What route does a migrating bird usually follow?

Often, the migration route of a long-distance migrator bird doesn't follow a straight line between breeding and wintering grounds. Rather, it could follow an hooked or arched line, with detours around geographical barriers. For most land-birds, such barriers could consist in seas, large water bodies or high mountain ranges, because of the lack of stopover or feeding sites, or the lack of thermal columns for broad-winged birds.


What geographical barriers to land birds try to avoid?


Why do migrating land birds avoid large water bodies or mountain ranges?


Why do broad winged birds avoid geographical barriers?


What do water birds avoid while migrating?

The same considerations about barriers and detours that apply to long-distance land-bird migration apply to water birds, but in reverse: a large area of land without bodies of water that offer feeding sites may also be a barrier to a bird that feeds in coastal waters. Detours avoiding such barriers are observed: for example, brent geese Branta bernicla migrating from the Taymyr Peninsula to the Wadden Sea travel via the White Sea coast and the Baltic Sea rather than directly across the Arctic Ocean and northern Scandinavia.


What are waders called in North America?

A similar situation occurs with waders (called shorebirds in North America). Many species, such as dunlin Calidris alpina and western sandpiper Calidris mauri, undertake long movements from their Arctic breeding grounds to warmer locations in the same hemisphere, but others such as semipalmated sandpiper C. pusilla travel longer distances to the tropics in the Southern Hemisphere.


Where do dunlin Calidris alpina migrate to?


Where do semiplamated sandpiper C. pusilla migrate to?


Where do western sandpiper Calidris migrate from?


What does successful migration depend on for some waders?

For some species of waders, migration success depends on the availability of certain key food resources at stopover points along the migration route. This gives the migrants an opportunity to refuel for the next leg of the voyage. Some examples of important stopover locations are the Bay of Fundy and Delaware Bay.


Where is an important stopover location?


Some bar-tailed godwits Limosa lapponica have the longest known non-stop flight of any migrant, flying 11,000 km from Alaska to their New Zealand non-breeding areas. Prior to migration, 55 percent of their bodyweight is stored as fat to fuel this uninterrupted journey.


How far do bar-tailed godwits travel to migrate?


Where do bar-tailed godwits migrate from


How much of the bar-tailed godwits bodyweight is stored as fat before migration?


Which seabird has the longest-distance migration?

Seabird migration is similar in pattern to those of the waders and waterfowl. Some, such as the black guillemot Cepphus grylle and some gulls, are quite sedentary; others, such as most terns and auks breeding in the temperate northern hemisphere, move varying distances south in the northern winter. The Arctic tern Sterna paradisaea has the longest-distance migration of any bird, and sees more daylight than any other, moving from its Arctic breeding grounds to the Antarctic non-breeding areas. One Arctic tern, ringed (banded) as a chick on the Farne Islands off the British east coast, reached Melbourne, Australia in just three months from fledging, a sea journey of over 22,000 km (14,000 mi). Many tubenosed birds breed in the southern hemisphere and migrate north in the southern winter.


Which bird sees more daylight than any other during migration?


How long did one Arctic tern take to migrate?


How far did the Arctic tern chick travel?


The most pelagic species, mainly in the 'tubenose' order Procellariiformes, are great wanderers, and the albatrosses of the southern oceans may circle the globe as they ride the "roaring forties" outside the breeding season. The tubenoses spread widely over large areas of open ocean, but congregate when food becomes available. Many are also among the longest-distance migrants; sooty shearwaters Puffinus griseus nesting on the Falkland Islands migrate 14,000 km (8,700 mi) between the breeding colony and the North Atlantic Ocean off Norway. Some Manx shearwaters Puffinus puffinus do this same journey in reverse. As they are long-lived birds, they may cover enormous distances during their lives; one record-breaking Manx shearwater is calculated to have flown 8 million km (5 million miles) during its over-50 year lifespan.


How far did a Manx shearwater fly over it's lifespan?


Which bird broke a record in how far it flew over it's life?


How far will Puffinus griseus migrate each year?


What do some large broad-winged birds rely on to help them soar?

Some large broad-winged birds rely on thermal columns of rising hot air to enable them to soar. These include many birds of prey such as vultures, eagles, and buzzards, but also storks. These birds migrate in the daytime. Migratory species in these groups have great difficulty crossing large bodies of water, since thermals only form over land, and these birds cannot maintain active flight for long distances. Mediterranean and other seas present a major obstacle to soaring birds, which must cross at the narrowest points. Massive numbers of large raptors and storks pass through areas such as the Strait of Messina, Gibraltar, Falsterbo, and the Bosphorus at migration times. More common species, such as the European honey buzzard Pernis apivorus, can be counted in hundreds of thousands in autumn. Other barriers, such as mountain ranges, can also cause funnelling, particularly of large diurnal migrants. This is a notable factor in the Central American migratory bottleneck. Batumi bottleneck in the Caucasus is one of the heaviest migratory funnels on earth. Avoiding flying over the Black Sea surface and across high mountains, hundreds of thousands of soaring birds funnel through an area around the city of Batumi, Georgia. Birds of prey such as honey buzzards which migrate using thermals lose only 10 to 20% of their weight during migration, which may explain why they forage less during migration than do smaller birds of prey with more active flight such as falcons, hawks and harriers.


What is one of the heaviest migratory funnels?


How much of their body weight do honey buzzards lose during migration?


How many birds funnel through Batumi, Georgia each year?


When do many insectivorous birds migrate?

Many of the smaller insectivorous birds including the warblers, hummingbirds and flycatchers migrate large distances, usually at night. They land in the morning and may feed for a few days before resuming their migration. The birds are referred to as passage migrants in the regions where they occur for short durations between the origin and destination.


Which kinds of birds land for a few days before resuming migration?


What are smaller insectivorous birds referred to?


How long do passage migrants stop and feed before resuming migration?


What is a benefit of nocturnal migration?

Nocturnal migrants minimize predation, avoid overheating, and can feed during the day. One cost of nocturnal migration is the loss of sleep. Migrants may be able to alter their quality of sleep to compensate for the loss.


How do nocturnal migrants compensate for loss of sleep?


What is another benefit of nocturnal migration?


What are many long distance migrants genetically programmed to do?

Many long-distance migrants appear to be genetically programmed to respond to changing day length. Species that move short distances, however, may not need such a timing mechanism, instead moving in response to local weather conditions. Thus mountain and moorland breeders, such as wallcreeper Tichodroma muraria and white-throated dipper Cinclus cinclus, may move only altitudinally to escape the cold higher ground. Other species such as merlin Falco columbarius and Eurasian skylark Alauda arvensis move further, to the coast or towards the south. Species like the chaffinch are much less migratory in Britain than those of continental Europe, mostly not moving more than 5 km in their lives.


How do species that move short distances know when to migrate?


Why do mountain and moorland breeders move only altitudinally?


Where do the merlin Falco columbarius migrate to?


How far do British chaffinch more in their lives?


How many evolutionary origins do short distance passerine migrants have?

Short-distance passerine migrants have two evolutionary origins. Those that have long-distance migrants in the same family, such as the common chiffchaff Phylloscopus collybita, are species of southern hemisphere origins that have progressively shortened their return migration to stay in the northern hemisphere.


Which species have long-distance migrants in the same family?


Why have some specied progressively shortened their return migration?


What species has no long-distance migratory relatives?

Species that have no long-distance migratory relatives, such as the waxwings Bombycilla, are effectively moving in response to winter weather and the loss of their usual winter food, rather than enhanced breeding opportunities.


What are the waxwings Bombycilla moving in response to?


Why are the waxwing Bombycilla not migrating for?


Where is there little variation in the length of day throughout the year?

In the tropics there is little variation in the length of day throughout the year, and it is always warm enough for a food supply, but altitudinal migration occurs in some tropical birds. There is evidence that this enables the migrants to obtain more of their preferred foods such as fruits.


Why does altitudinal migration occur in some tropical birds?


What are tropical birds preferred foods?


Where is it always warm enough for food supply?


For what reason would birds mor far beyond the normal range?

Sometimes circumstances such as a good breeding season followed by a food source failure the following year lead to irruptions in which large numbers of a species move far beyond the normal range. Bohemian waxwings Bombycilla garrulus well show this unpredictable variation in annual numbers, with five major arrivals in Britain during the nineteenth century, but 18 between the years 1937 and 2000. Red crossbills Loxia curvirostra too are irruptive, with widespread invasions across England noted in 1251, 1593, 1757, and 1791.


How many times did Bohemian waxwings come to Britain in the nineteeth century?


How many times did Bohemian waxwings come to Britain between 1937 and 200?


What years did Red crossbills invade England?


In which hemisphere does bird migration primarily happen?

Bird migration is primarily, but not entirely, a Northern Hemisphere phenomenon. This is because land birds in high northern latitudes, where food becomes scarce in winter, leave for areas further south (including the Southern Hemisphere) to overwinter, and because the continental landmass is much larger in the Northern Hemisphere. In contrast, among (pelagic) seabirds, species of the Southern Hemisphere are more likely to migrate. This is because there is a large area of ocean in the Southern Hemisphere, and more islands suitable for seabirds to nest.


Where do birds from high northern latitutes migrate to?


Which species of seabirds are more likely to migrate?


Why are seabirds from the southern hemisphere more likely to migrate?


The control of migration, its timing and response are genetically controlled and appear to be a primitive trait that is present even in non-migratory species of birds. The ability to navigate and orient themselves during migration is a much more complex phenomenon that may include both endogenous programs as well as learning.


How do birds navigate and orient themselves during migration?


What is a primitive trait present even in non migrating birds?


What is a complex phenomenon in regards to migration?


The primary physiological cue for migration are the changes in the day length. These changes are also related to hormonal changes in the birds. In the period before migration, many birds display higher activity or Zugunruhe (German: migratory restlessness), first described by Johann Friedrich Naumann in 1795, as well as physiological changes such as increased fat deposition. The occurrence of Zugunruhe even in cage-raised birds with no environmental cues (e.g. shortening of day and falling temperature) has pointed to the role of circannual endogenous programs in controlling bird migrations. Caged birds display a preferential flight direction that corresponds with the migratory direction they would take in nature, changing their preferential direction at roughly the same time their wild conspecifics change course.


How do birds act in the period before migration?


What do caged birds display that corresponds with migratory direction in nature?


When do caged birds change their preferential direction?


What is it called when males return earlier to the breeding sites than females?

In polygynous species with considerable sexual dimorphism, males tend to return earlier to the breeding sites than their females. This is termed protandry.


What happens in polygynous species with sexual dimophism?


Why do males in polygynous species return before the females?


Navigation is based on a variety of senses. Many birds have been shown to use a sun compass. Using the sun for direction involves the need for making compensation based on the time. Navigation has also been shown to be based on a combination of other abilities including the ability to detect magnetic fields (magnetoception), use visual landmarks as well as olfactory cues.


What does using the sun for direction involve?


When do long distance migrants disperse?

Long distance migrants are believed to disperse as young birds and form attachments to potential breeding sites and to favourite wintering sites. Once the site attachment is made they show high site-fidelity, visiting the same wintering sites year after year.


What do young birds form attachments to?


What else do young birds form attachments to?


What happens when the site attachment is made?


What are older migrating birds better at?

The ability of birds to navigate during migrations cannot be fully explained by endogenous programming, even with the help of responses to environmental cues. The ability to successfully perform long-distance migrations can probably only be fully explained with an accounting for the cognitive ability of the birds to recognize habitats and form mental maps. Satellite tracking of day migrating raptors such as ospreys and honey buzzards has shown that older individuals are better at making corrections for wind drift.


How was the migrating of ospretys and honey buzzards tracked?


What do the birds do to successfully perform long distance migration?


What are examples of day migrating raptors?


What two electromagnetic tools do birds use to find their destinations?

Migratory birds may use two electromagnetic tools to find their destinations: one that is entirely innate and another that relies on experience. A young bird on its first migration flies in the correct direction according to the Earth's magnetic field, but does not know how far the journey will be. It does this through a radical pair mechanism whereby chemical reactions in special photo pigments sensitive to long wavelengths are affected by the field. Although this only works during daylight hours, it does not use the position of the sun in any way. At this stage the bird is in the position of a boy scout with a compass but no map, until it grows accustomed to the journey and can put its other capabilities to use. With experience it learns various landmarks and this "mapping" is done by magnetites in the trigeminal system, which tell the bird how strong the field is. Because birds migrate between northern and southern regions, the magnetic field strengths at different latitudes let it interpret the radical pair mechanism more accurately and let it know when it has reached its destination. There is a neural connection between the eye and "Cluster N", the part of the forebrain that is active during migrational orientation, suggesting that birds may actually be able to see the magnetic field of the earth.


Where is the neural connection that is active during migration located?


What is a young bird on it's first migration compared to?


How does the magnetic field help the bird at different latitudes?


Migrating birds can lose their way and appear outside their normal ranges. This can be due to flying past their destinations as in the "spring overshoot" in which birds returning to their breeding areas overshoot and end up further north than intended. Certain areas, because of their location, have become famous as watchpoints for such birds. Examples are the Point Pelee National Park in Canada, and Spurn in England.


What is flying past their destinations called?


What location has become famous for bird overshooters?


What other location is famous for spring overshoot?


What is it called when the genetic programing of young birds fail?

Reverse migration, where the genetic programming of young birds fails to work properly, can lead to rarities turning up as vagrants thousands of kilometres out of range.


What is it called when birds from one region join birds from a different region?

A related phenomenon called "abmigration" involves birds from one region joining similar birds from a different breeding region in the common winter grounds and then migrating back along with the new population. This is especially common in some waterfowl, which shift from one flyway to another.


What kind of bird is most likely to abmigrate?


It has been possible to teach a migration route to a flock of birds, for example in re-introduction schemes. After a trial with Canada geese Branta canadensis, microlight aircraft were used in the US to teach safe migration routes to reintroduced whooping cranes Grus americana.


What did they use to teach birds a migration route?


Which birds did they reintroduce to the US?


Which birds did they use as a trial run?


What do birds need to change to meet the demands of migration?

Birds need to alter their metabolism in order to meet the demands of migration. The storage of energy through the accumulation of fat and the control of sleep in nocturnal migrants require special physiological adaptations. In addition, the feathers of a bird suffer from wear-and-tear and require to be molted. The timing of this molt - usually once a year but sometimes twice - varies with some species molting prior to moving to their winter grounds and others molting prior to returning to their breeding grounds. Apart from physiological adaptations, migration sometimes requires behavioural changes such as flying in flocks to reduce the energy used in migration or the risk of predation.


Migration in birds is highly labile and is believed to have developed independently in many avian lineages. While it is agreed that the behavioral and physiological adaptations necessary for migration are under genetic control, some authors have argued that no genetic change is necessary for migratory behavior to develop in a sedentary species because the genetic framework for migratory behavior exists in nearly all avian lineages. This explains the rapid appearance of migratory behavior after the most recent glacial maximum.


What causes the behavioral adaptations necessary for migration?


What exists in nearly all avian lineages?


What percentage increase in flight distance will often be adaptive?

Theoretical analyses show that detours that increase flight distance by up to 20% will often be adaptive on aerodynamic grounds - a bird that loads itself with food to cross a long barrier flies less efficiently. However some species show circuitous migratory routes that reflect historical range expansions and are far from optimal in ecological terms. An example is the migration of continental populations of Swainson's thrush Catharus ustulatus, which fly far east across North America before turning south via Florida to reach northern South America; this route is believed to be the consequence of a range expansion that occurred about 10,000 years ago. Detours may also be caused by differential wind conditions, predation risk, or other factors.


What kind of bird flies less efficiently?


What type of bird show circuitous migratory routes?


What is expected to have an effect on migration timing?

Large scale climatic changes, as have been experienced in the past, are expected to have an effect on the timing of migration. Studies have shown a variety of effects including timing changes in migration, breeding as well as population variations.


What have studies shown regarding climate change?


What else is climate change been shown to change?


The migration of birds also aids the movement of other species, including those of ectoparasites such as ticks and lice, which in turn may carry micro-organisms including those of concern to human health. Due to the global spread of avian influenza, bird migration has been studied as a possible mechanism of disease transmission, but it has been found not to present a special risk; import of pet and domestic birds is a greater threat. Some viruses that are maintained in birds without lethal effects, such as the West Nile Virus may however be spread by migrating birds. Birds may also have a role in the dispersal of propagules of plants and plankton.


What is a greater threat of disease transmission?


What has been studied as a mechanism of disease transmission?


What has a role in the dispersal of propagules of plants and plankton?


What virus is maintained in birds without lethal effects?


Some predators take advantage of the concentration of birds during migration. Greater noctule bats feed on nocturnal migrating passerines. Some birds of prey specialize on migrating waders.


What do some birds of prey specialize on?


What is the oldest way to study migration?

Bird migration routes have been studied by a variety of techniques including the oldest, marking. Swans have been marked with a nick on the beak since about 1560 in England. Scientific ringing was pioneered by Hans Christian Cornelius Mortensen in 1899. Other techniques include radar and satellite tracking.


Who was scientific ringing pioneered by?


What are other forms of studying migration?


How are orientation behavior studies traditionally carried out?

Orientation behaviour studies have been traditionally carried out using variants of a setup known as the Emlen funnel, which consists of a circular cage with the top covered by glass or wire-screen so that either the sky is visible or the setup is placed in a planetarium or with other controls on environmental cues. The orientation behaviour of the bird inside the cage is studied quantitatively using the distribution of marks that the bird leaves on the walls of the cage. Other approaches used in pigeon homing studies make use of the direction in which the bird vanishes on the horizon.


What shape is the cage in the Emlen funnel?


What is studied quantitatively inside the cage?


What does the bird leave on the walls of the cage?


Hunting along migration routes threatens some bird species. The populations of Siberian cranes (Leucogeranus leucogeranus) that wintered in India declined due to hunting along the route, particularly in Afghanistan and Central Asia. Birds were last seen in their favourite wintering grounds in Keoladeo National Park in 2002. Structures such as power lines, wind farms and offshore oil-rigs have also been known to affect migratory birds. Other migration hazards include pollution, storms, wildfires, and habitat destruction along migration routes, denying migrants food at stopover points. For example, in the East Asian–Australasian Flyway, up to 65% of key intertidal habitat at the Yellow Sea migration bottleneck has been destroyed since the 1950s.


What species declined due to hunting in Afghanistand and Asia?


When were birds last seen in Keoladeo National Park?


What can power lines, wind farms and oil rigs affect?


What is the name of the island on which Atlantic City is located?

It is on Absecon Island, on the Atlantic coast. Atlantic City was incorporated on May 1, 1854, from portions of Egg Harbor Township and Galloway Township. The city borders Absecon, Brigantine, Pleasantville, Ventnor City and West Atlantic City.


In what year was Atlantic City incorporated?


What are the names of the two townships that became part of Atlantic City when it was incorporated?


How many other towns share a border with Atlantic City?


Which coast is Atlantic City located on?


What is the name of the first commercial hotel built in Atlantic City?

Because of its location in South Jersey, hugging the Atlantic Ocean between marshlands and islands, Atlantic City was viewed by developers as prime real estate and a potential resort town. In 1853, the first commercial hotel, The Belloe House, located at Massachusetts and Atlantic Avenue, was built.


In what year was the first commercial hotel built in Atlantic City?


What are the names of the two avenues at which The Belloe House is located?


What are the two geographical features that Atlantic City is located between?


What were the two potential aspects of Atlantic City that originally attracted developers?


What other US city was linked to Atlantic City by the Camden and Atlantic Railroad train service?

The city was incorporated in 1854, the same year in which the Camden and Atlantic Railroad train service began. Built on the edge of the bay, this served as the direct link of this remote parcel of land with Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. That same year, construction of the Absecon Lighthouse, designed by George Meade of the Corps of Topographical Engineers, was approved, with work initiated the next year. By 1874, almost 500,000 passengers a year were coming to Atlantic City by rail. In Boardwalk Empire: The Birth, High Times, and Corruption of Atlantic City, "Atlantic City's Godfather" Nelson Johnson describes the inspiration of Dr. Jonathan Pitney (the "Father of Atlantic City") to develop Atlantic City as a health resort, his efforts to convince the municipal authorities that a railroad to the beach would be beneficial, his successful alliance with Samuel Richards (entrepreneur and member of the most influential family in southern New Jersey at the time) to achieve that goal, the actual building of the railroad, and the experience of the first 600 riders, who "were chosen carefully by Samuel Richards and Jonathan Pitney":


By 1874, how many passengers were coming to Atlantic City by rail each year?


What is the name of the lighthouse that is located on the Atlantic City coast?


Who is considered to be "Atlantic City's Godfather?"


In what year was the first boardwalk built in Atlantic City?

The first boardwalk was built in 1870 along a portion of the beach in an effort to help hotel owners keep sand out of their lobbies. Businesses were restricted and the boardwalk was removed each year at the end of the peak season. Because of its effectiveness and popularity, the boardwalk was expanded in length and width, and modified several times in subsequent years. The historic length of the boardwalk, before the destructive 1944 Great Atlantic Hurricane, was about 7 miles (11 km) and it extended from Atlantic City to Longport, through Ventnor and Margate.


Why was the first boardwalk built in Atlantic City?


What year was the Great Atlantic Hurricane?


What was the historic length of the boardwalk before the Great Atlantic Hurricane?


Before the Great Atlantic Hurricane the boardwalk extended from Atlantic City to what other city?


The first road connected Atlantic City to which mainland town?

The first road connecting the city to the mainland at Pleasantville was completed in 1870 and charged a 30-cent toll. Albany Avenue was the first road to the mainland that was available without a toll.


The first road that connected Atlantic City to the mainland was completed in what year?


How much of a toll was charged on the first road to connect Atlantic City to the mainland?


What was the name of the first road to the mainland that did not charge a toll?


By what year was demand so great that one railroad line could no longer keep up with the demand?

By 1878, because of the growing popularity of the city, one railroad line could no longer keep up with demand. Soon, the Philadelphia and Atlantic City Railway was also constructed to transport tourists to Atlantic City. At this point massive hotels like The United States and Surf House, as well as smaller rooming houses, had sprung up all over town. The United States Hotel took up a full city block between Atlantic, Pacific, Delaware, and Maryland Avenues. These hotels were not only impressive in size, but featured the most updated amenities, and were considered quite luxurious for their time.


What was the name of the new railway that was constructed to transport tourists to Atlantic City after 1878?


What was the name of the hotel that took up a full city block?


Besides massive hotels, what else was appearing all over Atlantic City during this period?


What were the names of the four avenues that surrounded The United States Hotel?


When did Atlantic City go through a radical building boom?

In the early part of the 20th century, Atlantic City went through a radical building boom. Many of the modest boarding houses that dotted the boardwalk were replaced with large hotels. Two of the city's most distinctive hotels were the Marlborough-Blenheim Hotel and the Traymore Hotel.


What replaced many of the modest boarding houses?


What were the names of two of the city's most distinctive hotels?


What happened to Atlantic City in the early part of the 20th century?


Where were the modest boarding houses located before they were replaced by large hotels?


In what year did Josiah White III by land to build a hotel?

In 1903, Josiah White III bought a parcel of land near Ohio Avenue and the boardwalk and built the Queen Anne style Marlborough House. The hotel was a hit and, in 1905–06, he chose to expand the hotel and bought another parcel of land next door to his Marlborough House. In an effort to make his new hotel a source of conversation, White hired the architectural firm of Price and McLanahan. The firm made use of reinforced concrete, a new building material invented by Jean-Louis Lambot in 1848 (Joseph Monier received the patent in 1867). The hotel's Spanish and Moorish themes, capped off with its signature dome and chimneys, represented a step forward from other hotels that had a classically designed influence. White named the new hotel the Blenheim and merged the two hotels into the Marlborough-Blenheim. Bally's Atlantic City was later constructed at this location.


What was the name of the hotel built by Josiah White III?


In what style was the Malborough House buit?


In what year was reinforced concrete invented?


What was the name of the second hotel built by Josiah White III?


What was the name of the hotel located at the corner of Illinois Avenue and the boardwalk?

The Traymore Hotel was located at the corner of Illinois Avenue and the boardwalk. Begun in 1879 as a small boarding house, the hotel grew through a series of uncoordinated expansions. By 1914, the hotel's owner, Daniel White, taking a hint from the Marlborough-Blenheim, commissioned the firm of Price and McLanahan to build an even bigger hotel. Rising 16 stories, the tan brick and gold-capped hotel would become one of the city's best-known landmarks. The hotel made use of ocean-facing hotel rooms by jutting its wings farther from the main portion of the hotel along Pacific Avenue.


Who was the owner of The Traymore Hotel?


How many stories was The Traymore Hotel after its renovation?


What was the name of the firm commissioned to build The Traymore Hotel?


What year did the Quaker-owned Chalfonte House open?

One by one, additional large hotels were constructed along the boardwalk, including the Brighton, Chelsea, Shelburne, Ambassador, Ritz Carlton, Mayflower, Madison House, and the Breakers. The Quaker-owned Chalfonte House, opened in 1868, and Haddon House, opened in 1869, flanked North Carolina Avenue at the beach end. Their original wood-frame structures would be enlarged, and even moved closer to the beach, over the years. The modern Chalfonte Hotel, eight stories tall, opened in 1904. The modern Haddon Hall was built in stages and was completed in 1929, at eleven stories. By this time, they were under the same ownership and merged into the Chalfonte-Haddon Hall Hotel, becoming the city's largest hotel with nearly 1,000 rooms. By 1930, the Claridge, the city's last large hotel before the casinos, opened its doors. The 400-room Claridge was built by a partnership that included renowned Philadelphia contractor John McShain. At 24 stories, it would become known as the "Skyscraper By The Sea." The city became known as the "The World's Playground.


How many stories was the modern Chalfonte Hotel when it opened in 1904?


How many rooms were in the merged Chalfonte-Haddon Hall Hotel?


What was the name given to the 24 story tall, 400-room Claridge?


In what year was salt water taffy conceived?

In 1883, salt water taffy was conceived in Atlantic City by David Bradley. The traditional story is that Bradley's shop was flooded after a major storm, soaking his taffy with salty Atlantic Ocean water. He sold some "salt water taffy" to a girl, who proudly walked down to the beach to show her friends. Bradley's mother was in the back of the store when the sale was made, and loved the name, and so salt water taffy was born.


Who was the creator of salt water taffy?


What happened to David Bradley's shop that led to the creation of salt water taffy?


Who did Bradley sell salt water taffy to for the first time?


Where did the water come from for the creation of the first salt water taffy?


What years do many historians consider Atlantic City's golden age?

The 1920s, with tourism at its peak, are considered by many historians as Atlantic City's golden age. During Prohibition, which was enacted nationally in 1919 and lasted until 1933, much liquor was consumed and gambling regularly took place in the back rooms of nightclubs and restaurants. It was during Prohibition that racketeer and political boss Enoch L. "Nucky" Johnson rose to power. Prohibition was largely unenforced in Atlantic City, and, because alcohol that had been smuggled into the city with the acquiescence of local officials could be readily obtained at restaurants and other establishments, the resort's popularity grew further. The city then dubbed itself as "The World's Playground". Nucky Johnson's income, which reached as much as $500,000 annually, came from the kickbacks he took on illegal liquor, gambling and prostitution operating in the city, as well as from kickbacks on construction projects.


What year was Prohibition enacted nationally?


During Prohibition what name was given to Atlantic City?


During Prohibition how high was Nucky Johnson's income?


During the 1920s, who was the mayor of Atlantic City?

During this time, Atlantic City was under the mayoral reign of Edward L. Bader, known for his contributions to the construction, athletics and aviation of Atlantic City. Despite the opposition of many others, he purchased land that became the city's municipal airport and high school football stadium, both of which were later named Bader Field in his honor. He led the initiative, in 1923, to construct the Atlantic City High School at Albany and Atlantic Avenues. Bader, in November 1923, initiated a public referendum, during the general election, at which time residents approved the construction of a Convention Center. The city passed an ordinance approving a bond issue for $1.5 million to be used for the purchase of land for Convention Hall, now known as the Boardwalk Hall, finalized September 30, 1924. Bader was also a driving force behind the creation of the Miss America competition.


What three contributions to Atlantic City was Edward L. Bader known for?


What year did Edward L. Bader lead the initiative to construct the Atlantic City High School?


How much was the bond for that was to be used to purchase land for a Convention Center?


Who was a meeting organized for in 1929 in Atlantic City?

From May 13 to May 16 in 1929, Johnson hosted a conference for organized crime figures from all across America. The men who called this meeting were Masseria family lieutenant Charles "Lucky" Luciano and former Chicago South Side Gang boss Johnny "the Fox" Torrio, with heads of the Bugs and Meyer Mob, Meyer Lansky and Benjamin Siegel, being used as muscle for the meeting.


In what year was there a conference for organized crime figures in Atlantic City?


For which family was Charles "Lucky" Luciano a lieutenant?


Who was a former Chicago South Side Gang boss?


Which Atlantic City neighborhood became particularly impoverished in the mid-to-late 20th century?

Like many older east coast cities after World War II, Atlantic City became plagued with poverty, crime, corruption, and general economic decline in the mid-to-late 20th century. The neighborhood known as the "Inlet" became particularly impoverished. The reasons for the resort's decline were multi-layered. First of all, the automobile became more readily available to many Americans after the war. Atlantic City had initially relied upon visitors coming by train and staying for a couple of weeks. The car allowed them to come and go as they pleased, and many people would spend only a few days, rather than weeks. Also, the advent of suburbia played a huge role. With many families moving to their own private houses, luxuries such as home air conditioning and swimming pools diminished their interest in flocking to the luxury beach resorts during the hot summer. But perhaps the biggest factor in the decline in Atlantic City's popularity came from cheap, fast jet service to other premier resorts, such as Miami Beach and the Bahamas.


What was the biggest factor in the decline in Atlantic City's popularity?


What were two other locations people began to fly to instead of going to Atlantic City?


After the war, what form of transportation became more readily available to many Americans?


What two luxuries that people could have at their own homes led to a diminished interest in luxury beach resorts?


What event was hosted by Atlantic City in 1964?

The city hosted the 1964 Democratic National Convention which nominated Lyndon Johnson for President and Hubert Humphrey as Vice President. The convention and the press coverage it generated, however, cast a harsh light on Atlantic City, which by then was in the midst of a long period of economic decline. Many felt that the friendship between Johnson and Governor of New Jersey Richard J. Hughes led Atlantic City to host the Democratic Convention.


Who was nominated for Vice President during the 1964 Democratic National Convention?


Who was nominated for President during the 1964 Democratic National Convention?


Who was the Governor of New Jersey in 1964?


Despite being in the midst of a long period of economic decline many felt that the Convention was only held in Atlantic city because of a friendship between what two men?


By what years were many of the great hotels suffering from high vacancy rates?

By the late 1960s, many of the resort's once great hotels were suffering from embarrassing vacancy rates. Most of them were either shut down, converted to cheap apartments, or converted to nursing home facilities by the end of the decade. Prior to and during the advent of legalized gaming, many of these hotels were demolished. The Breakers, the Chelsea, the Brighton, the Shelburne, the Mayflower, the Traymore, and the Marlborough-Blenheim were demolished in the 1970s and 1980s. Of the many pre-casino resorts that bordered the boardwalk, only the Claridge, the Dennis, the Ritz-Carlton, and the Haddon Hall survive to this day as parts of Bally's Atlantic City, a condo complex, and Resorts Atlantic City. The old Ambassador Hotel was purchased by Ramada in 1978 and was gutted to become the Tropicana Casino and Resort Atlantic City, only reusing the steelwork of the original building. Smaller hotels off the boardwalk, such as the Madison also survived.


Prior to and during the advent of legalized gaming, what happened to many of the hotels in Atlantic City?


When were many of the large hotels demolished?


After the Ambassador Hotel was gutted what did it become?


Who purchased the old Ambassador Hotel in 1978?


In what year did New Jersey voters pass a referendum approving casino gambling for Atlantic City?

In an effort at revitalizing the city, New Jersey voters in 1976 passed a referendum, approving casino gambling for Atlantic City; this came after a 1974 referendum on legalized gambling failed to pass. Immediately after the legislation passed, the owners of the Chalfonte-Haddon Hall Hotel began converting it into the Resorts International. It was the first legal casino in the eastern United States when it opened on May 26, 1978. Other casinos were soon constructed along the Boardwalk and, later, in the marina district for a total of eleven today. The introduction of gambling did not, however, quickly eliminate many of the urban problems that plagued Atlantic City. Many people have suggested that it only served to exacerbate those problems, as attested to by the stark contrast between tourism intensive areas and the adjacent impoverished working-class neighborhoods. In addition, Atlantic City has been less popular than Las Vegas, as a gambling city in the United States. Donald Trump helped bring big name boxing bouts to the city to attract customers to his casinos. The boxer Mike Tyson had most of his fights in Atlantic City in the 1980s, which helped Atlantic City achieve nationwide attention as a gambling resort. Numerous highrise condominiums were built for use as permanent residences or second homes. By end of the decade it was one of the most popular tourist destinations in the United States.


The owners of the Chalfonte-Haddon Hall Hotel converted it into what?


What was the name of the first legal casino in the eastern United States?


What year did Resorts International open?


How many casinos are there in Atlantic City today?


Atlantic City's tourism began to decline due to what failure?

With the redevelopment of Las Vegas and the opening of two casinos in Connecticut in the early 1990s, along with newly built casinos in the nearby Philadelphia metro area in the 2000s, Atlantic City's tourism began to decline due to its failure to diversify away from gaming. Determined to expand, in 1999 the Atlantic City Redevelopment Authority partnered with Las Vegas casino mogul Steve Wynn to develop a new roadway to a barren section of the city near the Marina. Nicknamed "The Tunnel Project", Steve Wynn planned the proposed 'Mirage Atlantic City' around the idea that he would connect the $330 million tunnel stretching 2.5 miles (4.0 km) from the Atlantic City Expressway to his new resort. The roadway was later officially named the Atlantic City-Brigantine Connector, and funnels incoming traffic off of the expressway into the city's marina district and Brigantine, New Jersey.


Who did the Atlantic City Redevelopment Authority partner with in 1999?


Why did the Atlantic City Redevelopment Authority partner with Steve Wynn?


What was the project involving Steve Wynn nicknamed?


"The Tunnel Project" was later officially named what?


Although Wynn's plans for development in the city were scrapped in 2002, the tunnel opened in 2001. The new roadway prompted Boyd Gaming in partnership with MGM/Mirage to build Atlantic City's newest casino. The Borgata opened in July 2003, and its success brought an influx of developers to Atlantic City with plans for building grand Las Vegas style mega casinos to revitalize the aging city.


What was the name of Atlantic City's newest casino?


In what year was Wynn's plans for development scrapped?


The new roadway prompted a partnership between which two companies?


When did the Sands Atlantic City close permanently?

Owing to economic conditions and the late 2000s recession, many of the proposed mega casinos never went further than the initial planning stages. One of these developers was Pinnacle Entertainment, who purchased the Sands Atlantic City, only to close it permanently November 11, 2006. The following year, the resort was demolished in a dramatic, Las Vegas styled implosion, the first of its kind in Atlantic City. While Pinnacle Entertainment intended to replace it with a $1.5–2 billion casino resort, the company canceled its construction plans and plans to sell the land. The biggest disappointment was when MGM Resorts International announced that it would pull out of all development for Atlantic City, effectively ending their plans for the MGM Grand Atlantic City.


What happened to the Sands Atlantic City a year after it closed?


What did Pinnacle Entertainment intend to replace the Sands Atlantic City with?


Why did many of the proposed mega casinos never get further than the initial planning stages?


In what year did Morgan Stanley purchase land for a new casino resort?

In 2006, Morgan Stanley purchased 20 acres (8.1 ha) directly north of the Showboat Atlantic City Hotel and Casino for a new $2 billion plus casino resort. Revel Entertainment Group was named as the project's developer for the Revel Casino. Revel was hindered with many problems, with the biggest setback to the company being in April 2010 when Morgan Stanley, the owner of 90% of Revel Entertainment Group, decided to discontinue funding for continued construction and put its stake in Revel up for sale. Early in 2010 the New Jersey state legislature passed a bill offering tax incentives to attract new investors and complete the job, but a poll by Fairleigh Dickinson University's PublicMind released in March 2010 showed that three of five voters (60%) opposed the legislation, and two of three of those who opposed it "strongly" opposed it. Ultimately, Governor Chris Christie offered Revel $261 million in state tax credits to assist the casino once it opened. As of March 2011[update], Revel had completed all of the exterior work and had continued work on the interior after finally receiving the funding necessary to complete construction. It had a soft opening in April 2012, and was fully open by May 2012. Ten months later, in February 2013, after serious losses and a write-down in the value of the resort from $2.4 billion to $450 million, Revel filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy. It was restructured but still could not carry on and re-entered bankruptcy on June 19, 2014. It was put up for sale, however as no suitable bids were received the resort closed its doors on September 2, 2014.


How much land did Morgan Stanley purchase?


Who was named as the developer for Morgan Stanley's casino resort?


What percentage of ownership did Morgan Stanley hold in Revel Entertainment Group?


Who offered Revel $261 million in state tax credits?


How long had Atlantic City held a monopoly on casino gambling?

In the wake of the closures and declining revenue from casinos, Governor Christie said in September 2014 that the state would consider a 2015 referendum to end the 40-year-old monopoly that Atlantic City holds on casino gambling and allowing gambling in other municipalities. With casino revenue declining from $5.2 billion in 2006 to $2.9 billion in 2013, the state saw a drop in money from its 8% tax on those earnings, which is used to fund programs for senior citizens and the disabled.


Who said that the state would consider a referendum to end the monopoly that Atlantic City holds on casino gambling?


When did Governor Christie say that the state would consider a referendum?


When did "Superstorm Sandy" strike Atlantic City?

"Superstorm Sandy" struck Atlantic City on October 29, 2012, causing flooding and power-outages but left minimal damage to any of the tourist areas including the Boardwalk and casino resorts, despite widespread belief that the city's boardwalk had been destroyed. The source of the misinformation was a widely circulated photograph of a damaged section of the Boardwalk that was slated for repairs, prior to the storm, and incorrect news reports at the time of the disaster. The storm produced an all-time record low barometric pressure reading of 943 mb (27.85") for not only Atlantic City, but the state of New Jersey.


"Superstorm Sandy" produced an all-time record low barometric pressure reading of what?


Although "Superstorm Sandy" left minimal damage to any of the tourist areas it did cause what two other things to occur?


What was the source of the misinformation concerning damage to the city's boardwalk?


Why was there a photo of the Boardwalk if it wasn't actually damaged in the storm?


According to the United States Census Bureau, what is the total area in square miles?

According to the United States Census Bureau, the city had a total area of 17.037 square miles (44.125 km2), including 10.747 square miles (27.835 km2) of land and 6.290 square miles (16.290 km2) of water (36.92%).


What percentage of the city is made up of water?


What organization provided data detailing the size of the city?


Besides Chelsea, City Island, and Great Island, what other community, locality, or place name is included in the city?

Unincorporated communities, localities and place names located partially or completely within the city include Chelsea, City Island, Great Island and Venice Park.


Besides Chelsea, City Island, and Venice Park, what other community, locality, or place name is included in the city?


Besides Chelsea, Venice Park, and Great Island, what other community, locality, or place name is included in the city?


Besides Venice Park, City Island, and Great Island, what other community, locality, or place name is included in the city?


Besides localities and place names, what else is located partically or completely within the city?


What is the daily average temperature in July?

Summers are typically warm and humid with a July daily average of 75.6 °F (24.2 °C). During this time, the city gets a sea breeze off the ocean that often makes daytime temperatures much cooler than inland areas, making Atlantic City a prime place for beating the summer heat from June through September. Average highs even just a few miles west of Atlantic City exceed 85 °F (29 °C) in July. Near the coast, temperatures reach or exceed 90 °F (32 °C) on an average of only 6.8 days a year, but this reaches 21 days at nearby Atlantic City Int'l.[a] Winters are cool, with January averaging 35.5 °F (2 °C). Spring and autumn are erratic, although they are usually mild with low humidity. The average window for freezing temperatures is November 20 to March 25, allowing a growing season of 239 days. Extreme temperatures range from −9 °F (−23 °C) on February 9, 1934 to 104 °F (40 °C) on August 7, 1918.[b]


Atlantic City is a prime place to beat the heat from June through what month?


What is the average temperature for January in Atlantic City?


What is the extreme low temperature of Atlantic City?


How many days long is the growing season?


How many inches of precipitation does Atlantic City receive annually?

Annual precipitation is 40 inches (1,020 mm) which is fairly spread throughout the year. Owing to its proximity to the Atlantic Ocean and its location in South Jersey, Atlantic City receives less snow than a good portion of the rest of New Jersey. Even at the airport, where low temperatures are often much lower than along the coast, snow averages only 16.5 inches (41.9 cm) each winter. It is very common for rain to fall in Atlantic City while the northern and western parts of the state are receiving snow.


What is the average number of inches of snow received at the airport annually?


Atlantic City's lack of snowfall is due to its location in South Jersey and its proximaty to which body of water?


Atlantic City's lack of snowfall is due to its proximity to the Atlantic Ocean and its location where?


Atlantic City is different from the northern and western parts of the state in the winter due to its tendency to receive which type of precipitation?


How many people were residing in Atlantic City during the 2010 United States Census?

At the 2010 United States Census, there were 39,558 people, 15,504 households, and 8,558 families residing in the city. The population density was 3,680.8 per square mile (1,421.2/km2). There were 20,013 housing units at an average density of 1,862.2 per square mile (719.0/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 26.65% (10,543) White, 38.29% (15,148) Black or African American, 0.61% (242) Native American, 15.55% (6,153) Asian, 0.05% (18) Pacific Islander, 14.03% (5,549) from other races, and 4.82% (1,905) from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 30.45% (12,044) of the population.


How many housing units were in Atlantic City during the 2010 United States Census?


During the 2010 United States Census what percentage of Atlantic City's population was Hispanic or Latino?


During the 2010 United States Census what percentage of Atlantic City's population was White?


How many families were residing in Atlantic City during the 2010 United States Census?


How many households were there in Atlantic City during the 2010 United States Census?

There were 15,504 households, of which 27.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 25.9% were married couples living together, 22.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 44.8% were non-families. 37.5% of all households were made up of individuals, and 14.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.50 and the average family size was 3.34.


What percentage of households in Atlantic City had children under the age of 18 living with them?


What percentage of households in Atlantic City were comprised of non-families?


What percentage of households in Atlantic City were made up of individuals?


What was the average family size in Atlantic City?


What percentage of the population was under the age of 18?

In the city, 24.6% of the population were under the age of 18, 10.2% from 18 to 24, 26.8% from 25 to 44, 25.8% from 45 to 64, and 12.7% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36.3 years. For every 100 females there were 96.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.4 males.


What percentage of the population was 65 years of age or older?


For every 100 females, how many males were there?


For every 100 females age 18 and over, how many males were there?


How much was the median household income according to the American Community Survey?

The Census Bureau's 2006–2010 American Community Survey showed that (in 2010 inflation-adjusted dollars) median household income was $30,237 (with a margin of error of +/- $2,354) and the median family income was $35,488 (+/- $2,607). Males had a median income of $32,207 (+/- $1,641) versus $29,298 (+/- $1,380) for females. The per capita income for the city was $20,069 (+/- $2,532). About 23.1% of families and 25.3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 36.6% of those under age 18 and 16.8% of those age 65 or over.


How much was the median family income according to the American Community Survey?


How much was the median income for males according to the American Community Survey?


What was the per capita income for the city?


What percentage of the population was below the poverty line?


According to the 2000 United States Census, how many people were living in Atlantic City?

As of the 2000 United States Census there were 40,517 people, 15,848 households, and 8,700 families residing in the city. The population density was 3,569.8 people per square mile (1,378.3/km2). There were 20,219 housing units at an average density of 1,781.4 per square mile (687.8/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 44.16% black or African American, 26.68% White, 0.48% Native American, 10.40% Asian, 0.06% Pacific Islander, 13.76% other races, and 4.47% from two or more races. 24.95% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 19.44% of the population was non-Hispanic whites.


According to the 2000 United States Census, what was the population density?


According to the 2000 United States Census, how many housing units were there in Atlantic City?


According to the 2000 United States Census, what percentage of the population of Atlantic City were Hispanic or Latino?


According to the 2000 United States Census, what percentage of the population of Atlantic City were white?


How many households had children under the age of 18 living with them?

There were 15,848 households out of which 27.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 24.8% were married couples living together, 23.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 45.1% were non-families. 37.2% of all households were made up of individuals and 15.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.46 and the average family size was 3.26.


How many households were there in Atlantic City?


How many households were made up of individuals?


What was the average household size in Atlantic City?


What was the average family size in Atlantic City?


What was the median age of Atlantic City?

In the city the population was spread out with 25.7% under the age of 18, 8.9% from 18 to 24, 31.0% from 25 to 44, 20.2% from 45 to 64, and 14.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females there were 96.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.2 males.


For every 100 females, how many males were there?


For every 100 females age 18 and over, how many males were there?


What percentage of the population of Atlantic City was under the age of 18?


What percentage of the population of Atlantic City was 65 years of age or older?


What was the median income for a household in the city?

The median income for a household in the city was $26,969, and the median income for a family was $31,997. Males had a median income of $25,471 versus $23,863 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,402. About 19.1% of families and 23.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 29.1% of those under age 18 and 18.9% of those age 65 or over.


What was the median income for a family in the city?


What was the per capita income for the city?


What percentage of families in the city were living below the poverty line?


What percentage of the population in the city were living below the poverty line?


As of September 2014, the greater Atlantic City area had one of the highest rates in the country of what?

As of September 2014, the greater Atlantic City area has one of the highest unemployment rates in the country at 13.8%, out of labor force of around 141,000.


What was the unemployment rate for the greater Atlantic City area, as of September 2014?


As of September 2014, what was the overall size of the labor force of the greater Atlantic City area?


Out of a labor force of about 141,000 what was the unemployment rate?


In 2010, who stated that a state takeover of the city and local government of Atlantic City was imminent?

In July 2010, Governor Chris Christie announced that a state takeover of the city and local government "was imminent". Comparing regulations in Atlantic City to an "antique car", Atlantic City regulatory reform is a key piece of Gov. Chris Christie's plan, unveiled on July 22, to reinvigorate an industry mired in a four-year slump in revenue and hammered by fresh competition from casinos in the surrounding states of Delaware, Pennsylvania, Connecticut, and more recently, Maryland. In January 2011, Chris Christie announced the Atlantic City Tourism District, a state-run district encompassing the boardwalk casinos, the marina casinos, the Atlantic City Outlets, and Bader Field. Fairleigh Dickinson University's PublicMind poll surveyed New Jersey voters' attitudes on the takeover. The February 16, 2011 survey showed that 43% opposed the measure while 29% favored direct state oversight. Interestingly, the poll also found that even South Jersey voters expressed opposition to the plan; 40% reported they opposed the measure and 37% reported they were in favor of it.


What item were the regulations in Atlantic City compared to?


What was the name of the district that would encompass the boardwalk casinos, the marina casinos, the Atlantic City Outlets, and Bader Field?


According to a poll, what percentage of New Jersey voters opposed the takeover of Atlantic City by the state?


According to a poll, what percentage of New Jersey voters favored the takeover of Atlantic City by the state?


What year were the boundaries for the state-run tourism district finally set?

On April 29, 2011, the boundaries for the state-run tourism district were set. The district would include heavier police presence, as well as beautification and infrastructure improvements. The CRDA would oversee all functions of the district and will make changes to attract new businesses and attractions. New construction would be ambitious and may resort to eminent domain.


What were the three major things that the district would include?


Who would oversee all functions of the new district?


Who would make the changes within the district to attract new businesses and attractions?


What two qualities were mentioned in regards to new construction?


How many roadways will be included in the district?

The tourism district would comprise several key areas in the city; the Marina District, Ducktown, Chelsea, South Inlet, Bader Field, and Gardner's Basin. Also included are 10 roadways that lead into the district, including several in the city's northern end, or North Beach. Gardner's Basin, which is home to the Atlantic City Aquarium, was initially left out of the tourism district, while a residential neighborhood in the Chelsea section was removed from the final boundaries, owing to complaints from the city. Also, the inclusion of Bader Field in the district was controversial and received much scrutiny from mayor Lorenzo Langford, who cast the lone "no" vote on the creation of the district citing its inclusion.


What place is home to the Atlantic City Aquarium?


What place was originally left off of the tourism district?


Where was the residential neighborhood that was removed from the final boundaries of the district?


Who cast the lone "no" vote on the creation of the district citing Bader Field's inclusion?


Atlantic City is considered as the "Gambling Capital of the East Coast," and currently has eight large casinos and several smaller ones. In 2011, New Jersey's casinos employed approximately 33,000 employees, had 28.5 million visitors, made $3.3 billion in gaming revenue, and paid $278 million in taxes. They are regulated by the New Jersey Casino Control Commission and the New Jersey Division of Gaming Enforcement.


How many large casinos are located in Atlantic City?


Approximately how many people did New Jersey casinos employ in 2011?


Approximately how many people visited New Jersey's casinos in 2011?


What two entities regulate New Jersey's casino?


How many casino closures took place in Atlantic City in 2014?

In the wake of the United States' economic downturn and the legalization of gambling in adjacent and nearby states (including Delaware, Maryland, New York, and Pennsylvania), four casino closures took place in 2014: the Atlantic Club on January 13; the Showboat on August 31; the Revel, which was Atlantic City's second-newest casino, on September 2; and Trump Plaza, which originally opened in 1984, and was the poorest performing casino in the city, on September 16.


What was the name of the poorest performing casino in the city that ultimately closed in 2014?


What year did Trump Plaza originally open?


What was the name of Atlantic City's second-newest casino that ultimately closed in 2014?


What was the name of the first casino to close in 2014?


What did Trump Entertainment Group say they were considering doing with the Trump Taj Mahal?

Executives at Trump Entertainment Resorts, whose sole remaining property will be the Trump Taj Mahal, said in 2013 that they were considering the option of selling the Taj and winding down and exiting the gaming and hotel business.


What is the sole remaining property owned by Trump Entertainment Group?


In what year did executives at Trump Entertainment Group say they were considering selling the Taj?


Why did executives say they were considering selling the Taj?


Who spoke for the Trump Entertainment Group in regards to the Taj and what might be done in the future?


How many remaining properties belong to Caesars Entertainment?

Caesars Entertainment executives have been reconsidering the future of their three remaining Atlantic City properties (Bally's, Caesars and Harrah's), in the wake of a Chapter 11 bankruptcy filing by the company's casino operating unit in January 2015.


What are the names of the three remaining Caesars Entertainment properties?


What type of bankruptcy did Caesars Entertainment file for?


What year did Caesars Entertainment file for bankruptcy?


Which unit of Caesars Entertainment filed for bankruptcy in 2015?


What was Boardwalk Hall formerly known as?

Boardwalk Hall, formally known as the "Historic Atlantic City Convention Hall", is an arena in Atlantic City along the boardwalk. Boardwalk Hall was Atlantic City's primary convention center until the opening of the Atlantic City Convention Center in 1997. The Atlantic City Convention Center includes 500,000 sq ft (46,000 m2) of showroom space, 5 exhibit halls, 45 meeting rooms with 109,000 sq ft (10,100 m2) of space, a garage with 1,400 parking spaces, and an adjacent Sheraton hotel. Both the Boardwalk Hall and Convention Center are operated by the Atlantic City Convention & Visitors Authority.


In what year did the newer Atlantic City Convention Center open?


How many sq ft of showroom space is included in the Atlantic City Convention Center?


What hotel is adjacent to the Atlantic City Convention Center?


What is Atlantic City sometimes referred to?

Atlantic City (sometimes referred to as "Monopoly City") has become well-known over the years for its portrayal in the U.S. version of the popular board game, Monopoly, in which properties on the board are named after locations in and near Atlantic City. While the original incarnation of the game did not feature Atlantic City, it was in Indianapolis that Ruth Hoskins learned the game, and took it back to Atlantic City. After she arrived, Hoskins made a new board with Atlantic City street names, and taught it to a group of local Quakers.


The names of many properties near Atlantic City are used in which popular board game?


Who learned the game of Monopoly and took it to Atlantic City?


What location was originally featured in the Monopoly game?


Who did Ruth Hoskins teach the game of Monopoly to?


What popular property in Monopoly was actually a misspelling?

Marvin Gardens, the leading yellow property on the board shown, is actually a misspelling of the original location name, "Marven Gardens". The misspelling was said to have been introduced by Charles Todd and passed on when his home-made Monopoly board was copied by Charles Darrow and thence Parker Brothers. It was not until 1995 that Parker Brothers acknowledged this mistake and formally apologized to the residents of Marven Gardens for the misspelling although the spelling error was not corrected.


What is the name of the original property that Marvin Gardens takes its name from?


Whose game did Parker Brothers model the board game after?


In what year did Parker Brothers acknowledge and apologize for a spelling error in the game?


Who copied Charles Todd's Monopoly board?


Immunology is a branch of biomedical science that covers the study of immune systems in all organisms. It charts, measures, and contextualizes the: physiological functioning of the immune system in states of both health and diseases; malfunctions of the immune system in immunological disorders (such as autoimmune diseases, hypersensitivities, immune deficiency, and transplant rejection); the physical, chemical and physiological characteristics of the components of the immune system in vitro, in situ, and in vivo. Immunology has applications in numerous disciplines of medicine, particularly in the fields of organ transplantation, oncology, virology, bacteriology, parasitology, psychiatry, and dermatology.


Immunology studies the functioning of the immune system in which two states of being?


Name three types of immunological disorders?


Immunology studies the immune system in which three stages of existence?


What disciplines in medicine have particularly strong immunology applications?


The term immunology is derived from a Latin word that means what?

Prior to the designation of immunity from the etymological root immunis, which is Latin for "exempt"; early physicians characterized organs that would later be proven as essential components of the immune system. The important lymphoid organs of the immune system are the thymus and bone marrow, and chief lymphatic tissues such as spleen, tonsils, lymph vessels, lymph nodes, adenoids, and liver. When health conditions worsen to emergency status, portions of immune system organs including the thymus, spleen, bone marrow, lymph nodes and other lymphatic tissues can be surgically excised for examination while patients are still alive.


What are the major organs of the immune system?


Who originally discovered these parts of the immune system?


How do physicians study a patient's immune system organs in emergency situations?


Which portions of the immune system can be safely removed in these emergency cases?


The structure of immune system components can be described as what?

Many components of the immune system are typically cellular in nature and not associated with any specific organ; but rather are embedded or circulating in various tissues located throughout the body.


Are immune tissues typically fixed with specific organs usually?


What is one way the cellular structures of the immune system are housed in the body?


What is another way these tissues are housed within the body?


Which two fields of study are associated with immunology?

Classical immunology ties in with the fields of epidemiology and medicine. It studies the relationship between the body systems, pathogens, and immunity. The earliest written mention of immunity can be traced back to the plague of Athens in 430 BCE. Thucydides noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of the disease could nurse the sick without contracting the illness a second time. Many other ancient societies have references to this phenomenon, but it was not until the 19th and 20th centuries before the concept developed into scientific theory.


Immunology studies how which three areas impact one another?


When was the first written mention of immunity as it pertains to the body?


Which Greek historian made that notation?


When did immunology start to become codified as a scientific theory?


What is the basic, primitive part of the immune system known as?

The study of the molecular and cellular components that comprise the immune system, including their function and interaction, is the central science of immunology. The immune system has been divided into a more primitive innate immune system and, in vertebrates, an acquired or adaptive immune system. The latter is further divided into humoral (or antibody) and cell-mediated components.


Vertebrates also have what type of immune system component?


What is one type of adaptive immune system component?


Name the other type of adaptive immune system component?


The total immune system is generally composed of what types of structures?


Humoral immunology involves the interaction of what two elements?

The humoral (antibody) response is defined as the interaction between antibodies and antigens. Antibodies are specific proteins released from a certain class of immune cells known as B lymphocytes, while antigens are defined as anything that elicits the generation of antibodies ("anti"body "gen"erators). Immunology rests on an understanding of the properties of these two biological entities and the cellular response to both.


The term "antigen" is rooted in what two words?


Immunology is the study of what type of responses to antibodies and antigens?


In the field of immunology, what aspect is becoming more specialized?

Immunological research continues to become more specialized, pursuing non-classical models of immunity and functions of cells, organs and systems not previously associated with the immune system (Yemeserach 2010).


What new areas are immunologists studying with more frequency?


The latest research into newer aspects of immunology is focused on what three elements of the body?


These three elements of the body are of new interest for what reason?


The study of diseases caused by immune system disorders is called?

Clinical immunology is the study of diseases caused by disorders of the immune system (failure, aberrant action, and malignant growth of the cellular elements of the system). It also involves diseases of other systems, where immune reactions play a part in the pathology and clinical features.


What are three problems of the immune system studied by clinical immunology?


Where can these three elements occur in the immune system?


What else does clinical immunology concern itself with?


Why does clinical immunology extend to those areas?


What is a type of immune system disorder?

Other immune system disorders include various hypersensitivities (such as in asthma and other allergies) that respond inappropriately to otherwise harmless compounds.


What are some examples of hypersensitivities?


What is the most famous immune system disease?

The most well-known disease that affects the immune system itself is AIDS, an immunodeficiency characterized by the suppression of CD4+ ("helper") T cells, dendritic cells and macrophages by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).


Which types of cells are suppressed by AIDS?


What virus specifically suppresses those cells?


What are the four factors that determine how the body reacts to an antigen?

The body’s capability to react to antigen depends on a person's age, antigen type, maternal factors and the area where the antigen is presented. Neonates are said to be in a state of physiological immunodeficiency, because both their innate and adaptive immunological responses are greatly suppressed. Once born, a child’s immune system responds favorably to protein antigens while not as well to glycoproteins and polysaccharides. In fact, many of the infections acquired by neonates are caused by low virulence organisms like Staphylococcus and Pseudomonas. In neonates, opsonic activity and the ability to activate the complement cascade is very limited. For example, the mean level of C3 in a newborn is approximately 65% of that found in the adult. Phagocytic activity is also greatly impaired in newborns. This is due to lower opsonic activity, as well as diminished up-regulation of integrin and selectin receptors, which limit the ability of neutrophils to interact with adhesion molecules in the endothelium. Their monocytes are slow and have a reduced ATP production, which also limits the newborn's phagocytic activity. Although, the number of total lymphocytes is significantly higher than in adults, the cellular and humoral immunity is also impaired. Antigen-presenting cells in newborns have a reduced capability to activate T cells. Also, T cells of a newborn proliferate poorly and produce very small amounts of cytokines like IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-12, and IFN-g which limits their capacity to activate the humoral response as well as the phagocitic activity of macrophage. B cells develop early during gestation but are not fully active.


Newborns are particularly susceptible to infections caused by?


What activity is also greatly reduced in newborn infants?


Why are newborns described as being physiologically immunodeficient?


Antigen cells in newborns are also struggle to do this?


In babies, what is another element impacting immune response?

Maternal factors also play a role in the body’s immune response. At birth, most of the immunoglobulin present is maternal IgG. Because IgM, IgD, IgE and IgA don’t cross the placenta, they are almost undetectable at birth. Some IgA is provided by breast milk. These passively-acquired antibodies can protect the newborn for up to 18 months, but their response is usually short-lived and of low affinity. These antibodies can also produce a negative response. If a child is exposed to the antibody for a particular antigen before being exposed to the antigen itself then the child will produce a dampened response. Passively acquired maternal antibodies can suppress the antibody response to active immunization. Similarly the response of T-cells to vaccination differs in children compared to adults, and vaccines that induce Th1 responses in adults do not readily elicit these same responses in neonates. Between six to nine months after birth, a child’s immune system begins to respond more strongly to glycoproteins, but there is usually no marked improvement in their response to polysaccharides until they are at least one year old. This can be the reason for distinct time frames found in vaccination schedules.


Newborns can acquire antibodies from the mother through what means?


For how long do these antibodies have an effect on infants?


At 6 to 9 months, an infant's immune system begins to respond to which proteins?


The difference in responses in infant immune systems is the cause of what?


What is the primary trigger for immunological changes in teens?

During adolescence, the human body undergoes various physical, physiological and immunological changes triggered and mediated by hormones, of which the most significant in females is 17-β-oestradiol (an oestrogen) and, in males, is testosterone. Oestradiol usually begins to act around the age of 10 and testosterone some months later. There is evidence that these steroids act directly not only on the primary and secondary sexual characteristics but also have an effect on the development and regulation of the immune system, including an increased risk in developing pubescent and post-pubescent autoimmunity. There is also some evidence that cell surface receptors on B cells and macrophages may detect sex hormones in the system.


What specific hormone catalyzes these changes in females?


Which specific hormone precipitates the change in immunology in males?


Adolescent immunological changes can also result in what?


Evidence suggests that receptors on B cells may do what?


The routine practice of immunology can best be characterized as?

Immunology is strongly experimental in everyday practice but is also characterized by an ongoing theoretical attitude. Many theories have been suggested in immunology from the end of the nineteenth century up to the present time. The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century saw a battle between "cellular" and "humoral" theories of immunity. According to the cellular theory of immunity, represented in particular by Elie Metchnikoff, it was cells – more precisely, phagocytes – that were responsible for immune responses. In contrast, the humoral theory of immunity, held by Robert Koch and Emil von Behring, among others, stated that the active immune agents were soluble components (molecules) found in the organism’s “humors” rather than its cells.


What are two opposing theories of early 20th century immunology?


Cellular immunology expressed the theory that what cells caused immune responses?


Humoral immunology theorized that the origin of the immune system lay in what?


Rather than cells, in humoral immunology where did the molecules that cause immune response reside?


What medical scientist first proposed the clonal selection theory of immunology?

In the mid-1950s, Frank Burnet, inspired by a suggestion made by Niels Jerne, formulated the clonal selection theory (CST) of immunity. On the basis of CST, Burnet developed a theory of how an immune response is triggered according to the self/nonself distinction: "self" constituents (constituents of the body) do not trigger destructive immune responses, while "nonself" entities (e.g., pathogens, an allograft) trigger a destructive immune response. The theory was later modified to reflect new discoveries regarding histocompatibility or the complex "two-signal" activation of T cells. The self/nonself theory of immunity and the self/nonself vocabulary have been criticized, but remain very influential.


What triggers an immune response according to CST?


In CST, what triggers a destructive immune response?


What property of T cells caused modification of CST?


When was clonal selection theory first proposed?


What discipline can undergraduate students interested in general health study?

Bioscience is the overall major in which undergraduate students who are interested in general well-being take in college. Immunology is a branch of bioscience for undergraduate programs but the major gets specified as students move on for graduate program in immunology. The aim of immunology is to study the health of humans and animals through effective yet consistent research, (AAAAI, 2013). The most important thing about being immunologists is the research because it is the biggest portion of their jobs.


Immunology is a branch of what larger field of study?


The goal of an immunologist is to study what beings?


The biggest part of an immunologist's job is what?


What two conditions apply to good immunological study?


Most graduate schools specializing in immunology follow what organization's parameters?

Most graduate immunology schools follow the AAI courses immunology which are offered throughout numerous schools in the United States. For example, in New York State, there are several universities that offer the AAI courses immunology: Albany Medical College, Cornell University, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York University Langone Medical Center, University at Albany (SUNY), University at Buffalo (SUNY), University of Rochester Medical Center and Upstate Medical University (SUNY). The AAI immunology courses include an Introductory Course and an Advance Course. The Introductory Course is a course that gives students an overview of the basics of immunology.


What is the name of the immunology school at Mount Sinai?


AAI immunology courses include what two components?


What does the introductory AAI immunology course do?


The Langone Medical Center is part of what college?


Part 1 of the AAI introductory immunology course is meant to be what?

In addition, this Introductory Course gives students more information to complement general biology or science training. It also has two different parts: Part I is an introduction to the basic principles of immunology and Part II is a clinically-oriented lecture series. On the other hand, the Advanced Course is another course for those who are willing to expand or update their understanding of immunology. It is advised for students who want to attend the Advanced Course to have a background of the principles of immunology. Most schools require students to take electives in other to complete their degrees. A Master’s degree requires two years of study following the attainment of a bachelor's degree. For a doctoral programme it is required to take two additional years of study.


Part 2 of the AAI introductory immunology course revolves around what?


What pre-requisite should enrollees in the advanced immunology course have?


How long does it typically take to earn a Master's degree?


What program requires an additional two years of study?


What is the common name for MPEG-2 Audio Layer III?

MPEG-1 or MPEG-2 Audio Layer III, more commonly referred to as MP3, is an audio coding format for digital audio which uses a form of lossy data compression. It is a common audio format for consumer audio streaming or storage, as well as a de facto standard of digital audio compression for the transfer and playback of music on most digital audio players.


What kind of audio is the coding format for?


Other than storage, what is the common audio format used for?


Where will MP3 files most commonly be found?


What is the main goal aside from reducing the amount of data required to store the audio?

The use of lossy compression is designed to greatly reduce the amount of data required to represent the audio recording and still sound like a faithful reproduction of the original uncompressed audio for most listeners. An MP3 file that is created using the setting of 128 kbit/s will result in a file that is about 1/11 the size of the CD file created from the original audio source (44,100 samples per second × 16 bits per sample × 2 channels = 1,411,200 bit/s; MP3 compressed at 128 kbit/s: 128,000 bit/s [1 k = 1,000, not 1024, because it is a bit rate]. Ratio: 1,411,200/128,000 = 11.025). An MP3 file can also be constructed at higher or lower bit rates, with higher or lower resulting quality.


If a file is created using 128 kbit/s, what size is the file going to be compared to a CD?


How many total bit/s would an MP3 compressed at 128 kbit/s have?


What does the compression target in the song?

The compression works by reducing the accuracy of certain parts of a sound that are considered to be beyond the auditory resolution ability of most people. This method is commonly referred to as perceptual coding. It uses psychoacoustic models to discard or reduce precision of components less audible to human hearing, and then records the remaining information in an efficient manner.


The targetting focuses on what aspect that is beyond the ability of most people?


What is this method commonly referred to as?


What kind of model is used in this kind of compression?


These models ensure that the precision is reduced for the components that are what to human hearing?


MP3 was designed by the Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG) as part of its MPEG-1 standard and later extended in the MPEG-2 standard. The first subgroup for audio was formed by several teams of engineers at Fraunhofer IIS, University of Hannover, AT&T-Bell Labs, Thomson-Brandt, CCETT, and others. MPEG-1 Audio (MPEG-1 Part 3), which included MPEG-1 Audio Layer I, II and III was approved as a committee draft of ISO/IEC standard in 1991, finalised in 1992 and published in 1993 (ISO/IEC 11172-3:1993). Backwards compatible MPEG-2 Audio (MPEG-2 Part 3) with additional bit rates and sample rates was published in 1995 (ISO/IEC 13818-3:1995).


What was the first standard that this group had?


The first standard later developed into which standard?


When was the draft passed to have MPEG-1 Audio approved as a standard?


When was MPEG-2 Audio finally published?


What does the MP3 compression take advantage of?

The MP3 lossy audio data compression algorithm takes advantage of a perceptual limitation of human hearing called auditory masking. In 1894, the American physicist Alfred M. Mayer reported that a tone could be rendered inaudible by another tone of lower frequency. In 1959, Richard Ehmer described a complete set of auditory curves regarding this phenomenon. Ernst Terhardt et al. created an algorithm describing auditory masking with high accuracy. This work added to a variety of reports from authors dating back to Fletcher, and to the work that initially determined critical ratios and critical bandwidths.


What is the limitation in human hearing referred to as?


Who was the physicist to report that a tone could be rendered inaudible.


When were audio curves described by Richard Ehmer?


The initial work was aimed at determining critical ratios and what else?


The psychoacoustic masking codec was first proposed in 1979, apparently independently, by Manfred R. Schroeder, et al. from Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc. in Murray Hill, NJ, and M. A. Krasner both in the United States. Krasner was the first to publish and to produce hardware for speech (not usable as music bit compression), but the publication of his results as a relatively obscure Lincoln Laboratory Technical Report did not immediately influence the mainstream of psychoacoustic codec development. Manfred Schroeder was already a well-known and revered figure in the worldwide community of acoustical and electrical engineers, but his paper was not much noticed, since it described negative results due to the particular nature of speech and the linear predictive coding (LPC) gain present in speech. Both Krasner and Schroeder built upon the work performed by Eberhard F. Zwicker in the areas of tuning and masking of critical bands, that in turn built on the fundamental research in the area from Bell Labs of Harvey Fletcher and his collaborators. A wide variety of (mostly perceptual) audio compression algorithms were reported in IEEE's refereed Journal on Selected Areas in Communications. That journal reported in February 1988 on a wide range of established, working audio bit compression technologies, some of them using auditory masking as part of their fundamental design, and several showing real-time hardware implementations.


Which country were the researchers located in?


Who was the first to produce hardware for speech?


What was reported in IEEE's Journal on Selected Areas in Communications?


The immediate predecessors of MP3 were "Optimum Coding in the Frequency Domain" (OCF), and Perceptual Transform Coding (PXFM). These two codecs, along with block-switching contributions from Thomson-Brandt, were merged into a codec called ASPEC, which was submitted to MPEG, and which won the quality competition, but that was mistakenly rejected as too complex to implement. The first practical implementation of an audio perceptual coder (OCF) in hardware (Krasner's hardware was too cumbersome and slow for practical use), was an implementation of a psychoacoustic transform coder based on Motorola 56000 DSP chips.


What was the name of the codec that OCF, PFXM and other contributes merged into?


What was the first practical implementation based on?


What kind of student was Karlheinz Brandenburg?

As a doctoral student at Germany's University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Karlheinz Brandenburg began working on digital music compression in the early 1980s, focusing on how people perceive music. He completed his doctoral work in 1989. MP3 is directly descended from OCF and PXFM, representing the outcome of the collaboration of Brandenburg—working as a postdoc at AT&T-Bell Labs with James D. Johnston ("JJ") of AT&T-Bell Labs—with the Fraunhofer Institut for Integrated Circuits, Erlangen, with relatively minor contributions from the MP2 branch of psychoacoustic sub-band coders. In 1990, Brandenburg became an assistant professor at Erlangen-Nuremberg. While there, he continued to work on music compression with scientists at the Fraunhofer Society (in 1993 he joined the staff of the Fraunhofer Institute).


When did Karlheinz start working on digitmal music compression?


Where did Bradenburg become an assistant professor at?


Who did Brandenburg work with in music compression?


When did Brandenburg join the Fraunhofen Institute?


What was the name of the first song used to develop the MP3?

The song "Tom's Diner" by Suzanne Vega was the first song used by Karlheinz Brandenburg to develop the MP3. Brandenburg adopted the song for testing purposes, listening to it again and again each time refining the scheme, making sure it did not adversely affect the subtlety of Vega's voice.


Who was the artist of the first song used?


The song was listened to multiple times to try and refine what?


What particular aspect of the artists voice was he trying to preserve?


How many proposals were available in 1991?

In 1991, there were only two proposals available that could be completely assessed for an MPEG audio standard: Musicam (Masking pattern adapted Universal Subband Integrated Coding And Multiplexing) and ASPEC (Adaptive Spectral Perceptual Entropy Coding). The Musicam technique, as proposed by Philips (the Netherlands), CCETT (France) and Institut für Rundfunktechnik (Germany) was chosen due to its simplicity and error robustness, as well as its low computational power associated with the encoding of high quality compressed audio. The Musicam format, based on sub-band coding, was the basis of the MPEG Audio compression format (sampling rates, structure of frames, headers, number of samples per frame).


Other than ASPEC what was another proposal?


The Musicam format was proposed by Philips, based in which country?


Which other quality alongside simplicty was key in selecting this proposal?


What was only incorporated into Layer III and not Layers I or II?

Much of its technology and ideas were incorporated into the definition of ISO MPEG Audio Layer I and Layer II and the filter bank alone into Layer III (MP3) format as part of the computationally inefficient hybrid filter bank. Under the chairmanship of Professor Musmann (University of Hannover) the editing of the standard was made under the responsibilities of Leon van de Kerkhof (Layer I) and Gerhard Stoll (Layer II).


Who was the chair that oversaw the editing of the standard?


Who's responsibility was it to edit the standard for Layer I?


Who's responsibility was it to edit the standard for Layer II?


What was the name given to the proposal?

ASPEC was the joint proposal of AT&T Bell Laboratories, Thomson Consumer Electronics, Fraunhofer Society and CNET. It provided the highest coding efficiency.


Other than Thomson Consumer Electronics, Fraunhofer Society and CNET, who else was a part of the joint proposal?


What did the working group integrate their ideas with?

A working group consisting of Leon van de Kerkhof (The Netherlands), Gerhard Stoll (Germany), Leonardo Chiariglione (Italy), Yves-François Dehery (France), Karlheinz Brandenburg (Germany) and James D. Johnston (USA) took ideas from ASPEC, integrated the filter bank from Layer 2, added some of their own ideas and created MP3, which was designed to achieve the same quality at 128 kbit/s as MP2 at 192 kbit/s.


What did the working group take ideas from?


What did the working group eventually create?


What quality were they hoping to match at 128 kbit/s?


All algorithms for MPEG-1 Audio Layer I, II and III were approved in 1991 and finalized in 1992 as part of MPEG-1, the first standard suite by MPEG, which resulted in the international standard ISO/IEC 11172-3 (a.k.a. MPEG-1 Audio or MPEG-1 Part 3), published in 1993.


When were the approved algorithms finalized?


What was the first started suite by MPEG?


What was the official name of the internation standard?


When was the international standard published?


Further work on MPEG was finalized as a part of which MPEG standard?

Further work on MPEG audio was finalized in 1994 as part of the second suite of MPEG standards, MPEG-2, more formally known as international standard ISO/IEC 13818-3 (a.k.a. MPEG-2 Part 3 or backwards compatible MPEG-2 Audio or MPEG-2 Audio BC), originally published in 1995. MPEG-2 Part 3 (ISO/IEC 13818-3) defined additional bit rates and sample rates for MPEG-1 Audio Layer I, II and III. The new sampling rates are exactly half that of those originally defined in MPEG-1 Audio. This reduction in sampling rate serves to cut the available frequency fidelity in half while likewise cutting the bitrate by 50%. MPEG-2 Part 3 also enhanced MPEG-1's audio by allowing the coding of audio programs with more than two channels, up to 5.1 multichannel.


What was the official name of ISO/IEC 13818-3 better known as?


At what rate were the new sampling rates defined in comparison to MPEG-1 Audio?


Apart from cutting the frequency fidelity in half, what else was cut in half?


Allowing the coding of audio programs with more than two channels was a major aspect of what?


As MPEG-3 had a different meaning, what was the name given to the extension of MPEG-2?

An additional extension to MPEG-2 is named MPEG-2.5 audio, as MPEG-3 already had a different meaning. This extension was developed at Fraunhofer IIS, the registered MP3 patent holders. Like MPEG-2, MPEG-2.5 adds new sampling rates exactly half of that previously possible with MPEG-2. It thus widens the scope of MP3 to include human speech and other applications requiring only 25% of the frequency reproduction possible with MPEG-1. While not an ISO recognized standard, MPEG-2.5 is widely supported by both inexpensive and brand name digital audio players as well as computer software based MP3 encoders and decoders. A sample rate comparison between MPEG-1, 2 and 2.5 is given further down. MPEG-2.5 was not developed by MPEG and was never approved as an international standard. MPEG-2.5 is thus an unofficial or proprietary extension to the MP3 format.


The new sampling rates widened the scope of MP3 to be able to include what?


As MPEG-2.5 is unofficial, it is considered what kind of extension to the MP3 format?


What defines the compression efficiency of encoders?

Compression efficiency of encoders is typically defined by the bit rate, because compression ratio depends on the bit depth and sampling rate of the input signal. Nevertheless, compression ratios are often published. They may use the Compact Disc (CD) parameters as references (44.1 kHz, 2 channels at 16 bits per channel or 2×16 bit), or sometimes the Digital Audio Tape (DAT) SP parameters (48 kHz, 2×16 bit). Compression ratios with this latter reference are higher, which demonstrates the problem with use of the term compression ratio for lossy encoders.


Compression ratio depends on the sample rate and bit depth of which signal?


Other than CD parameters, what else can be used as parameter references?


What can CD parameters be used as references for?