josip "Joška" Broz, Edvard Broz and Natali Klasevski, an artisan of Bosnia-Herzegovina.


Which of Tito's grandchildren is a cardiologist and writer?


What is the name of the official residence in Belgrade?

As the President, Tito had access to extensive (state-owned) property associated with the office, and maintained a lavish lifestyle. In Belgrade he resided in the official residence, the Beli dvor, and maintained a separate private home. The Brijuni islands were the site of the State Summer Residence from 1949 on. The pavilion was designed by Jože Plečnik, and included a zoo. Close to 100 foreign heads of state were to visit Tito at the island residence, along with film stars such as Elizabeth Taylor, Richard Burton, Sophia Loren, Carlo Ponti, and Gina Lollobrigida.


What islands were the site of the State Summer Residence from 1949 on?


Who designed the pavilion at the State Summer Residence?


In what city was the official residence for Tito?


Film stars including Elizabeth Taylor visited what island residence of Tito?


The grounds at what location were the site of "diplomatic hunts"?

Another residence was maintained at Lake Bled, while the grounds at Karađorđevo were the site of "diplomatic hunts". By 1974 the Yugoslav President had at his disposal 32 official residences, larger and small, the yacht Galeb ("seagull"), a Boeing 727 as the presidential airplane, and the Blue Train. After Tito's death the presidential Boeing 727 was sold to Aviogenex, the Galeb remained docked in Montenegro, while the Blue Train was stored in a Serbian train shed for over two decades. While Tito was the person who held the office of president for by far the longest period, the associated property was not private and much of it continues to be in use by Yugoslav successor states, as public property, or maintained at the disposal of high-ranking officials.


What was the name of the yacht the Yugoslav president had at his disposal?


What company bought the presidential Boeing 727 after Tito's death?


Where was the Galeb docked after Tito's death?


What is the English translation of Galeb?


With what accent did Tito speak German according to a biographer?

As regards knowledge of languages, Tito replied that he spoke Serbo-Croatian, German, Russian, and some English. A biographer also stated that he spoke "Serbo-Croatian ... Russian, Czech, Slovenian ... German (with a Viennese accent) ... understands and reads French and Italian ... [and] also speaks Kirghiz."


Other than Serbo-Croatian, German, Russian, Czech, Slovenian and English, French and Italian, what language does Tito speak?


What did Tito declare himself to be religiously as an adult?

In his youth Tito attended Catholic Sunday school, and was later an altar boy. After an incident where he was slapped and shouted at by a priest when he had difficulty assisting the priest to remove his vestments, Tito would not enter a church again. As an adult, he frequently declared that he was an atheist.


What type of religious educaton did Tito attend as a child?


What did a priest do to Tito as a child when he had difficulty removing the priest's vestments?


After being yelled at by a priest as a child, what place of worship would Tito refuse to enter again?


What is the name of the largest town or city renamed in Tito's name?

Every federal unit had a town or city with historic significance from the World War II period renamed to have Tito's name included. The largest of these was Titograd, now Podgorica, the capital city of Montenegro. With the exception of Titograd, the cities were renamed simply by the addition of the adjective "Tito's" ("Titov"). The cities were:


Whose name was added to the name for every town or city with historical signiciance from the World War II period?


What was the name of Tito's personal doctor?

In the years after Tito's death up to nowadays, some people have disputed his identity. Tito's personal doctor, Aleksandar Matunović, wrote a book about Tito in which he also questioned his true origin, noting that Tito's habits and lifestyle could only mean that he was from an aristocratic family. Serbian journalist Vladan Dinić (born 1949), in Tito nije tito, includes several possible alternate identities of Tito.


Who wrote a book about Tito questioning his true origin?


What Serbian journalist includes several alternate identities of Tito?


Dinic gives several alternate identities of what person?


In what year did the study in Cryptologic Spectrum come out?

In 2013 a lot of media coverage was given to unclassified NSA's study in Cryptologic Spectrum that concluded that Tito did not speak the language as a native, and had features of other Slavic languages (Russian and Polish). The hypothesis that "a non-Yugoslav, perhaps a Russian or a Pole" assumed Tito's identity was included. The report also notes Draža Mihailović's impressions of Tito's Russian origins.


What organization created the Cryptologic Spectrum?


What other Slavic languages did the Cryptologic Spectrum conclude Tito spoke?


The Cryptologic Spectrum also notes whose impressions of Tito's Russian origins?


Experts from what country disproved the NSA's report?

However, the NSA's report was completely disproved by Croatian experts. The report failed to recognize that Tito was a native speaker of the very distinctive local Kajkavian dialect of Zagorje. The acute accent, present only in Croatian dialects, which Tito is perfectly pronouncing, is the strongest proof of Tito's belonging to Kajkavian dialect.


What was the distinct local dialect Tito spoke?


Croatian experts disproved the report from which group concerning Tito's ethnic origins?


Tito's acute accent is present only in what type of dialects?


Starting in what year was the Communist Party outlawed in Yugoslavia?

As the Communist Party was outlawed in Yugoslavia starting on 30 December 1920, Josip Broz took on many assumed names during his activity within the Party, including "Rudi", "Walter", and "Tito." Broz himself explains:


What party was outlawed in Yugoslavia in 1920?


"Rudi", "Walter" and "Tito" are names that what person assumed?


On what date in 1920 was the Communist party outlawed in Yugoslavia?


How many awards and decorations did Josip Broz Tito recieve?

Josip Broz Tito received a total of 119 awards and decorations from 60 countries around the world (59 countries and Yugoslavia). 21 decorations were from Yugoslavia itself, 18 having been awarded once, and the Order of the National Hero on three occasions. Of the 98 international awards and decorations, 92 were received once, and three on two occasions (Order of the White Lion, Polonia Restituta, and Karl Marx). The most notable awards included the French Legion of Honour and National Order of Merit, the British Order of the Bath, the Soviet Order of Lenin, the Japanese Order of the Chrysanthemum, the German Federal Cross of Merit, and the Order of Merit of Italy.


Of all of the awards Tito received, how many were from Yugoslavia itself?


Which government awards the Legion of Honour and the National Order of Merit?


Which government awards the Order of the Bath?


Which government awards the Order of the Chrysanthemum?


In what year did the Tito-Stalin split occur?

The decorations were seldom displayed, however. After the Tito–Stalin split of 1948 and his inauguration as president in 1953, Tito rarely wore his uniform except when present in a military function, and then (with rare exception) only wore his Yugoslav ribbons for obvious practical reasons. The awards were displayed in full number only at his funeral in 1980. Tito's reputation as one of the Allied leaders of World War II, along with his diplomatic position as the founder of the Non-Aligned Movement, was primarily the cause of the favorable international recognition.


In what year was Tito inaugurated as president?


Who was the founder of the Non-Aligned Movement?


Who was inauguarated as President of Yugoslavia in 1953?


Tito was awarded the Star of what country?

Some of the other foreign awards and decorations of Josip Broz Tito include Order of Merit, Order of Manuel Amador Guerrero, Order of Prince Henry, Order of Independence, Order of Merit, Order of the Nile, Order of the Condor of the Andes, Order of the Star of Romania, Order of the Gold Lion of the House of Nassau, Croix de Guerre, Order of the Cross of Grunwald, Czechoslovak War Cross, Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of Austria, Military Order of the White Lion, Nishan-e-Pakistan, Order of Al Rafidain, Order of Carol I, Order of Georgi Dimitrov, Order of Karl Marx, Order of Manuel Amador Guerrero, Order of Michael the Brave, Order of Pahlavi, Order of Sukhbaatar, Order of Suvorov, Order of the Liberator, Order of the October Revolution, Order of the Queen of Sheba, Order of the White Rose of Finland, Partisan Cross, Royal Order of Cambodia and Star of People's Friendship and Thiri Thudhamma Thingaha.[citation needed]


Tito was awarded the Decoration of Honour for Services to the Republic of what country?


Tito was awarded with the Order of the White Rose of what country?


Tito was awarded with the Royal Order of what country?


What is the name of the Marshall Islands in its native language?

The Marshall Islands, officially the Republic of the Marshall Islands (Marshallese: Aolepān Aorōkin M̧ajeļ),[note 1] is an island country located near the equator in the Pacific Ocean, slightly west of the International Date Line. Geographically, the country is part of the larger island group of Micronesia. The country's population of 53,158 people (at the 2011 Census) is spread out over 29 coral atolls, comprising 1,156 individual islands and islets. The islands share maritime boundaries with the Federated States of Micronesia to the west, Wake Island to the north,[note 2] Kiribati to the south-east, and Nauru to the south. About 27,797 of the islanders (at the 2011 Census) live on Majuro, which contains the capital.


Near what major line of latitutde are the Marshall Islands located?


As of 2011, how many people live in the Marshall Islands?


What country borders the Marshall Islands on the western side?


Which island is home to the capital of the Marshall Islands?


What is the official name of the Marshall Islands?


In what ocean are the Marshall Islands located?


How many people lived in the Marshall Islands in 2011?


How many coral atolls comprise the Marshall Islands?


On what island is the capital of the Marshall Islands?


Who were the original settlers of the area that became the Marshall Islands?

Micronesian colonists gradually settled the Marshall Islands during the 2nd millennium BC, with inter-island navigation made possible using traditional stick charts. Islands in the archipelago were first explored by Europeans in the 1520s, with Spanish explorer Alonso de Salazar sighting an atoll in August 1526. Other expeditions by Spanish and English ships followed. The islands derive their name from British explorer John Marshall, who visited in 1788. The islands were historically known by the inhabitants as "jolet jen Anij" (Gifts from God).


How were original settlers of the area able to move between islands?


In what year did a European explorer first see the Marshall Islands?


Which explorer first saw the Marshall Islands?


For whom are the Marshall Islands named?


During what span were the Marshall Islands first settled?


In what decade did Europeans first visit the Marshall Islands?


In what month and year did a European first arrive at the Marshall Islands?


After whom are the Marshall Islands named?


In what year did the Marshall Islands gain official recognition by the major European nations?

The European powers recognized the islands as part of the Spanish East Indies in 1874. However, Spain sold the islands to the German Empire in 1884, and they became part of German New Guinea in 1885. In World War I the Empire of Japan occupied the Marshall Islands, which in 1919 the League of Nations combined with other former German territories to form the South Pacific Mandate. In World War II, the United States conquered the islands in the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign. Along with other Pacific Islands, the Marshall Islands were then consolidated into the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands governed by the US. Self-government was achieved in 1979, and full sovereignty in 1986, under a Compact of Free Association with the United States. Marshall Islands has been a United Nations member state since 1991.


In 1884, which country purchased the Marshall Islands?


What group was the Marshall Islands a part of following World War I?


Who took over the Marshall Islands in the second world war?


In what year did the Marshall Islands achieve total sovereignty?


What European nation owned the Marshall Islands in 1874?


Who bought the Marshall Islands from the Spanish in 1884?


Who occupied the Marshall Islands during the First World War?


In what year was the South Pacific Mandate created?


In what year did the Marshall Islands become a sovereign nation?


What term describes the type of government of the Marshall Islands?

Politically, the Marshall Islands is a presidential republic in free association with the United States, with the US providing defense, subsidies, and access to U.S. based agencies such as the FCC and the USPS. With few natural resources, the islands' wealth is based on a service economy, as well as some fishing and agriculture; aid from the United States represents a large percentage of the islands' gross domestic product. The country uses the United States dollar as its currency.


With which country are the Marshall Islands closely related?


What is the main focus of the Marshall Islands' economy?


What does the Marshall Islands receive from the United States?


What is the currency of the Marshall Islands?


Along with the USPS, what United States agency operates in the Marshall Islands?


What is the main component of the Marshall Islands economy?


What is the official currency of the Marshall Islands?


What is the government structure of the Marshall Islands?


Assistance from what country is an important part of the Marshall Islands economy?


What is the ethnicity of most people living in the Marshall Islands?

The majority of the citizens of the Marshall Islands are of Marshallese descent, though there are small numbers of immigrants from the United States, China, Philippines and other Pacific islands. The two official languages are Marshallese, which is a member of the Malayo-Polynesian languages, and English. Almost the entire population of the islands practises some religion, with three-quarters of the country either following the United Church of Christ – Congregational in the Marshall Islands (UCCCMI) or the Assemblies of God.


What family of languages does Marshallese belong to?


Aside from UCCCMI, what is the other major religious denomination of the Marshall Islands?


From what non-Asian nation do some people living in the Marshall Islands come?


Of what ancestry are most Marshall Islands citizens?


Along with Marshallese, what is the official language of the Marshall Islands?


Of what language group is the Marshallese language?


What fraction of Marshall Islands residents are religious?


Along with the United Church of Christ and the UCCCMI, what is a main religion of the Marshall Islands?


Who arrived at the Marshall Islands in the second millennium BC?

Micronesians settled the Marshall Islands in the 2nd millennium BC, but there are no historical or oral records of that period. Over time, the Marshall Island people learned to navigate over long ocean distances by canoe using traditional stick charts.


What did not exist at the time during which Micronesians arrived at the Marshall Islands?


What vessel did early settlers of the Marshall Islands use to travel?


What is the name of the item used as a primitive type of map for navigation by early settlers of the Marshall Islands?


When were the Marshal Islands first settled?


In what vehicles did the Marshall Islanders travel by water?


What navigation aids did the Marshall Islanders use?


Which European first saw the Marshall Islands?

Spanish explorer Alonso de Salazar was the first European to see the islands in 1526, commanding the ship Santa Maria de la Victoria, the only surviving vessel of the Loaísa Expedition. On August 21, he sighted an island (probably Taongi) at 14°N that he named "San Bartolome".


What was Alonso de Salazar's nationality?


In what year did Salazar view the Marshall Islands?


What was the name of Alonso de Salazar's ship?


What did Alonso de Salazar call the island that he saw?


Who was the first person from Europe to observe the Marshall Islands?


What was the nationality of the first European to observe the Marshall Islands?


In what year did the first European view the Marshall Islands?


Which of the Marshall Islands did Salazar most likely see?


On September 21, 1529, Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón commanded the Spanish ship Florida, on his second attempt to recross the Pacific from the Maluku Islands. He stood off a group of islands from which local inhabitants hurled stones at his ship. These islands, which he named "Los Pintados", may have been Ujelang. On October 1, he found another group of islands where he went ashore for eight days, exchanged gifts with the local inhabitants and took on water. These islands, which he named "Los Jardines", may have been Enewetak or Bikini Atoll.


From where did Cerón attempt to cross the Pacific Ocean?


What did Cerón name the islands from which people threw rocks at his vessel?


What was the name given to the islands reached by Cerón in October of 1529?


What are two possible modern names for the islands called Los Jardines by Cerón?


Who was in charge of the ship named Florida?


What name did Cerón give to the island that might have been Ujelang?


What group of islands might have been Bikini Atoll or Enewetak?


How long did Cerón spend on Los Jardines?


What was the name given to the island reached by Miguel Lopez de Legazpi on January 9th of 1530?

The Spanish ship San Pedro and two other vessels in an expedition commanded by Miguel López de Legazpi discovered an island on January 9, 1530, possibly Mejit, at 10°N, which they named "Los Barbudos". The Spaniards went ashore and traded with the local inhabitants. On January 10, the Spaniards sighted another island that they named "Placeres", perhaps Ailuk; ten leagues away, they sighted another island that they called "Pajares" (perhaps Jemo). On January 12, they sighted another island at 10°N that they called "Corrales" (possibly Wotho). On January 15, the Spaniards sighted another low island, perhaps Ujelang, at 10°N, where they described the people on "Barbudos". After that, ships including the San Jeronimo, Los Reyes and Todos los Santos also visited the islands in different years.


What is thought to be the modern name of the island Legazpi called Los Barbudos?


On what date did Legazpi's expedition see the island it named Placeres?


What name did the expedition give to the island it saw on January 12th?


Who led the expedition involving the ship San Pedro?


What did Miguel López de Legazpi call the island discovered on January 9, 1530?


What did the Spanish call the island that might have been Ailuk?


On what day did the Spanish see the island they named Corrales?


What island may have been spotted by the Spanish on January 15?


Who arrived at the Marshall Islands in 1788?

Captain John Charles Marshall and Thomas Gilbert visited the islands in 1788. The islands were named for Marshall on Western charts, although the natives have historically named their home "jolet jen Anij" (Gifts from God). Around 1820, Russian explorer Adam Johann von Krusenstern and the French explorer Louis Isidore Duperrey named the islands after John Marshall, and drew maps of the islands. The designation was repeated later on British maps.[citation needed] In 1824 the crew of the American whaler Globe mutinied and some of the crew put ashore on Mulgrave Island. One year later, the American schooner Dolphin arrived and picked up two boys, the last survivors of a massacre by the natives due to their brutal treatment of the women.:2


What do natives of the Marshall Islands call their country?


Which Russian was involved in naming the Marshall Islands?


Which French citizen was involved in naming the Marshall Islands?


At what island did the Globe arrive in 1824?


Who notably accompanied John Charles Marshall to the Marshall Islands?


In what year did Marshall and Gilbert go to the islands?


What is the traditional name of the Marshall Islands?


What is the English translation of the traditional name of the Marshall Islands?


On what island did mutinous American whalers land in 1824?


Who was the leader of the group attacked by the people of the Marshall Islands in 1834?

A number of vessels visiting the islands were attacked and their crews killed. In 1834, Captain DonSette and his crew were killed. Similarly, in 1845 the schooner Naiad punished a native for stealing with such violence that the natives attacked the ship. Later that year a whaler's boat crew were killed. In 1852 the San Francisco-based ships Glencoe and Sea Nymph were attacked and everyone aboard except for one crew member were killed. The violence was usually attributed as a response to the ill treatment of the natives in response to petty theft, which was a common practice. In 1857, two missionaries successfully settled on Ebon, living among the natives through at least 1870.:3


In what year did missionaries arrive to live in the Marshall Islands?


On what island did the Missionaries live with citizens of the Marshall Islands?


Who was the captain of the crew killed in 1834?


In what year was the ship Naiad attacked by natives?


Out of what city was the Sea Nymph sailing?


What nation had a claim on the Marshall Islands as of 1874?

Although the Spanish Empire had a residual claim on the Marshalls in 1874, when she began asserting her sovereignty over the Carolines, she made no effort to prevent the German Empire from gaining a foothold there. Britain also raised no objection to a German protectorate over the Marshalls in exchange for German recognition of Britain's rights in the Gilbert and Ellice Islands. On October 13, 1885, SMS Nautilus under Captain Rötger brought German emissaries to Jaluit. They signed a treaty with Kabua, whom the Germans had earlier recognized as "King of the Ralik Islands," on October 15.


What nation formed a protectorate over the Marshall Islands?


What nation asserted their rights over the Gilbert and Ellice islands?


On what ship did German ambassadors arrive in the Marshall Islands?


What title did the Germans give to Kabua?


On what day was a final treaty signed between the Marshall Islands chiefs and the Germans?

Subsequently, seven other chiefs on seven other islands signed a treaty in German and Marshallese and a final copy witnessed by Rötger on November 1 was sent to the German Foreign Office. The Germans erected a sign declaring a "Imperial German Protectorate" at Jaluit. It has been speculated that the crisis over the Carolines with Spain, which almost provoked a war, was in fact "a feint to cover the acquisition of the Marshall Islands", which went almost unnoticed at the time, despite the islands being the largest source of copra in Micronesia. Spain sold the islands to Germany in 1884 through papal mediation.


What status did the Marshall Islands have in Germany?


What nation had control of the Carolines?


What notable resource was available in the Marshall Islands?


In what year did Germany buy the Marshalls from Spain?


What company ran the Marshall Islands in the late 19th century?

A German trading company, the Jaluit Gesellschaft, administered the islands from 1887 until 1905. They conscripted the islanders as laborers and mistreated them. After the German–Spanish Treaty of 1899, in which Germany acquired the Carolines, Palau, and the Marianas from Spain, Germany placed all of its Micronesian islands, including the Marshalls, under the governor of German New Guinea.


When did the Jaluit Gesellschaft's administration of the islands end?


Along with the Marianas and Palau, what islands were acquired from Spain in 1899?


What official administered Germany's Micronesian possessions?


What Catholic group was Father Erdland a part of?

Catholic missionary Father A. Erdland, from the Sacred Heart Jesu Society based in Hiltrup, Germany, lived on Jaluit from around 1904 to 1914. He was very interested in the islands and conducted considerable research on the Marshallese culture and language. He published a 376-page monograph on the islands in 1914. Father H. Linckens, another missionary from the Sacred Heart of Jesu Society visited the Marshall Islands in 1904 and 1911 for several weeks. He published a small work in 1912 about the Catholic mission activities and the people of the Marshall Islands.


In what year did Father Erdland leave the Marshall Islands?


In what year was Father Linckens' last visit to the Marshalls?


When was Father Linckens' book published?


In what year did Father Linckens first travel to the Marshalls?


What notable historical event occurred in Japan in 1868?

Under German control, and even before then, Japanese traders and fishermen from time to time visited the Marshall Islands, although contact with the islanders was irregular. After the Meiji Restoration (1868), the Japanese government adopted a policy of turning the Japanese Empire into a great economic and military power in East Asia.


In what region did the Japanese attempt to build up their power after 1868?


Along with fishermen, what sort of Japanese people visited the Marshalls?


On what date did the Japanese land on Enewetak?

In 1914, Japan joined the Entente during World War I and captured various German Empire colonies, including several in Micronesia. On September 29, 1914, Japanese troops occupied the Enewetak Atoll, and on September 30, 1914, the Jaluit Atoll, the administrative centre of the Marshall Islands. After the war, on June 28, 1919, Germany signed (under protest) the Treaty of Versailles. It renounced all of its Pacific possessions, including the Marshall Islands. On December 17, 1920, the Council of the League of Nations approved the South Pacific Mandate for Japan to take over all former German colonies in the Pacific Ocean located north of the Equator. The Administrative Centre of the Marshall Islands archipelago remained Jaluit.


What military alliance did the Japanese join in the First World War?


What did the Japanese occupy on September 30, 1914?


On what date was the Treaty of Versailles signed?


When was the South Pacific Mandate for Japan approved?


About how many Japanese emigrated to the Marshalls when it was a Japanese colony?

The German Empire had primarily economic interests in Micronesia. The Japanese interests were in land. Despite the Marshalls' small area and few resources, the absorption of the territory by Japan would to some extent alleviate Japan's problem of an increasing population with a diminishing amount of available land to house it. During its years of colonial rule, Japan moved more than 1,000 Japanese to the Marshall Islands although they never outnumbered the indigenous peoples as they did in the Mariana Islands and Palau.


What was the primary nature of Germany's interest in the Marshall Islands?


What was the primary nature of Japan's interest in the Marshall Islands?


Along with the Mariana Islands, on what island were there more Japanese settlers than indigenous inhabitants?


What was the traditional social organization of the Marshall Islanders?

The Japanese enlarged administration and appointed local leaders, which weakened the authority of local traditional leaders. Japan also tried to change the social organization in the islands from Matrilineality to the Japanese Patriarchal system, but with no success. Moreover, during the 1930s, one third of all land up to the high water level was declared the property of the Japanese government. On the archipelago, before it banned foreign traders, the activities of Catholic and Protestant missionaries were allowed. Indigenous people were educated in Japanese schools, and studied Japanese language and Japanese culture. This policy was the government strategy not only in the Marshall Islands, but on all the other mandated territories in Micronesia. On March 27, 1933, Japan handed in its notice at the League of Nations, but continued to manage the islands, and in the late 1930s began building air bases on several atolls. The Marshall Islands were in an important geographical position, being the easternmost point in Japan's defensive ring at the beginning of World War II.


What system of social organization was used in Japan?


On what date did the Japanese leave the League of Nations?


What language were Marshall Islanders taught in schools while under Japanese colonial administration?


Along with Protestants, missionaries from what denomination were allowed to operate in the Marshalls?


What Japanese fleet was based in the Marshall Islands?

In the months before the attack on Pearl Harbor, Kwajalein Atoll was the administrative center of the Japanese 6th Fleet Forces Service, whose task was the defense of the Marshall Islands.


On what atoll was the 6th Fleet Forces Service based?


What was the mission of the 6th Fleet Forces Service?


During what conflict did the US occupy the Marshall Islands?

In World War II, the United States, during the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign, invaded and occupied the islands in 1944, destroying or isolating the Japanese garrisons. In just one month in 1944, Americans captured Kwajalein Atoll, Majuro and Enewetak, and, in the next two months, the rest of the Marshall Islands, except for Wotje, Mili, Maloelap and Jaluit.


What was the name of the campaign in which the US occupied the Marshalls?


In what year did the United States occupy the Marshalls?


How many months did it take for the US to occupy Kwajalein Atoll, Majuro and Enewetak?


Along with Mili, Maloelap and Jaluit, what parts of the Marshall Islands were not occupied in the first three months of the American campaign?


In what year did American air attacks on the Marshalls begin?

The battle in the Marshall Islands caused irreparable damage, especially on Japanese bases. During the American bombing, the islands' population suffered from lack of food and various injuries. U.S. attacks started in mid-1943, and caused half the Japanese garrison of 5,100 people in the atoll Mili to die from hunger by August 1945.


How large was the Japanese garrison on Mili?


What fraction of the Japanese garrison on Mili died due to hunger?


Along with injuries, what suffering did the American bombing cause to the Marshall Islanders?


During what conflict did the US occupy the Marshalls?

Following capture and occupation by the United States during World War II, the Marshall Islands, along with several other island groups located in Micronesia, passed formally to the United States under United Nations auspices in 1947 as part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands established pursuant to Security Council Resolution 21.


What resolution of the UN Security Council gave the United States control over the Marshalls?


In what year was the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands created?


What is the name of the broader region that the Marshall Islands are a part of?


During the early years of the Cold War from 1946 to 1958, the United States tested 67 nuclear weapons at its Pacific Proving Grounds located in the Marshall Islands, including the largest atmospheric nuclear test ever conducted by the U.S., code named Castle Bravo. "The bombs had a total yield of 108,496 kilotons, over 7,200 times more powerful than the atomic weapons used during World War II." With the 1952 test of the first U.S. hydrogen bomb, code named "Ivy Mike," the island of Elugelab in the Enewetak atoll was destroyed. In 1956, the United States Atomic Energy Commission regarded the Marshall Islands as "by far the most contaminated place in the world."


How many nuclear weapons were tested in the Marshall Islands between 1946 and 1958?


What was the name of the United States' largest atmospheric nuclear test?


What was the yield of the Castle Bravo bombs in kilotons?


Which of the Marshall Islands was destroyed in a United States hydrogen bomb test?


What was the name of the US study of nuclear fallout on Bikini Atoll?

Nuclear claims between the U.S. and the Marshall Islands are ongoing, and health effects from these nuclear tests linger. Project 4.1 was a medical study conducted by the United States of those residents of the Bikini Atoll exposed to radioactive fallout. From 1956 to August 1998, at least $759 million was paid to the Marshallese Islanders in compensation for their exposure to U.S. nuclear weapon testing.


When did the United States begin to pay compensation to Marshall Islanders for nuclear weapon exposure?


In millions of dollars, how much money did the United States pay out in nuclear testing compensation to Marshall Island residents between 1956 and 1998?


What document granted sovereignty to the Marshall Islands?

In 1986, the Compact of Free Association with the United States entered into force, granting the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) its sovereignty. The Compact provided for aid and U.S. defense of the islands in exchange for continued U.S. military use of the missile testing range at Kwajalein Atoll. The independence procedure was formally completed under international law in 1990, when the UN officially ended the Trusteeship status pursuant to Security Council Resolution 683.


In what year did the Marshall Islands receive sovereignty?


Where in the Marshall Islands does the United States have a missile testing range?


When did UN Trusteeship over the Marshall Islands end?


What Security Council Resolution ended UN Trusteeship over the Marshalls?


What is the capital of the Marshall Islands?

In 2008, extreme waves and high tides caused widespread flooding in the capital city of Majuro and other urban centres, 3 feet (0.91 m) above sea level. On Christmas morning in 2008, the government declared a state of emergency. In 2013, heavy waves once again breached the city walls of Majuro.


On what day in 2008 did the Marshall Island government declare a state of emergency?


In meters, how high were the 2008 floods?


In what year did waves overcome the walls of the capital city?


What part of the Marshall Islands experienced drought in 2013?

In 2013, the northern atolls of the Marshall Islands experienced drought. The drought left 6,000 people surviving on less than 1 litre (0.22 imp gal; 0.26 US gal) of water per day. This resulted in the failure of food crops and the spread of diseases such as diarrhea, pink eye, and influenza. These emergencies resulted in the United States President declaring an emergency in the islands. This declaration activated support from US government agencies under the Republic's "free association" status with the United States, which provides humanitarian and other vital support.


How many people were stricken by drought in 2013?


In the drought stricken areas, how many litres of water did residents consume each day?


Along with pink eye and influenza, what other health issue was caused by the drought?


What official declared a state of emergency in the Marshall Islands in response to the drought?


As of 2013, who was the Marshall Islands Minister of Foreign Affairs?

Following the 2013 emergencies, the Minister of Foreign Affairs Tony de Brum was encouraged by the Obama administration in the United States to turn the crises into an opportunity to promote action against climate change. De Brum demanded new commitment and international leadership to stave off further climate disasters from battering his country and other similarly vulnerable countries. In September 2013, the Marshall Islands hosted the 44th Pacific Islands Forum summit. De Brum proposed a Majuro Declaration for Climate Leadership to galvanize concrete action on climate change.


In what month and year did the 44th Pacific Islands Forum summit take place?


What document did Foreign Minister de Brum present at the 44th Pacific Islands Forum summit?


What environmental issue did the Majuro Declaration for Climate Leadership address?


Who encouraged de Brum to address climate issues?


What is the governing system of the Marshall Islands?

The government of the Marshall Islands operates under a mixed parliamentary-presidential system as set forth in its Constitution. Elections are held every four years in universal suffrage (for all citizens above 18), with each of the twenty-four constituencies (see below) electing one or more representatives (senators) to the lower house of RMI's unicameral legislature, the Nitijela. (Majuro, the capital atoll, elects five senators.) The President, who is head of state as well as head of government, is elected by the 33 senators of the Nitijela. Four of the five Marshallese presidents who have been elected since the Constitution was adopted in 1979 have been traditional paramount chiefs.


How old must a citizen of the Marshall Islands be to vote?


How often are elections held in the Marshall Islands?


What is the name of the Marshall Islands legislature?


When was the most recent constitution of the Marshall Islands adopted?


What is the name of the upper house of the Marshall Islands Parliament?

Legislative power lies with the Nitijela. The upper house of Parliament, called the Council of Iroij, is an advisory body comprising twelve tribal chiefs. The executive branch consists of the President and the Presidential Cabinet, which consists of ten ministers appointed by the President with the approval of the Nitijela. The twenty-four electoral districts into which the country is divided correspond to the inhabited islands and atolls. There are currently four political parties in the Marshall Islands: Aelon̄ Kein Ad (AKA), United People's Party (UPP), Kien Eo Am (KEA) and United Democratic Party (UDP). Rule is shared by the AKA and the UDP. The following senators are in the legislative body:


Who comprises the upper house of the Marshall Islands Parliament?


How many ministers are in the Presidential Cabinet?


Along with the United Democratic Party, what party currently rules the Marshall Islands?


How many electoral districts exist in the Marshall Islands?


What document governs the defense of the Marshall Islands?

The Compact of Free Association with the United States gives the U.S. sole responsibility for international defense of the Marshall Islands. It allows islanders to live and work in the United States and establishes economic and technical aid programs.


What nation is responsible for the defense of the Marshall Islands?


Along with economic aid, what assistance does the Compact of Free Association provide?


When did the UN Security Council recommend that the Marshall Islands be allowed to join the UN?

The Marshall Islands was admitted to the United Nations based on the Security Council's recommendation on August 9, 1991, in Resolution 704 and the General Assembly's approval on September 17, 1991, in Resolution 46/3. In international politics within the United Nations, the Marshall Islands has often voted consistently with the United States with respect to General Assembly resolutions.


When did the UN General Assembly approve the Marshall Islands joining the UN?


What nation does the Marshall Islands vote similarly to in the General Assembly?


What Security Council Resolution recommended that the Marshall Islands be allowed to join the UN?


On what date did the Iranian Navy capture a Marshall Islands ship?

On 28 April 2015, the Iranian navy seized the Marshall Island-flagged MV Maersk Tigris near the Strait of Hormuz. The ship had been chartered by Germany's Rickmers Ship Management, which stated that the ship contained no special cargo and no military weapons. The ship was reported to be under the control of the Iranian Revolutionary Guard according to the Pentagon. Tensions escallated in the region due to the intensifying of Saudi-led coalition attacks in Yemen. The Pentagon reported that the destroyer USS Farragut and a maritime reconnaissance aircraft were dispatched upon receiving a distress call from the ship Tigris and it was also reported that all 34 crew members were detained. US defense officials have said that they would review U.S. defense obligations to the Government of the Marshall Islands in the wake of recent events and also condemned the shots fired at the bridge as "inappropriate". It was reported in May 2015 that Tehran would release the ship after it paid a penalty.


What was the name of the Marshall Islands ship seized by Iran?


Who chartered the captured Marshall Islands ship?


How many crew members were on the MV Maersk Tigris?


Near what body of water was the Maersk Tigris seized?


What nation lies to the west of the Marshall Islands?

The islands are located about halfway between Hawaii and Australia, north of Nauru and Kiribati, east of the Federated States of Micronesia, and south of the U.S. territory of Wake Island, to which it lays claim. The atolls and islands form two groups: the Ratak (sunrise) and the Ralik (sunset). The two island chains lie approximately parallel to one another, running northwest to southeast, comprising about 750,000 square miles (1,900,000 km2) of ocean but only about 70 square miles (180 km2) of land mass. Each includes 15 to 18 islands and atolls. The country consists of a total of 29 atolls and five isolated islands.


What United States territory does the Marshall Islands claim?


How many square kilometers of ocean do the Marshall Islands cover?


How many square kilometers of land do the Marshall Islands cover?


How many atolls are part of the Marshall Islands?


How large is the Marshall Islands shark sanctuary in square miles?

In October 2011, the government declared that an area covering nearly 2,000,000 square kilometres (772,000 sq mi) of ocean shall be reserved as a shark sanctuary. This is the world's largest shark sanctuary, extending the worldwide ocean area in which sharks are protected from 2,700,000 to 4,600,000 square kilometres (1,042,000 to 1,776,000 sq mi). In protected waters, all shark fishing is banned and all by-catch must be released. However, some have questioned the ability of the Marshall Islands to enforce this zone.


In what month and year did the Marshall Islands declare the largest shark sanctuary in the world?


In how many square miles of ocean around the world are sharks protected?


What island do the Marshall Islands claim?

The Marshall Islands also lays claim to Wake Island. While Wake has been administered by the United States since 1899, the Marshallese government refers to it by the name Enen-kio.


In what year did the US take control of Wake Island?


What does the Marshall Islands government call Wake Island?


When does the wet season in the Marshalls begin?

The climate is hot and humid, with a wet season from May to November. Many Pacific typhoons begin as tropical storms in the Marshall Islands region, and grow stronger as they move west toward the Mariana Islands and the Philippines.


In what month does the Marshall Islands wet season end?


Typhoons sometimes begin as what whether event in the Marshalls?


Along with the Marianas, where do typhoons that begin in the Marshalls sometimes terminate?


What feature makes the Marshalls susceptible to harm due to rising sea levels?

Due to its very low elevation, the Marshall Islands are threatened by the potential effects of sea level rise. According to the president of Nauru, the Marshall Islands are the most endangered nation in the world due to flooding from climate change.


Who said that the Marshalls are the most endangered nation in the world?


Why are the Marshall Islands the most endangered nation on Earth?


How many millimeters of rain do the northern atolls of the Marshall Islands receive?

Population has outstripped the supply of freshwater, usually from rainfall. The northern atolls get 50 inches (1,300 mm) of rainfall annually; the southern atolls about twice that. The threat of drought is commonplace throughout the island chains.


What is the main source of fresh water for the Marshall Islands?


What is the Marshall Islands often threatened with?


How much more rain do the southern atolls get compared to the northern?


What body did the Marshall Islands join in 2007?

In 2007, the Marshall Islands joined the International Labour Organization, which means its labour laws will comply with international benchmarks. This may impact business conditions in the islands.


What is the significance of the Marshall Islands joining the International Labour Organization?


What may see benefits from the Marshalls joining the International Labour Organization?


How much money did the Marshall Islands receive yearly from the United States until 2013?

United States government assistance is the mainstay of the economy. Under terms of the Amended Compact of Free Association, the U.S. is committed to provide US$57.7 million per year in assistance to the Marshall Islands (RMI) through 2013, and then US$62.7 million through 2023, at which time a trust fund, made up of U.S. and RMI contributions, will begin perpetual annual payouts.


How much money will the United States give the Marshal Islands every year until 2023?


What document defines how much money is transferred from the United States to the Marshall Islands?


On what atoll is a missile test facility based?

The United States Army maintains the Ronald Reagan Ballistic Missile Defense Test Site on Kwajalein Atoll. Marshallese land owners receive rent for the base.


Who is the missile test facility named after?


What is the official name of the missile test facility?


What organization operates the missile test site?


Along with coconuts, tomatoes and melons, what crops are notably grown in the Marshalls?

Agricultural production is concentrated on small farms.[citation needed] The most important commercial crops are coconuts, tomatoes, melons, and breadfruit.[citation needed]


Where does most agricultural production take place?


In what year was a tuna loining plant constructed?

In 1999, a private company built a tuna loining plant with more than 400 employees, mostly women. But the plant closed in 2005 after a failed attempt to convert it to produce tuna steaks, a process that requires half as many employees. Operating costs exceeded revenue, and the plant's owners tried to partner with the government to prevent closure. But government officials personally interested in an economic stake in the plant refused to help. After the plant closed, it was taken over by the government, which had been the guarantor of a $2 million loan to the business.[citation needed]


How many people worked at the tuna loining plant?


In what year did the tuna loining plant shut down?


Before it shut down, what was the tuna loining plant attempting to produce?


What was the amount of the loan to the tuna loining plant that the Marshall Islands government was responsible for?


On September 15, 2007, Witon Barry (of the Tobolar Copra processing plant in the Marshall Islands capital of Majuro) said power authorities, private companies, and entrepreneurs had been experimenting with coconut oil as alternative to diesel fuel for vehicles, power generators, and ships. Coconut trees abound in the Pacific's tropical islands. Copra, the meat of the coconut, yields coconut oil (1 liter for every 6 to 10 coconuts). In 2009, a 57 kW solar power plant was installed, the largest in the Pacific at the time, including New Zealand. It is estimated that 330 kW of solar and 450 kW of wind power would be required to make the College of the Marshall Islands energy self-sufficient. Marshalls Energy Company (MEC), a government entity, provides the islands with electricity. In 2008, 420 solar home systems of 200 Wp each were installed on Ailinglaplap Atoll, sufficient for limited electricity use.


Where was the Tobolar Copra plant located?


How many coconuts are required to produce 1 liter of coconut oil?


How many kilowatts of power are produced by the solar plant built in 2009?


About how many people lived in the Marshall Islands in 1862?

Historical population figures are unknown. In 1862, the population was estimated at about 10,000. In 1960, the entire population was about 15,000. In July 2011, the number of island residents was estimated to number about 72,191. Over two-thirds of the population live in the capital, Majuro and Ebeye, the secondary urban center, located in Kwajalein Atoll. This excludes many who have relocated elsewhere, primarily to the United States. The Compact of Free Association allows them to freely relocate to the United States and obtain work there. A large concentration of about 4,300 Marshall Islanders have relocated to Springdale, Arkansas, the largest population concentration of natives outside their island home.


How many people lived in the Marshall Islands in 1960?


As of July 2011, how many people resided on the Marshall Islands?


What town hosts the largest number of Marshall Islanders outside the Marshall Islands?


What is the ethnicity of most Marshall Islands residents?

Most of the residents are Marshallese, who are of Micronesian origin and migrated from Asia several thousand years ago. A minority of Marshallese have some recent Asian ancestry, mainly Japanese. About one-half of the nation's population lives on Majuro, the capital, and Ebeye, a densely populated island. The outer islands are sparsely populated due to lack of employment opportunities and economic development. Life on the outer atolls is generally traditional.


From what continent did the Marshallese originate?


What fraction of the population lives on Majuro or Ebeye?


What recent Asian ancestry do some Marshall Island residents have?


From when did the Marshallese migrate from the Asian continent?


What was the previous name of the United Church of Christ?

Major religious groups in the Republic of the Marshall Islands include the United Church of Christ (formerly Congregational), with 51.5% of the population; the Assemblies of God, 24.2%; the Roman Catholic Church, 8.4%; and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), 8.3%; Also represented are Bukot Nan Jesus (also known as Assembly of God Part Two), 2.2%; Baptist, 1.0%; Seventh-day Adventists, 0.9%; Full Gospel, 0.7%; and the Baha'i Faith, 0.6%; Persons without any religious affiliation account for a very small percentage of the population. There is also a small community of Ahmadiyya Muslims based in Majuro, with the first mosque opening in the capital in September 2012.


What percentage of Marshall Islanders belong to the Assemblies of God?


What percentage of Marshall Islands residents are Mormons?


What percentage of Marshall Islanders worship at the Assembly of God Part Two?


When did the first mosque in Majuro open?


What body operates the state schools in the Marshall Islands?

The Ministry of Education (Marshall Islands) operates the state schools in the Marshall Islands. There are two tertiary institutions operating in the Marshall Islands, the College of the Marshall Islands and the University of the South Pacific.


Along with the University of the South Pacific, what tertiary education institution exists in the Marshall Islands?


Where is the Marshall Islands International Airport located?

The Marshall Islands are served by the Marshall Islands International Airport in Majuro, the Bucholz Army Airfield in Kwajalein, and other small airports and airstrips.


The szlachta ([ˈʂlaxta] ( listen), exonym: Nobility) was a legally privileged noble class with origins in the Kingdom of Poland. It gained considerable institutional privileges between 1333 and 1370 during the reign of King Casimir III the Great.:211 In 1413, following a series of tentative personal unions between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Crown Kingdom of Poland, the existing Lithuanian nobility formally joined this class.:211 As the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1795) evolved and expanded in territory, its membership grew to include the leaders of Ducal Prussia, Podolian and Ruthenian lands.


Under whos' reign did the szlachta gain institutional privileges?


WHich two kingdoms shared tentative personal unions?


When did the polish-lithuanian commonwealth thrive?


What is one leader from the polish-lithuanian common weaith.


The origins of the szlachta are shrouded in obscurity and mystery and have been the subject of a variety of theories.:207 Traditionally, its members were owners of landed property, often in the form of "manor farms" or so-called folwarks. The nobility negotiated substantial and increasing political and legal privileges for itself throughout its entire history until the decline of the Polish Commonwealth in the late 18th century.


Were the szlachta obscure and mysterious or obvious and proud.


Around what time was the decline of the polish common wealth.


WHat did the commonwealth increase before it declined.


When, during the partitions of Poland, did the szlachta lose legal and social status.

During the Partitions of Poland from 1772 to 1795, its members began to lose these legal privileges and social status. From that point until 1918, the legal status of the nobility was essentially dependent upon the policies of the three partitioning powers: the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Prussia, and the Habsburg Monarchy. The legal privileges of the szlachta were legally abolished in the Second Polish Republic by the March Constitution of 1921.


What was one name of a power that the szlachta was dependent on.


When was the March constitution implemented.


In what republic did the szlachta lose their legal privileges.


What was the notion for all polish nobles?

The notion that all Polish nobles were social equals, regardless of their financial status or offices held, is enshrined in a traditional Polish saying:


What ethnic saying is this traditional from?


Did it matter how much money a person had to polish nobles?


What german word does the term szlachta come from?

The term szlachta is derived from the Old High German word slahta (modern German Geschlecht), which means "(noble) family", much as many other Polish words pertaining to the nobility derive from German words—e.g., the Polish "rycerz" ("knight", cognate of the German "Ritter") and the Polish "herb" ("coat of arms", from the German "Erbe", "heritage").


Where does the word her derive from in german?


What did the poles of the 17th century think the term szlachta came from?

Poles of the 17th century assumed that "szlachta" came from the German "schlachten" ("to slaughter" or "to butcher"); also suggestive is the German "Schlacht" ("battle"). Early Polish historians thought the term may have derived from the name of the legendary proto-Polish chief, Lech, mentioned in Polish and Czech writings.


What German word is also suggestive deriving from szlachta?


The polish believed szlachta derived from the name of who?


What were some powerful Polish nobles referred too?

Some powerful Polish nobles were referred to as "magnates" (Polish singular: "magnat", plural: "magnaci") and "możny" ("magnate", "oligarch"; plural: "możni"); see Magnates of Poland and Lithuania.


What is the singular version of magnates?


What is another name referring polish nobles?


What other country besides Poland were polish nobles most likely found?


What term designated the noble class of polish Lithuania common wealth?

The Polish term "szlachta" designated the formalized, hereditary noble class of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. In official Latin documents of the old Commonwealth, hereditary szlachta are referred to as "nobilitas" and are indeed the equivalent in legal status of the English nobility.


What are two adjectives that best describe the szlachta?


What simple word does the term szlachta translate too?

Today the word szlachta in the Polish language simply translates to "nobility". In its broadest meaning, it can also denote some non-hereditary honorary knighthoods granted today by some European monarchs. Occasionally, 19th-century non-noble landowners were referred to as szlachta by courtesy or error, when they owned manorial estates though they were not noble by birth. In the narrow sense, szlachta denotes the old-Commonwealth nobility.


What were the non noble land owners referred too as?


Why were the non nobles and nobles referred as the same term?


Why did the mistranslation of szlachta come about?

In the past, a certain misconception sometimes led to the mistranslation of "szlachta" as "gentry" rather than "nobility".:206 :xvi This mistaken practice began due to the economic status of some szlachta members being inferior to that of the nobility in other European countries (see also Estates of the Realm regarding wealth and nobility). The szlachta included those almost rich and powerful enough to be magnates down to rascals with a noble lineage, no land, no castle, no money, no village, and no peasants.:xvi


Who was inferior of the other, European countries or szlachta?


As some szlachta were poorer than some non-noble gentry, some particularly impoverished szlachta were forced to become tenants of the wealthier gentry. In doing so, however, these szlachta retained all their constitutional prerogatives, as it was not wealth or lifestyle (obtainable by the gentry), but hereditary juridical status, that determined nobility.


What were some impoverished szlachta forced to do?


Did the tenants of the wealthier genrty lose their nobility?


What was one noble thing the poor szlachta did?


Have the origins of the szlachta been clear or obscure?

The origins of the szlachta, while ancient, have always been considered obscure.:207 As a result, its members often referred to it as odwieczna (perennial).:207 Two popular historic theories of origin forwarded by its members and earlier historians and chroniclers involved descent from the ancient Iranian tribes known as Sarmatians or from Japheth, one of Noah's sons (by contrast, the peasantry were said to be the offspring of another son of Noah, Ham—and hence subject to bondage under the Curse of Ham—and the Jews as the offspring of Shem). Other fanciful theories included its foundation by Julius Caesar, Alexander the Great:207 or regional leaders who had not mixed their bloodlines with those of 'slaves, prisoners, and aliens'.:208


What did they use to refer to the origin of szlactha?


What was one historic theory of the szlachta origins?


What was another regional leader involved in the origins of szlachta?


What was important and unique about regional leaders?


WHat was the name of the distinct element from a nnon-Slavic warrior class?

Another theory describes its derivation from a non-Slavic warrior class,:42, 64–66 forming a distinct element known as the Lechici/Lekhi (Lechitów):430 :482 within the ancient Polonic tribal groupings (Indo-European caste systems). This hypothesis states this upper class was not of Slavonic extraction:482 and was of a different origin than the Slavonic peasants (kmiecie; Latin: cmethones):430 :118 over which they ruled.:482 The Szlachta were differentiated from the rural population. The nobleman's sense of distinction led to practices that in later periods would be characterized as racism.:233 The Szlachta were noble in the Aryan sense -- "noble" in contrast to the people over whom they ruled after coming into contact with them.:482 The szlachta traced their descent from Lech/Lekh, who probably founded the Polish kingdom in about the fifth century.:482 Lechia was the name of Poland in antiquity, and the szlachta's own name for themselves was Lechici/Lekhi.:482 An exact counterpart of Szlachta society was the Meerassee system of tenure of southern India—an aristocracy of equality—settled as conquerors among a separate race.:484 The Polish state paralleled the Roman Empire in that full rights of citizenship were limited to the szlachta. The szlachta were a caste, a military caste, as in Hindu society.


In this theory, what was the upper class?


WHat caste system does the hindu society have?


Who shares the same caste system as Hindu?


WHat is the earliest surviving use of the clan name of the polish knights?

The documentation regarding Raciborz and Albert's tenure is the earliest surviving of the use of the clan name and cry defining the honorable status of Polish knights. The names of knightly genealogiae only came to be associated with heraldic devices later in the Middle Ages and in the early modern period. The Polish clan name and cry ritualized the ius militare, i.e., the power to command an army; and they had been used some time before 1244 to define knightly status. (Górecki 1992, pp. 183–185).


WHn did the knightly genealogiae associate with heraldic devices?


The polish anem and cry ritualized what?


In 1244 the power to command and army had been used to do what?


Around what time were the knights and szlachta very similiar?

Around the 14th century, there was little difference between knights and the szlachta in Poland. Members of the szlachta had the personal obligation to defend the country (pospolite ruszenie), thereby becoming the kingdom's most privileged social class. Inclusion in the class was almost exclusively based on inheritance.


What was a personal obligation of the szlachtas?


What contributed to the long standing traditions?

Concerning the early Polish tribes, geography contributed to long-standing traditions. The Polish tribes were internalized and organized around a unifying religious cult, governed by the wiec, an assembly of free tribesmen. Later, when safety required power to be consolidated, an elected prince was chosen to govern. The election privilege was usually limited to elites.


When power needed to be consolidated what was chosen to govern?


What was the governing position limited to?


The tribes were ruled by clans (ród) consisting of people related by blood or marriage and theoretically descending from a common ancestor, giving the ród/clan a highly developed sense of solidarity. (See gens.) The starosta (or starszyna) had judicial and military power over the ród/clan, although this power was often exercised with an assembly of elders. Strongholds called grόd were built where the religious cult was powerful, where trials were conducted, and where clans gathered in the face of danger. The opole was the territory occupied by a single tribe. (Manteuffel 1982, p. 44)


What did the clans people all have in common?


What was the territory occupied by a single tribe?


WHo established an elite knightly retinue?

Mieszko I of Poland (c. 935 – 25 May 992) established an elite knightly retinue from within his army, which he depended upon for success in uniting the Lekhitic tribes and preserving the unity of his state. Documented proof exists of Mieszko I's successors utilizing such a retinue, as well.


How long was Miesko I of Poland reigning?


Along with uniting the lekhitic tribes what did poland succeed in?


Who also established this retinue as well?


WHat was a polish nobleman referred to as before the 15th century?

Another class of knights were granted land by the prince, allowing them the economic ability to serve the prince militarily. A Polish nobleman living at the time prior to the 15th century was referred to as a "rycerz", very roughly equivalent to the English "knight," the critical difference being the status of "rycerz" was almost strictly hereditary; the class of all such individuals was known as the "rycerstwo". Representing the wealthier families of Poland and itinerant knights from abroad seeking their fortunes, this other class of rycerstwo, which became the szlachta/nobility ("szlachta" becomes the proper term for Polish nobility beginning about the 15th century), gradually formed apart from Mieszko I's and his successors' elite retinues. This rycerstwo/nobility obtained more privileges granting them favored status. They were absolved from particular burdens and obligations under ducal law, resulting in the belief only rycerstwo (those combining military prowess with high/noble birth) could serve as officials in state administration.


What is roughly the same to the english version of rycerz?


What people did the rycerstwo class represent?


What positive did the szlachta class receive?


What did ducal law implement for the rycerstwo/nobility?