How long have some species of moths believed to have evolved from the same habitat?

A number of species of moths live in the Alps, some of which are believed to have evolved in the same habitat up to 120 million years ago, long before the Alps were created. Blue moths can commonly be seen drinking from the snow melt; some species of blue moths fly as high as 1,800 m (5,906 ft). The butterflies tend to be large, such as those from the swallowtail Parnassius family, with a habitat that ranges to 1,800 m (5,906 ft). Twelve species of beetles have habitats up to the snow line; the most beautiful and formerly collected for its colours but now protected is the Rosalia alpina. Spiders, such as the large wolf spider, live above the snow line and can be seen as high as 400 m (1,312 ft). Scorpions can be found in the Italian Alps.


What can be commonly seen drinking from the snow melt?


The swallowtail Parnassius family of butterfly habitat ranges up to how much?


What species of beetles are were collected for their colors before being protected?


Some species of moths and insects show evidence of what?

Some of the species of moths and insects show evidence of having been indigenous to the area from as long ago as the Alpine orogeny. In Emosson in Valais, Switzerland, dinosaur tracks were found in the 1970s, dating probably from the Triassic Period.


How long ago does the evidence show moths and insects to have been indigenous?


When were dinosaur tracks found in Emosson?


When were late Paleolithic communities established along the lake shores?

About 10,000 years ago, when the ice melted after the last glacial period, late Paleolithic communities were established along the lake shores and in cave systems. Evidence of human habitation has been found in caves near Vercors, close to Grenoble; in Austria the Mondsee culture shows evidence of houses built on piles to keep them dry. Standing stones have been found in Alpine areas of France and Italy. The rock drawings in Valcamonica are more than 5000 years old; more than 200,000 drawings and etchings have been identified at the site.


What has been found in caves near Vercors?


What have been found in Alpine areas of France and Italy?


How old are rock drawings in Valcamonica?


In 1991 a mummy of a neolithic body, known as Ötzi the Iceman, was discovered by hikers on the Similaun glacier. His clothing and gear indicate that he lived in an alpine farming community, while the location and manner of his death - an arrowhead was discovered in his shoulder - suggests he was travelling from one place to another. Analysis of the mitochondrial DNA of Ötzi, has shown that he belongs to the K1 subclade which cannot be categorized into any of the three modern branches of that subclade. The new subclade has provisionally been named K1ö for Ötzi.


When did Celtic tribes settle in Switzerland?

Celtic tribes settled in Switzerland between 1000 to 1500 BC. The Raetians lived in the eastern regions, while the west was occupied by the Helvetii and the Allobrogi settled in the Rhone valley and in Savoy. Among the many substances Celtic tribes mined was salt in areas such as Salzburg in Austria where evidence of the Hallstatt culture was found by a mine manager in the 19th century. By the 6th century BC the La Tène culture was well established in the region, and became known for high quality decorated weapons and jewelry. The Celts were the most widespread of the mountain tribes—they had warriors that were strong, tall and fair skinned skilled with iron weapons, which gave them an advantage in warfare.


Which were the most widespread of the mountain tribes?


During the Second Punic War in 218 BC, the Carthaginian general Hannibal probably crossed the Alps with an army numbering 38,000 infantry, 8,000 cavalry, and 37 war elephants. This was one of the most celebrated achievements of any military force in ancient warfare, although no evidence exists of the actual crossing or the place of crossing. The Romans, however, had built roads along the mountain passes, which continued to be used through the medieval period to cross the mountains and Roman road markers can still be found on the mountain passes.


What did the Romans build along the mountain passes?


What can still be found on the mountain passes?


What brought the defeat of the Allobrogi?

The Roman expansion brought the defeat of the Allobrogi in 121 BC and during the Gallic Wars in 58 BC Julius Caesar overcame the Helvetii. The Rhaetians continued to resist but were eventually conquered when the Romans turned northward to the Danube valley in Austria and defeated the Brigantes. The Romans built settlements in the Alps; towns such as Aosta (named for Augustus) in Italy, Martigny and Lausanne in Switzerland, and Partenkirchen in Bavaria show remains of Roman baths, villas, arenas and temples. Much of the Alpine region was gradually settled by Germanic tribes, (Lombards, Alemanni, Bavarii, and Franks) from the 6th to the 13th centuries mixing with the local Celtic tribes.


When did Julius Caesar overcome the Helvetii?


What tribes settled much of the Alpine region?


Who established Christianity in the region?

Christianity was established in the region by the Romans, and saw the establishment of monasteries and churches in the high regions. The Frankish expansion of the Carolingian Empire and the Bavarian expansion in the eastern Alps introduced feudalism and the building of castles to support the growing number of dukedoms and kingdoms. Castello del Buonconsiglio in Trento, Italy, still has intricate frescoes, excellent examples of Gothic art, in a tower room. In Switzerland, Château de Chillon is preserved as an example of medieval architecture.


What did the Frankish expansion and the Bavarian expansion introduce?


What is preserved as an example of medieval architecture?


Much of the medieval period was a time of what?

Much of the medieval period was a time of power struggles between competing dynasties such as the House of Savoy, the Visconti in northern Italy and the House of Habsburg in Austria and Slovenia. In 1291 to protect themselves from incursions by the Habsburgs, four cantons in the middle of Switzerland drew up a charter that is considered to be a declaration of independence from neighboring kingdoms. After a series of battles fought in the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries, more cantons joined the confederacy and by the 16th century Switzerland was well-established as a separate state.


What dynastie was from Austria and Slovenia?


What Country was a well-established separate state by the 16th century?


What wars took place during the late 18th century and early 19th century?

During the Napoleonic Wars in the late 18th century and early 19th century, Napoleon annexed territory formerly controlled by the Habsburgs and Savoys. In 1798 he established the Helvetic Republic in Switzerland; two years later he led an army across the St. Bernard pass and conquered almost all of the Alpine regions.


Who annexed territory formerly controlled by the Habsburgs and Savoys?


When was the Helvetic Republic established?


Where was the Helvetic Republic established?


When did many alpine countries develop heavy protection to prevent new invasion?

After the fall of Napoléon, many alpine countries developed heavy protections to prevent any new invasion. Thus, Savoy built a series of fortifications in the Maurienne valley in order to protect the major alpine passes, such as the col du Mont-Cenis that was even crossed by, Charlemagne and his father to defeat the Lombarts. The later indeed became very popular after the construction of a paved road ordered by Napoléon Bonaparte. The Barrière de l'Esseillon is a serie of forts with heavy batteries, built on a cliff with a perfect view on the valley, a gorge on one side and steep mountains on the other side.


Who built a series of fortifications in the Maurienne valley?


Why were a series of fortifications in the Maurienne valley built?


Who ordered the construction of a paved road?


What became tourist destinations during the 19th century?

In the 19th century, the monasteries built in the high Alps during the medieval period to shelter travelers and as places of pilgrimage, became tourist destinations. The Benedictines had built monasteries in Lucerne, Switzerland, and Oberammergau; the Cistercians in the Tyrol and at Lake Constance; and the Augustinians had abbeys in the Savoy and one in the center of Interlaken, Switzerland. The Great St Bernard Hospice, built in the 9th or 10th centuries, at the summit of the Great Saint Bernard Pass was shelter for travelers and place for pilgrims since its inception; by the 19th century it became a tourist attraction with notable visitors such as author Charles Dickens and mountaineer Edward Whymper.


Who built monasteries in Lucerne, Switzerland and Oberammergau?


Who had abbeys in the Savor and one in the center of Interlaken?


When was the Great St. Bernard Hospice built?


How old was the charcoal placed in the Drachloch cave?

Radiocarbon dated charcoal placed around 50,000 years ago was found in the Drachloch (Dragon's Hole) cave above the village of Vattis in the canton of St. Gallen, proving that the high peaks were visited by prehistoric people. Seven bear skulls from the cave may have been buried by the same prehistoric people. The peaks, however, were mostly ignored except for a few notable examples, and long left to the exclusive attention of the people of the adjoining valleys. The mountain peaks were seen as terrifying, the abode of dragons and demons, to the point that people blindfolded themselves to cross the Alpine passes. The glaciers remained a mystery and many still believed the highest areas to be inhabited by dragons.


What does the finding of charcoal in Dragon's Hole prove?


What may have been buried by the same prehistoric people?


People blindfolded themselves to cross what?


Charles VII of France ordered his chamberlain to climb Mont Aiguille in 1356. The knight reached the summit of Rocciamelone where he left a bronze triptych of three crosses, a feat which he conducted with the use of ladders to traverse the ice. In 1492 Antoine de Ville climbed Mont Aiguille, without reaching the summit, an experience he described as "horrifying and terrifying." Leonardo da Vinci was fascinated by variations of light in the higher altitudes, and climbed a mountain—scholars are uncertain which one; some believe it may have been Monte Rosa. From his description of a "blue like that of a gentian" sky it is thought that he reached a significantly high altitude. In the 18th century four Chamonix man almost made the summit of Mont Blanc but were overcome by altitude sickness and snowblindness.


What was Charles VII chamberlain ordered to do?


What did the knight leave at the summit of Rocciamelone?


When did Antioine de Ville climb Mont Aiguille?


When did four Chamonix men almost reach the summit of Mont Blanc?


Who was the first naturalist to ascend the mountains?

Conrad Gessner was the first naturalist to ascend the mountains in the 16th century, to study them, writing that in the mountains he found the "theatre of the Lord". By the 19th century more naturalists began to arrive to explore, study and conquer the high peaks; they were followed by artists, writers and painters. Two men who first explored the regions of ice and snow were Horace-Bénédict de Saussure (1740–1799) in the Pennine Alps, and the Benedictine monk of Disentis Placidus a Spescha (1752–1833). Born in Geneva, Saussure was enamored with the mountains from an early age; he left a law career to become a naturalist and spent many years trekking through the Bernese Oberland, the Savoy, the Piedmont and Valais, studying the glaciers and the geology, as he became an early proponent of the theory of rock upheaval. Saussure, in 1787, was a member of the third ascent of Mont Blanc—today the summits of all the peaks have been climbed.


Where was Horace-Benedict de Saussure born?


Who was a member of the third ascent of Mont Blanc?


Who was the first of many to present the Alps as a place of allure and beauty?

Jean-Jacques Rousseau was the first of many to present the Alps as a place of allure and beauty, banishing the prevalent conception of the mountains as a hellish wasteland inhabited by demons. Rousseau's conception of alpine purity was later emphasized with the publication of Albrecht von Haller's poem Die Alpen that described the mountains as an area of mythical purity. Late in the 18th century the first wave of Romantics such as Goethe and Turner came to admire the scenery; Wordsworth visited the area in 1790, writing of his experiences in The Prelude. Schiller later wrote the play William Tell romanticising Swiss independence. After the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the Alpine countries began to see an influx of poets, artists, and musicians, as visitors came to experience the sublime effects of monumental nature.


When did the Alpine countries see an influx of poets, artists, and musicians?


What did the visitors come to experience in the Alpine countries?


Percy and Mary Shelley were inspired by what region's scenery?

In 1816 Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley and his wife Mary Shelley visited Geneva and all three were inspired by the scenery in their writings. During these visits Shelley wrote the poem "Mont Blanc", Byron wrote "The Prisoner of Chillon" and the dramatic poem Manfred, and Mary Shelley, who found the scenery overwhelming, conceived the idea for the novel Frankenstein in her villa on the shores of Lake Geneva in the midst of a thunderstorm. When Coleridge travelled to Chamonix, he declaimed, in defiance of Shelley, who had signed himself "Atheos" in the guestbook of the Hotel de Londres near Montenvers, "Who would be, who could be an atheist in this valley of wonders". By the mid-19th century scientists began to arrive en masse to study the geology and ecology of the region.


What poem did Shelley write during the visits to Geneva?


When did scientists began to arrive en masse to study the geology and ecology of the Alpine region?


Austrian-born Adolf Hitler had a lifelong romantic fascination with the Alps and by the 1930s established a home in the Obersalzberg region outside of Berchtesgaden. His first visit to the area was in 1923 and he maintained a strong tie there until the end of his life. At the end of World War II the US Army occupied Obersalzberg, to prevent Hitler from retreating with the Wehrmacht into the mountains.


What did Adolf Hitler have a lifelong romantic fascination with?


Where did Adolf Hitler establish a home in the 1930s?


When was Adolf Hitlers first visit to the Alps?


By 1940 who occupied many of the Alpine countries?

By 1940 the Third Reich had occupied many of the Alpine countries. Austria underwent a political coup that made it part of the Third Reich; France had been invaded and Italy was a fascist regime. Switzerland was the only country to luckily avoid invasion. The Swiss Confederate mobilized its troops—the country follows the doctrine of "armed neutrality" with all males required to have military training—a number that General Eisenhower estimated to be about 850,000. The Swiss commanders wired the infrastructure leading into the country, and threatening to destroy bridges, railway tunnels and passes in the event of a Nazi invasion, and then they retreated to the heart of the mountain peaks where conditions were harsher and a military invasion would involve difficult and protracted battles.


What country underwent a political coup that made it part of the Third Reich?


What was the only country that avoided invasion from the Third Reich?


Who wired the infrastructure leading into Switzerland?


Ski troops were trained for the war, and battles were waged in mountainous areas such as the battle at Riva Ridge in Italy, where the American 10th Mountain Division encountered heavy resistance in February 1945. At the end of the war, a substantial amount of Nazi plunder was found stored in Austria, where Hitler had hoped to retreat as the war drew to a close. The salt mines surrounding the Altaussee area, where American troops found 75 kilos of gold coins stored in a single mine, were used to store looted art, jewels, and currency; vast quantities of looted art were found and returned to the owners.


Where was a substantial amount of Nazi plunder found at the end of the war?


Where did American troops find 75 kilos of gold coins?


What is the population of the Alpine region?

The population of the region is 14 million spread across eight countries. On the rim of the mountains, on the plateaus and the plains the economy consists of manufacturing and service jobs whereas in the higher altitudes and in the mountains farming is still essential to the economy. Farming and forestry continue to be mainstays of Alpine culture, industries that provide for export to the cities and maintain the mountain ecology.


What does the economy consist of on the rim of the mountains?


Farming and Forestry continue to be a mainstay of what?


Much of what has not changed since the medieval period?

Much of the Alpine culture is unchanged since the medieval period when skills that guaranteed survival in the mountain valleys and in the highest villages became mainstays, leading to strong traditions of carpentry, woodcarving, baking and pastry-making, and cheesemaking.


When were skills that guaranteed survival in the mountain valleys most important?


What is one of the strongest traditions in Alpine culture?


What has been a traditional occupation for centuries?

Farming had been a traditional occupation for centuries, although it became less dominant in the 20th century with the advent of tourism. Grazing and pasture land are limited because of the steep and rocky topography of the Alps. In mid-June cows are moved to the highest pastures close to the snowline, where they are watched by herdsmen who stay in the high altitudes often living in stone huts or wooden barns during the summers. Villagers celebrate the day the cows are herded up to the pastures and again when they return in mid-September. The Alpanschluss or Désalpes ("coming down from the alps") is celebrated by decorating the cows with garlands and enormous cowbells while the farmers dress in traditional costumes.


What made farming less dominant in the 20th century?


When are cows moved to the highest pastures close to the snowline?


What is an ancient tradition in most Alpine countries?

Cheesemaking is an ancient tradition in most Alpine countries. A wheel of cheese from the Emmental in Switzerland can weigh up to 45 kg (100 lb), and the Beaufort in Savoy can weight up to 70 kilograms (150 lb). Owners of the cows traditionally receive from the cheesemakers a portion in relation to the proportion of the cows' milk from the summer months in the high alps. Haymaking is an important farming activity in mountain villages which has become somewhat mechanized in recent years, although the slopes are so steep that usually scythes are necessary to cut the grass. Hay is normally brought in twice a year, often also on festival days. Alpine festivals vary from country to country and often include the display of local costumes such as dirndl and trachten, the playing of Alpenhorns, wrestling matches, some pagan traditions such as Walpurgis Night and, in many areas, Carnival is celebrated before Lent.


How much can a wheel of cheese from the Emmental weigh?


What is an important farming activity in mountain villages?


How many times is Hay normally brought each year?


What do people in high villages build their homes according to?

In the high villages people live in homes built according to medieval designs that withstand cold winters. The kitchen is separated from the living area (called the stube, the area of the home heated by a stove), and second-floor bedrooms benefit from rising heat. The typical Swiss chalet originated in the Bernese Oberland. Chalets often face south or downhill, and are built of solid wood, with a steeply gabled roof to allow accumulated snow to slide off easily. Stairs leading to upper levels are sometimes built on the outside, and balconies are sometimes enclosed.


What is the area of the home heated by a stove called?


The typic Swiss chalet originated from where?


The food is passed from the kitchen to where?

Food is passed from the kitchen to the stube, where the dining room table is placed. Some meals are communal, such as fondue, where a pot is set in the middle of the table for each person to dip into. Other meals are still served in a traditional manner on carved wooden plates. Furniture has been traditionally elaborately carved and in many Alpine countries carpentry skills are passed from generation to generation.


Traditionally, what are meals served on?


What are roofs traditionally constructed from?

Roofs are traditionally constructed from Alpine rocks such as pieces of schist, gneiss or slate. Such chalets are typically found in the higher parts of the valleys, as in the Maurienne valley in Savoy, where the amount of snow during the cold months is important. The inclination of the roof cannot exceed 40%, allowing the snow to stay on top, thereby functioning as insulation from the cold. In the lower areas where the forests are widespread, wooden tiles are traditionally used. Commonly made of Norway spruce, they are called "tavaillon". The Alpine regions are multicultural and linguistically diverse. Dialects are common, and vary from valley to valley and region to region. In the Slavic Alps alone 19 dialects have been identified. Some of the French dialects spoken in the French, Swiss and Italian alps of Aosta Valley derive from Arpitan, while the southern part of the western range is related to Old Provençal; the German dialects derive from Germanic tribal languages. Romansh, spoken by two percent of the population in southeast Switzerland, is an ancient Rhaeto-Romanic language derived from Latin, remnants of ancient Celtic languages and perhaps Etruscan.


Where are chalets typically used for roof construction found??


The inclination of the roof cannot exceed how much?


How many dialects have been identified in the Slavic Alps?


What language is spoken by two percent of the population in southeast Switzerland?


What's one of the most popular tourist destinations in the world?

At present the Alps are one of the more popular tourist destinations in the world with many resorts such Oberstdorf, in Bavaria, Saalbach in Austria, Davos in Switzerland, Chamonix in France, and Cortina d'Ampezzo in Italy recording more than a million annual visitors. With over 120 million visitors a year tourism is integral to the Alpine economy with much it coming from winter sports although summer visitors are an important component of the tourism industry.


How many people visit the Alps every year?


What is an integral part of the Alpine economy?


The tourism industry began in the early 19th century when foreigners visited the Alps, traveled to the bases of the mountains to enjoy the scenery, and stayed at the spa-resorts. Large hotels were built during the Belle Époque; cog-railways, built early in the 20th century, brought tourists to ever higher elevations, with the Jungfraubahn terminating at the Jungfraujoch, well above the eternal snow-line, after going through a tunnel in Eiger. During this period winter sports were slowly introduced: in 1882 the first figure skating championship was held in St. Moritz, and downhill skiing became a popular sport with English visitors early in the 20th century, as the first ski-lift was installed in 1908 above Grindelwald.


When were large hotels built in the Alps?


When were cog-railways built in the Alps?


When was the first figure skating championship held?


Where was the first figure skating championship held?


Where were the Winter Olympics held in 1924?

In the first half of the 20th century the Olympic Winter Games were held three times in Alpine venues: the 1924 Winter Olympics in Chamonix, France; the 1928 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz, Switzerland; and the 1936 Winter Olympics in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany. During World War II the winter games were canceled but after that time the Winter Games have been held in St. Moritz (1948), Cortina d'Ampezzo (1956), Innsbruck, Austria (1964 and 1976), Grenoble, France, (1968), Albertville, France, (1992), and Torino (2006). In 1930 the Lauberhorn Rennen (Lauberhorn Race), was run for the first time on the Lauberhorn above Wengen; the equally demanding Hahnenkamm was first run in the same year in Kitzbühl, Austria. Both races continue to be held each January on successive weekends. The Lauberhorn is the more strenuous downhill race at 4.5 km (2.8 mi) and poses danger to racers who reach 130 km/h (81 mph) within seconds of leaving the start gate.


Where were the Winter Olympics held in 1928?


Where were the Winter Olympics held in 1936?


When was the Lauberhorn Rennen ran for the first time on the Lauberhorn above Wengen?


When were the Winter Olympics held in Albertville, France?


When were ski-lifts built in Swiss and Austrian towns?

During the post-World War I period ski-lifts were built in Swiss and Austrian towns to accommodate winter visitors, but summer tourism continued to be important; by the mid-20th century the popularity of downhill skiing increased greatly as it became more accessible and in the 1970s several new villages were built in France devoted almost exclusively to skiing, such as Les Menuires. Until this point Austria and Switzerland had been the traditional and more popular destinations for winter sports, but by the end of the 20th century and into the early 21st century, France, Italy and the Tyrol began to see increases in winter visitors. From 1980 to the present, ski-lifts have been modernized and snow-making machines installed at many resorts, leading to concerns regarding the loss of traditional Alpine culture and questions regarding sustainable development as the winter ski industry continues to develop quickly and the number of summer tourists decline.


When were several new villages built in France almost exclusively for skiing?


How much area is devoted to roads in the Alpine region?

The region is serviced by 4,200 km (2,600 mi) of roads used by 6 million vehicles. Train travel is well established in the Alps, with, for instance 120 km (75 mi) of track for every 1,000 km2 (390 sq mi) in a country such as Switzerland. Most of Europe's highest railways are located there. Moreover, plans are underway to build a 57 km (35 mi)-long sub-alpine tunnel connecting the older Lötschberg and Gotthard tunnels built in the 19th century.


Where are most of Europe's highest railways located?


How long is the tunnel connecting Lotschberg and Gotthard planned to be?


Where is the village of Avoriaz located?

Some high mountain villages, such as Avoriaz (in France), Wengen, and Zermatt (in Switzerland) are accessible only by cable car or cog-rail trains, and are car free. Other villages in the Alps are considering becoming car free zones or limiting the number of cars for reasons of sustainability of the fragile Alpine terrain.


Where are the villages of Wengen and Zermatt located?


Why are villages considering becoming car free zones?


When are many passes in the Alps closed?

The lower regions and larger towns of the Alps are well-served by motorways and main roads, but higher mountain passes and byroads, which are amongst the highest in Europe, can be treacherous even in summer due to steep slopes. Many passes are closed in winter. A multitude of airports around the Alps (and some within), as well as long-distance rail links from all neighbouring countries, afford large numbers of travellers easy access from abroad.


The lower regions and larger towns of the Alps are well-served by what?


What can be treacherous even in summer due to steep slopes?


A gene is a locus (or region) of DNA that encodes a functional RNA or protein product, and is the molecular unit of heredity.:Glossary The transmission of genes to an organism's offspring is the basis of the inheritance of phenotypic traits. Most biological traits are under the influence of polygenes (many different genes) as well as the gene–environment interactions. Some genetic traits are instantly visible, such as eye colour or number of limbs, and some are not, such as blood type, risk for specific diseases, or the thousands of basic biochemical processes that comprise life.


What is the basis of inheritance of phenotypic traits?


What influence are most biological traits under?


What is one instantly visible genetic trait?


What do mutations in a gene sequence lead to?

Genes can acquire mutations in their sequence, leading to different variants, known as alleles, in the population. These alleles encode slightly different versions of a protein, which cause different phenotype traits. Colloquial usage of the term "having a gene" (e.g., "good genes," "hair colour gene") typically refers to having a different allele of the gene. Genes evolve due to natural selection or survival of the fittest of the alleles.


What does "having a gene" or a "good gene" typically refer to?


What can regulatory regions of a gene be far removed from?

The concept of a gene continues to be refined as new phenomena are discovered. For example, regulatory regions of a gene can be far removed from its coding regions, and coding regions can be split into several exons. Some viruses store their genome in RNA instead of DNA and some gene products are functional non-coding RNAs. Therefore, a broad, modern working definition of a gene is any discrete locus of heritable, genomic sequence which affect an organism's traits by being expressed as a functional product or by regulation of gene expression.


What do some viruses store their genome in instead of DNA?


What is a broad, modern working definition of a gene?


Who first suggested the existence of discrete inheritable units?

The existence of discrete inheritable units was first suggested by Gregor Mendel (1822–1884). From 1857 to 1864, he studied inheritance patterns in 8000 common edible pea plants, tracking distinct traits from parent to offspring. He described these mathematically as 2n combinations where n is the number of differing characteristics in the original peas. Although he did not use the term gene, he explained his results in terms of discrete inherited units that give rise to observable physical characteristics. This description prefigured the distinction between genotype (the genetic material of an organism) and phenotype (the visible traits of that organism). Mendel was also the first to demonstrate independent assortment, the distinction between dominant and recessive traits, the distinction between a heterozygote and homozygote, and the phenomenon of discontinuous inheritance.


If a distinct trait in edible pea plants is mathematically described as a 2n combination, what does n represent?


What is one thing that Gregor Mendel was the first to demonstrate?


What is another thing that Gregor Mendel was the first to demonstrate?


What did Gregor Mendel explain his results in terms of?


What was the dominant theory of heredity prior to Mendel's work?

Prior to Mendel's work, the dominant theory of heredity was one of blending inheritance, which suggested that each parent contributed fluids to the fertilisation process and that the traits of the parents blended and mixed to produce the offspring. Charles Darwin developed a theory of inheritance he termed pangenesis, which used the term gemmule to describe hypothetical particles that would mix during reproduction. Although Mendel's work was largely unrecognized after its first publication in 1866, it was 'rediscovered' in 1900 by three European scientists, Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, and Erich von Tschermak, who claimed to have reached similar conclusions in their own research.


Who developed the theory of inheritance known as pangenesis?


What year was Mendel's work first published?


Who are the three scientists that claimed to have reached conclusions similar to Mendel's?


What ancient Greek word is the word 'gene' derived from?

The word gene is derived (via pangene) from the Ancient Greek word γένος (génos) meaning "race, offspring". Gene was coined in 1909 by Danish botanist Wilhelm Johannsen to describe the fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity, while the related word genetics was first used by William Bateson in 1905.


What does the ancient Greek word 'génos' mean?


What Danish botanist coined the word 'gene'?


What was the word 'gene' used to describe in 1909?


Who first used the word 'genetics' in 1905?


What was shown to be the molecular repository of genetic information by experiments in the 1940s to 1950s?

Advances in understanding genes and inheritance continued throughout the 20th century. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was shown to be the molecular repository of genetic information by experiments in the 1940s to 1950s. The structure of DNA was studied by Rosalind Franklin using X-ray crystallography, which led James D. Watson and Francis Crick to publish a model of the double-stranded DNA molecule whose paired nucleotide bases indicated a compelling hypothesis for the mechanism of genetic replication. Collectively, this body of research established the central dogma of molecular biology, which states that proteins are translated from RNA, which is transcribed from DNA. This dogma has since been shown to have exceptions, such as reverse transcription in retroviruses. The modern study of genetics at the level of DNA is known as molecular genetics.


Who studied the structure of DNA using x-ray crystallography?


What two scientists published a model of the double stranded DNA molecule?


What is one exception to the central dogma of molecular biology?


What is the modern study of genetics at the level of DNA known as?


When was the first sequence of a gene determined?

In 1972, Walter Fiers and his team at the University of Ghent were the first to determine the sequence of a gene: the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein. The subsequent development of chain-termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger improved the efficiency of sequencing and turned it into a routine laboratory tool. An automated version of the Sanger method was used in early phases of the Human Genome Project.


What was the first gene to be sequenced?


Who developed chain termination DNA sequencing in 1977?


What did the devlopment of the chain termination DNA sequencing method do for the sequencing process?


What project used an automated version of the Sanger method in its early stages?


In what time span were the theories to integrate molecular genetic with Darwinian evolution developed?

The theories developed in the 1930s and 1940s to integrate molecular genetics with Darwinian evolution are called the modern evolutionary synthesis, a term introduced by Julian Huxley. Evolutionary biologists subsequently refined this concept, such as George C. Williams' gene-centric view of evolution. He proposed an evolutionary concept of the gene as a unit of natural selection with the definition: "that which segregates and recombines with appreciable frequency.":24 In this view, the molecular gene transcribes as a unit, and the evolutionary gene inherits as a unit. Related ideas emphasizing the centrality of genes in evolution were popularized by Richard Dawkins.


What are the theories that integrate molecular genetics with Darwinian evolution called?


Who proposed an evolutionary concept of the gene as a unit of natural selection?


What is the definition of the concept of the gene as a unit of natural selection?


Who popularized ideas emphasizing the centrality of genes in evolution?


What do the vast majority of living organisms encode their genes in?

The vast majority of living organisms encode their genes in long strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA consists of a chain made from four types of nucleotide subunits, each composed of: a five-carbon sugar (2'-deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and one of the four bases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine.:2.1


What type of sugar composes part of the DNA molecule?


What are the four bases used in nucleotide subunits?


Besides the sugar and the four bases, what else does DNA consist of?


What is the backbone of a DNA double helix made of?

Two chains of DNA twist around each other to form a DNA double helix with the phosphate-sugar backbone spiralling around the outside, and the bases pointing inwards with adenine base pairing to thymine and guanine to cytosine. The specificity of base pairing occurs because adenine and thymine align form two hydrogen bonds, whereas cytosine and guanine form three hydrogen bonds. The two strands in a double helix must therefore be complementary, with their sequence of bases matching such that the adenines of one strand are paired with the thymines of the other strand, and so on.:4.1


What causes the specificity of base pairing?


Due to the cause of the specificity of base pairing, what must be true of the two strands in a double helix?


What causes the directionality of DNA strands?

Due to the chemical composition of the pentose residues of the bases, DNA strands have directionality. One end of a DNA polymer contains an exposed hydroxyl group on the deoxyribose; this is known as the 3' end of the molecule. The other end contains an exposed phosphate group; this is the 5' end. The two strands of a double-helix run in opposite directions. Nucleic acid synthesis, including DNA replication and transcription occurs in the 5'→3' direction, because new nucleotides are added via a dehydration reaction that uses the exposed 3' hydroxyl as a nucleophile.:27.2


What type of synthesis occurs in the 5'→3' direction?


Why does DNA replication and transcription occur in the 5'→3' direction?


How does the expression of genes encoded in DNA begin?

The expression of genes encoded in DNA begins by transcribing the gene into RNA, a second type of nucleic acid that is very similar to DNA, but whose monomers contain the sugar ribose rather than deoxyribose. RNA also contains the base uracil in place of thymine. RNA molecules are less stable than DNA and are typically single-stranded. Genes that encode proteins are composed of a series of three-nucleotide sequences called codons, which serve as the "words" in the genetic "language". The genetic code specifies the correspondence during protein translation between codons and amino acids. The genetic code is nearly the same for all known organisms.:4.1


What base does RNA have in place of thymine?


What specifies the correspondence between codons and amino acids during protein translation?


What is the total complement of genes in an organism or cell known as?

The total complement of genes in an organism or cell is known as its genome, which may be stored on one or more chromosomes. A chromosome consists of a single, very long DNA helix on which thousands of genes are encoded.:4.2 The region of the chromosome at which a particular gene is located is called its locus. Each locus contains one allele of a gene; however, members of a population may have different alleles at the locus, each with a slightly different gene sequence.


What is the region of the chromosome at which a particular gene is located called?


Where are the majority of eukaryotic genes stored?

The majority of eukaryotic genes are stored on a set of large, linear chromosomes. The chromosomes are packed within the nucleus in complex with storage proteins called histones to form a unit called a nucleosome. DNA packaged and condensed in this way is called chromatin.:4.2 The manner in which DNA is stored on the histones, as well as chemical modifications of the histone itself, regulate whether a particular region of DNA is accessible for gene expression. In addition to genes, eukaryotic chromosomes contain sequences involved in ensuring that the DNA is copied without degradation of end regions and sorted into daughter cells during cell division: replication origins, telomeres and the centromere.:4.2 Replication origins are the sequence regions where DNA replication is initiated to make two copies of the chromosome. Telomeres are long stretches of repetitive sequence that cap the ends of the linear chromosomes and prevent degradation of coding and regulatory regions during DNA replication. The length of the telomeres decreases each time the genome is replicated and has been implicated in the aging process. The centromere is required for binding spindle fibres to separate sister chromatids into daughter cells during cell division.:18.2


Chromosomes that are packed within the nucleus in complex with histones are called what?


What does the manner of DNA storage on the histone and the chemical modifications of the histone itself regulate?


Long stretches of repetitive sequence that cap the ends of the linear chromosomes are called what?


Prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) typically store their genomes on a single large, circular chromosome. Similarly, some eukaryotic organelles contain a remnant circular chromosome with a small number of genes.:14.4 Prokaryotes sometimes supplement their chromosome with additional small circles of DNA called plasmids, which usually encode only a few genes and are transferable between individuals. For example, the genes for antibiotic resistance are usually encoded on bacterial plasmids and can be passed between individual cells, even those of different species, via horizontal gene transfer.


What type of chromosome do some eukaryotic organelles contain?


Small circles of DNA that encode only a few genes and are transferable between individuals are called what?


What allows genes for antibiotic resistance to be passed between individual cells?


What type of organism has relatively gene dense chromosomes?

Whereas the chromosomes of prokaryotes are relatively gene-dense, those of eukaryotes often contain regions of DNA that serve no obvious function. Simple single-celled eukaryotes have relatively small amounts of such DNA, whereas the genomes of complex multicellular organisms, including humans, contain an absolute majority of DNA without an identified function. This DNA has often been referred to as "junk DNA". However, more recent analyses suggest that, although protein-coding DNA makes up barely 2% of the human genome, about 80% of the bases in the genome may be expressed, so the term "junk DNA" may be a misnomer.


Regions of DNA that serve no obvious function are often found in what type of organism?


What percentage of the human genome is made of protein coding DNA?


What percentage of bases in the human genome are expressed by protein coding DNA


Often, how large a part of the structure of a gene is the protein coding sequence?

The structure of a gene consists of many elements of which the actual protein coding sequence is often only a small part. These include DNA regions that are not transcribed as well as untranslated regions of the RNA.


What often plays only a small part in the structure of a gene?


What is one of the many elements that the structure of a gene consists of?


What is another element of the structure of a gene?


What elements does the structure of a gene consist of?


What do all genes contain that is required for their expression?

Firstly, flanking the open reading frame, all genes contain a regulatory sequence that is required for their expression. In order to be expressed, genes require a promoter sequence. The promoter is recognized and bound by transcription factors and RNA polymerase to initiate transcription.:7.1 A gene can have more than one promoter, resulting in messenger RNAs (mRNA) that differ in how far they extend in the 5' end. Promoter regions have a consensus sequence, however highly transcribed genes have "strong" promoter sequences that bind the transcription machinery well, whereas others have "weak" promoters that bind poorly and initiate transcription less frequently.:7.2 Eukaryotic promoter regions are much more complex and difficult to identify than prokaryotic promoters.:7.3


What results when genes have more than one promoter?


What does a "strong" promoter sequence do?


What does a "weak" promoter sequence do?


Additionally, genes can have regulatory regions many kilobases upstream or downstream of the open reading frame. These act by binding to transcription factors which then cause the DNA to loop so that the regulatory sequence (and bound transcription factor) become close to the RNA polymerase binding site. For example, enhancers increase transcription by binding an activator protein which then helps to recruit the RNA polymerase to the promoter; conversely silencers bind repressor proteins and make the DNA less available for RNA polymerase.


What happens when a regulatory region binds to transcription factors?


How do enhancers increase transcription?


What happens after an enhancer binds an activator protein?


What causes DNA to be less available for RNA polymerase?


What is at both ends of the transcribed pre-mRNA?

The transcribed pre-mRNA contains untranslated regions at both ends which contain a ribosome binding site, terminator and start and stop codons. In addition, most eukaryotic open reading frames contain untranslated introns which are removed before the exons are translated. The sequences at the ends of the introns, dictate the splice sites to generate the final mature mRNA which encodes the protein or RNA product.


Where are the ribosome binding site, terminator and start and stop codons located on transcribed pre-mRNA?


What do most eukaryotic open reading frames contain?


What dictates the splice sites to generate the final mature mRNA?


What encodes the protein or RNA product?


What are most prokaryotic genes organized into?

Many prokaryotic genes are organized into operons, with multiple protein-coding sequences that are transcribed as a unit. The products of operon genes typically have related functions and are involved in the same regulatory network.:7.3


What are multiple protein coding sequences transcribed as?


What sort of functions do the products of operon genes typically have?


What type of network are the products of operon genes typically involved with?


What type of coding sequences do prokaryotic genes typically have?


What is an example of a regulatory region of a gene that does not have to close to the coding sequence?

Defining exactly what section of a DNA sequence comprises a gene is difficult. Regulatory regions of a gene such as enhancers do not necessarily have to be close to the coding sequence on the linear molecule because the intervening DNA can be looped out to bring the gene and its regulatory region into proximity. Similarly, a gene's introns can be much larger than its exons. Regulatory regions can even be on entirely different chromosomes and operate in trans to allow regulatory regions on one chromosome to come in contact with target genes on another chromosome.


Why do some regulatory regions of a gene not have to be close to the coding sequence?


What part of a gene can be much larger than its exons?


How do regulatory regions on different chromosomes operate in order to allow regions on different chromosomes to come into contact with one another?


What model did early work in molecular genetics suggest?

Early work in molecular genetics suggested the model that one gene makes one protein. This model has been refined since the discovery of genes that can encode multiple proteins by alternative splicing and coding sequences split in short section across the genome whose mRNAs are concatenated by trans-splicing.


What discovery caused the model that one gene makes one protein to be refined?


How are alternative splicing and coding sequences distributed?


In order for a gene to encode multiple proteins, how must its mRNAs be arranged?


What sort of definition can be used to conveniently encompass the complexity of diverse phenomena?

A broad operational definition is sometimes used to encompass the complexity of these diverse phenomena, where a gene is defined as a union of genomic sequences encoding a coherent set of potentially overlapping functional products. This definition categorizes genes by their functional products (proteins or RNA) rather than their specific DNA loci, with regulatory elements classified as gene-associated regions.


What is the broad operational definition of a gene?


What does the typical definition of a gene categorize genes by?


What does the broad operational definition of gene categorize genes by?


What does the broad operational definition of a gene classify as gene-associated regions?


How many steps are required to read the information encoded in a gene's DNA and produce the specified protein?

In all organisms, two steps are required to read the information encoded in a gene's DNA and produce the protein it specifies. First, the gene's DNA is transcribed to messenger RNA (mRNA).:6.1 Second, that mRNA is translated to protein.:6.2 RNA-coding genes must still go through the first step, but are not translated into protein. The process of producing a biologically functional molecule of either RNA or protein is called gene expression, and the resulting molecule is called a gene product.


What is the first step to read the information encoded in a gene's DNA and produce the protein it specifies?


What is the second step to read the information encoded in a gene's DNA and produce the protein it specifies?


What step must RNA-coding genes still go through?


What is the process of producing a biologically functional molecule of either RNA or protein called?


What specifies the amino acid sequence of a protein?

The nucleotide sequence of a gene's DNA specifies the amino acid sequence of a protein through the genetic code. Sets of three nucleotides, known as codons, each correspond to a specific amino acid.:6 Additionally, a "start codon", and three "stop codons" indicate the beginning and end of the protein coding region. There are 64 possible codons (four possible nucleotides at each of three positions, hence 43 possible codons) and only 20 standard amino acids; hence the code is redundant and multiple codons can specify the same amino acid. The correspondence between codons and amino acids is nearly universal among all known living organisms.


What are sets of three nucleotides known as?


What indicates the beginning and end of the protein coding region?


Transcription produces a single-stranded RNA molecule known as messenger RNA, whose nucleotide sequence is complementary to the DNA from which it was transcribed.:6.1 The mRNA acts as an intermediate between the DNA gene and its final protein product. The gene's DNA is used as a template to generate a complementary mRNA. The mRNA matches the sequence of the gene's DNA coding strand because it is synthesised as the complement of the template strand. Transcription is performed by an enzyme called an RNA polymerase, which reads the template strand in the 3' to 5' direction and synthesizes the RNA from 5' to 3'. To initiate transcription, the polymerase first recognizes and binds a promoter region of the gene. Thus, a major mechanism of gene regulation is the blocking or sequestering the promoter region, either by tight binding by repressor molecules that physically block the polymerase, or by organizing the DNA so that the promoter region is not accessible.:7


How does the nucleotide sequence of mRNA compare to DNA?


What is used as a template to generate a complementary mRNA?


Why does the mRNA match the sequence of the gene's DNA coding strand?


What is the enzyme called that performs transcription?


Where does transcription occur in prokaryotes?

In prokaryotes, transcription occurs in the cytoplasm; for very long transcripts, translation may begin at the 5' end of the RNA while the 3' end is still being transcribed. In eukaryotes, transcription occurs in the nucleus, where the cell's DNA is stored. The RNA molecule produced by the polymerase is known as the primary transcript and undergoes post-transcriptional modifications before being exported to the cytoplasm for translation. One of the modifications performed is the splicing of introns which are sequences in the transcribed region that do not encode protein. Alternative splicing mechanisms can result in mature transcripts from the same gene having different sequences and thus coding for different proteins. This is a major form of regulation in eukaryotic cells and also occurs in some prokaryotes.:7.5


If the transcription is very long, where on the RNA may translation begin?


Where does transcription occur in eukaryotes?


Where does a eukaryote store the cell's DNA?


What is the RNA molecule produced by the polymerase known as?


What is the process by which a mature mRNA molecule is used as a template for synthesizing a new protein called?

Translation is the process by which a mature mRNA molecule is used as a template for synthesizing a new protein.:6.2 Translation is carried out by ribosomes, large complexes of RNA and protein responsible for carrying out the chemical reactions to add new amino acids to a growing polypeptide chain by the formation of peptide bonds. The genetic code is read three nucleotides at a time, in units called codons, via interactions with specialized RNA molecules called transfer RNA (tRNA). Each tRNA has three unpaired bases known as the anticodon that are complementary to the codon it reads on the mRNA. The tRNA is also covalently attached to the amino acid specified by the complementary codon. When the tRNA binds to its complementary codon in an mRNA strand, the ribosome attaches its amino acid cargo to the new polypeptide chain, which is synthesized from amino terminus to carboxyl terminus. During and after synthesis, most new proteins must folds to their active three-dimensional structure before they can carry out their cellular functions.:3


How many unpaired bases does each tRNA have?


Genes are regulated so that they are expressed only when the product is needed, since expression draws on limited resources.:7 A cell regulates its gene expression depending on its external environment (e.g. available nutrients, temperature and other stresses), its internal environment (e.g. cell division cycle, metabolism, infection status), and its specific role if in a multicellular organism. Gene expression can be regulated at any step: from transcriptional initiation, to RNA processing, to post-translational modification of the protein. The regulation of lactose metabolism genes in E. coli (lac operon) was the first such mechanism to be described in 1961.


What are examples of a cell's external environment?


What are examples of a cell's internal environment?


At which step can gene expression be regulated?


What example of post-translational modification of a protein was first described in 1961?


What is first copied into RNA as an intermediate in the manufacture of the final protein product?

A typical protein-coding gene is first copied into RNA as an intermediate in the manufacture of the final protein product.:6.1 In other cases, the RNA molecules are the actual functional products, as in the synthesis of ribosomal RNA and transfer RNA. Some RNAs known as ribozymes are capable of enzymatic function, and microRNA has a regulatory role. The DNA sequences from which such RNAs are transcribed are known as non-coding RNA genes.


In some cases, what are the actual functional products?


What sort of synthesis occurs when the RNA molecules are the actual functional products?


What sort of function are ribozymes capable of?


What are the DNA sequences from which ribozymes are transcribed known as?


In what form do some viruses store their entire genome?

Some viruses store their entire genomes in the form of RNA, and contain no DNA at all. Because they use RNA to store genes, their cellular hosts may synthesize their proteins as soon as they are infected and without the delay in waiting for transcription. On the other hand, RNA retroviruses, such as HIV, require the reverse transcription of their genome from RNA into DNA before their proteins can be synthesized. RNA-mediated epigenetic inheritance has also been observed in plants and very rarely in animals.


Why do the cellular hosts of some viruses not have to wait for transcription to synthesize their proteins?


What sort of transcription does the genome of HIV require before its proteins can be synthesized?


Besides viruses, where has RNA-mediated epigenetic inheritance been observed?


Where do organisms inherit their genes from?

Organisms inherit their genes from their parents. Asexual organisms simply inherit a complete copy of their parent's genome. Sexual organisms have two copies of each chromosome because they inherit one complete set from each parent.:1


How much of an asexual organism's genome is inherited from its parents?


How many copies of each chromosome does a sexual organism have?


How many sets of chromosomes does a sexual organism inherit from each parent?


Why do sexual organisms have two copies of each chromosome?


According to Mendelian inheritance, what is part of the cause of variations in an organism's phenotype?

According to Mendelian inheritance, variations in an organism's phenotype (observable physical and behavioral characteristics) are due in part to variations in its genotype (particular set of genes). Each gene specifies a particular trait with different sequence of a gene (alleles) giving rise to different phenotypes. Most eukaryotic organisms (such as the pea plants Mendel worked on) have two alleles for each trait, one inherited from each parent.:20


What sort of characteristics are described by an organism's phenotype?


What specifies a particular trait with a different sequence of alleles?


How many alleles do most eukaryotic organisms have for each trait?


Where can alleles be located in order to be either dominant or recessive?

Alleles at a locus may be dominant or recessive; dominant alleles give rise to their corresponding phenotypes when paired with any other allele for the same trait, whereas recessive alleles give rise to their corresponding phenotype only when paired with another copy of the same allele. For example, if the allele specifying tall stems in pea plants is dominant over the allele specifying short stems, then pea plants that inherit one tall allele from one parent and one short allele from the other parent will also have tall stems. Mendel's work demonstrated that alleles assort independently in the production of gametes, or germ cells, ensuring variation in the next generation. Although Mendelian inheritance remains a good model for many traits determined by single genes (including a number of well-known genetic disorders) it does not include the physical processes of DNA replication and cell division.


When paired with any other allele for the same trait, what do dominant alleles give rise to?


When do recessive alleles give rise to their corresponding phenotype?


What does the growth, development, and reproduction of organisms rely on?

The growth, development, and reproduction of organisms relies on cell division, or the process by which a single cell divides into two usually identical daughter cells. This requires first making a duplicate copy of every gene in the genome in a process called DNA replication.:5.2 The copies are made by specialized enzymes known as DNA polymerases, which "read" one strand of the double-helical DNA, known as the template strand, and synthesize a new complementary strand. Because the DNA double helix is held together by base pairing, the sequence of one strand completely specifies the sequence of its complement; hence only one strand needs to be read by the enzyme to produce a faithful copy. The process of DNA replication is semiconservative; that is, the copy of the genome inherited by each daughter cell contains one original and one newly synthesized strand of DNA.:5.2


In cell division, what two cells are created?


What specialized enzyme is responsible DNA replication?


Why does the sequence of one strand completely specify the sequence of its complement?


What one word characterizes the process of DNA replication?


What is one thing the cell must do once DNA replication is compete?

After DNA replication is complete, the cell must physically separate the two copies of the genome and divide into two distinct membrane-bound cells.:18.2 In prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) this usually occurs via a relatively simple process called binary fission, in which each circular genome attaches to the cell membrane and is separated into the daughter cells as the membrane invaginates to split the cytoplasm into two membrane-bound portions. Binary fission is extremely fast compared to the rates of cell division in eukaryotes. Eukaryotic cell division is a more complex process known as the cell cycle; DNA replication occurs during a phase of this cycle known as S phase, whereas the process of segregating chromosomes and splitting the cytoplasm occurs during M phase.:18.1


What is another thing the cell must do once DNA replication is complete?


In binary fission, what shape is each genome?


In binary fission. when does each genome separate into daughter cells?


Compared to the rates of cell division in eukaryotes, with what speed does binary fission occur?


The duplication and transmission of genetic material from one generation of cells to the next is the basis for what?

The duplication and transmission of genetic material from one generation of cells to the next is the basis for molecular inheritance, and the link between the classical and molecular pictures of genes. Organisms inherit the characteristics of their parents because the cells of the offspring contain copies of the genes in their parents' cells. In asexually reproducing organisms, the offspring will be a genetic copy or clone of the parent organism. In sexually reproducing organisms, a specialized form of cell division called meiosis produces cells called gametes or germ cells that are haploid, or contain only one copy of each gene.:20.2 The gametes produced by females are called eggs or ova, and those produced by males are called sperm. Two gametes fuse to form a diploid fertilized egg, a single cell that has two sets of genes, with one copy of each gene from the mother and one from the father.:20


Why do organisms inherit the characteristics of their parents?


In what type of organism will the offspring be a genetic copy or clone of the parent organism?


In what type of organism will a specialized form of cell division called meiosis produce cells called gametes?


What are the gametes produced by females called?


When can an event called genetic recombination or crossing-over sometimes occur?

During the process of meiotic cell division, an event called genetic recombination or crossing-over can sometimes occur, in which a length of DNA on one chromatid is swapped with a length of DNA on the corresponding sister chromatid. This has no effect if the alleles on the chromatids are the same, but results in reassortment of otherwise linked alleles if they are different.:5.5 The Mendelian principle of independent assortment asserts that each of a parent's two genes for each trait will sort independently into gametes; which allele an organism inherits for one trait is unrelated to which allele it inherits for another trait. This is in fact only true for genes that do not reside on the same chromosome, or are located very far from one another on the same chromosome. The closer two genes lie on the same chromosome, the more closely they will be associated in gametes and the more often they will appear together; genes that are very close are essentially never separated because it is extremely unlikely that a crossover point will occur between them. This is known as genetic linkage.


If the alleles on the chromatids are the same, what effect arises from genetic recombination?


If the alleles on the chromatids are different, what effect arises from genetic recombination?


Each of a parent's two genes for each trait will sort independently into gametes according to what Mendelian principle?


In genetic linkage, what sort of point is extremely unlikely to occur?


What is it called when errors occur in DNA replication?

DNA replication is for the most part extremely accurate, however errors (mutations) do occur.:7.6 The error rate in eukaryotic cells can be as low as 10−8 per nucleotide per replication, whereas for some RNA viruses it can be as high as 10−3. This means that each generation, each human genome accumulates 1–2 new mutations. Small mutations can be caused by DNA replication and the aftermath of DNA damage and include point mutations in which a single base is altered and frameshift mutations in which a single base is inserted or deleted. Either of these mutations can change the gene by missense (change a codon to encode a different amino acid) or nonsense (a premature stop codon). Larger mutations can be caused by errors in recombination to cause chromosomal abnormalities including the duplication, deletion, rearrangement or inversion of large sections of a chromosome. Additionally, the DNA repair mechanisms that normally revert mutations can introduce errors when repairing the physical damage to the molecule is more important than restoring an exact copy, for example when repairing double-strand breaks.:5.4


What is the lowest error rate that occurs in eukaryotic cells?


What is the highest error rate that can occur for some RNA viruses?


What is it called when multiple different alleles for a gene are present in a species's population?

When multiple different alleles for a gene are present in a species's population it is called polymorphic. Most different alleles are functionally equivalent, however some alleles can give rise to different phenotypic traits. A gene's most common allele is called the wild type, and rare alleles are called mutants. The genetic variation in relative frequencies of different alleles in a population is due to both natural selection and genetic drift. The wild-type allele is not necessarily the ancestor of less common alleles, nor is it necessarily fitter.


What is a gene's most common allele known as?


What is one cause of the genetic variation in relative frequencies of different alleles in a population?


What are mutations that have no effect on an organism's phenotype called?

Most mutations within genes are neutral, having no effect on the organism's phenotype (silent mutations). Some mutations do not change the amino acid sequence because multiple codons encode the same amino acid (synonymous mutations). Other mutations can be neutral if they lead to amino acid sequence changes, but the protein still functions similarly with the new amino acid (e.g. conservative mutations). Many mutations, however, are deleterious or even lethal, and are removed from populations by natural selection. Genetic disorders are the result of deleterious mutations and can be due to spontaneous mutation in the affected individual, or can be inherited. Finally, a small fraction of mutations are beneficial, improving the organism's fitness and are extremely important for evolution, since their directional selection leads to adaptive evolution.:7.6


What are mutations that do not change the amino acid sequence called?


What are mutations that lead to amino acid sequence changes but leave the protein functioning similarly called?


What is a result of deleterious mutations?


What does the directional selection of beneficial mutations lead to?


What are genes with a most recent common ancestor called?

Genes with a most recent common ancestor, and thus a shared evolutionary ancestry, are known as homologs. These genes appear either from gene duplication within an organism's genome, where they are known as paralogous genes, or are the result of divergence of the genes after a speciation event, where they are known as orthologous genes,:7.6 and often perform the same or similar functions in related organisms. It is often assumed that the functions of orthologous genes are more similar than those of paralogous genes, although the difference is minimal.


What is one reason for homologs to appear?


What are genes that occur from duplication within an organism's genome called?


What are genes that result from divergence of the genes after a speciation event called?


What does comparing the sequence alignment of genes' DNA measure?

The relationship between genes can be measured by comparing the sequence alignment of their DNA.:7.6 The degree of sequence similarity between homologous genes is called conserved sequence. Most changes to a gene's sequence do not affect its function and so genes accumulate mutations over time by neutral molecular evolution. Additionally, any selection on a gene will cause its sequence to diverge at a different rate. Genes under stabilizing selection are constrained and so change more slowly whereas genes under directional selection change sequence more rapidly. The sequence differences between genes can be used for phylogenetic analyses to study how those genes have evolved and how the organisms they come from are related.


What is the degree of sequence similarity between homologous genes called?


How do genes typically accumulate mutations over time?


Under what type of selection are genes constrained so they change more slowly?


What type of analyses can the sequence differences between genes be used for?


What is the most common source of new genes in eukaryotic lineages?

The most common source of new genes in eukaryotic lineages is gene duplication, which creates copy number variation of an existing gene in the genome. The resulting genes (paralogs) may then diverge in sequence and in function. Sets of genes formed in this way comprise a gene family. Gene duplications and losses within a family are common and represent a major source of evolutionary biodiversity. Sometimes, gene duplication may result in a nonfunctional copy of a gene, or a functional copy may be subject to mutations that result in loss of function; such nonfunctional genes are called pseudogenes.:7.6


What creates copy number variation of an existing gene in the genome?


What are the genes that result from eukaryotic gene duplication called?


What type of copy can gene duplication sometimes result in?


What are functional copies of a gene which have a loss of function due to mutation called?


What is a gene whose sequence shows no similarity to existing genes called?

De novo or "orphan" genes, whose sequence shows no similarity to existing genes, are extremely rare. Estimates of the number of de novo genes in the human genome range from 18 to 60. Such genes are typically shorter and simpler in structure than most eukaryotic genes, with few if any introns. Two primary sources of orphan protein-coding genes are gene duplication followed by extremely rapid sequence change, such that the original relationship is undetectable by sequence comparisons, and formation through mutation of "cryptic" transcription start sites that introduce a new open reading frame in a region of the genome that did not previously code for a protein.


What is the estimate of the number of orphan genes in the human genome?


How do the lengths of orphan genes compare to most eukaryotic genes?


How does the structure of orphan genes compare to most eukaryotic genes?


What is one primary source of orphan protein-coding genes?


What is the transfer of genetic material through a mechanism other than reproduction known as?

Horizontal gene transfer refers to the transfer of genetic material through a mechanism other than reproduction. This mechanism is a common source of new genes in prokaryotes, sometimes thought to contribute more to genetic variation than gene duplication. It is a common means of spreading antibiotic resistance, virulence, and adaptive metabolic functions. Although horizontal gene transfer is rare in eukaryotes, likely examples have been identified of protist and alga genomes containing genes of bacterial origin.


In what type of organism is horizontal gene transfer a common source of new genes?


What is one trait that horizontal gene transfer is a common means of spreading?


In what type of organism is horizontal gene transfer rare?


What is one example of horizontal gene transfer in eukaryotes?


What is one characteristic that varies widely between organisms?

The genome size, and the number of genes it encodes varies widely between organisms. The smallest genomes occur in viruses (which can have as few as 2 protein-coding genes), and viroids (which act as a single non-coding RNA gene). Conversely, plants can have extremely large genomes, with rice containing >46,000 protein-coding genes. The total number of protein-coding genes (the Earth's proteome) is estimated to be 5 million sequences.


In which type of organism do the smallest genomes occur?


What is the smallest number of protein coding genes that a virus can have?


Which organism acts as a single non coding RNA gene?


What is the estimate for the total number of protein coding genes on Earth?


Since when has the number of base pairs of DNA in the human genome been known?

Although the number of base-pairs of DNA in the human genome has been known since the 1960s, the estimated number of genes has changed over time as definitions of genes, and methods of detecting them have been refined. Initial theoretical predictions of the number of human genes were as high as 2,000,000. Early experimental measures indicated there to be 50,000–100,000 transcribed genes (expressed sequence tags). Subsequently, the sequencing in the Human Genome Project indicated that many of these transcripts were alternative variants of the same genes, and the total number of protein-coding genes was revised down to ~20,000 with 13 genes encoded on the mitochondrial genome. Of the human genome, only 1–2% consists of protein-coding genes, with the remainder being 'noncoding' DNA such as introns, retrotransposons, and noncoding RNAs.


What was the highest initial theoretical prediction of the number of human genes?


What sort of variants did the Human Genome Project indicate that many of the measured transcripts were?


After the Human Genome Project, how many genes were encoded on the mitochondrial genome?


What percentage of the human genome consists of protein coding genes?


What are the set of genes which are thought to be crucial for the survival of an organism?

Essential genes are the set of genes thought to be critical for an organism's survival. This definition assumes the abundant availability of all relevant nutrients and the absence of environmental stress. Only a small portion of an organism's genes are essential. In bacteria, an estimated 250–400 genes are essential for Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis, which is less than 10% of their genes. Half of these genes are orthologs in both organisms and are largely involved in protein synthesis. In the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae the number of essential genes is slightly higher, at 1000 genes (~20% of their genes). Although the number is more difficult to measure in higher eukaryotes, mice and humans are estimated to have around 2000 essential genes (~10% of their genes).


What does the definition of essential genes assume an absence of?


How many genes are essential for Escherichia coli?


What fraction of Escherichia coli's essential genes are orthologs?


How many essential genes does Saccharomyces cerevisiae have?


What type of genes are necessary for performing basic cell functions?

Housekeeping genes are critical for carrying out basic cell functions and so are expressed at a relatively constant level (constitutively). Since their expression is constant, housekeeping genes are used as experimental controls when analysing gene expression. Not all essential genes are housekeeping genes since some essential genes are developmentally regulated or expressed at certain times during the organism's life cycle.


At what relative level are housekeeping genes expressed at?


When investigating gene expression, what type of genes are used as a control for experiments?


When are some essential genes expressed?


What committee has established gene nomenclature for every known human gene?

Gene nomenclature has been established by the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC) for each known human gene in the form of an approved gene name and symbol (short-form abbreviation), which can be accessed through a database maintained by HGNC. Symbols are chosen to be unique, and each gene has only one symbol (although approved symbols sometimes change). Symbols are preferably kept consistent with other members of a gene family and with homologs in other species, particularly the mouse due to its role as a common model organism.


How can the gene nomenclature be accessed?


With what is it preferred that symbols are kept consistent with?


What type of model does the mouse play a role for?


What is known as the modification of an organism's genome through biotechnology?

Genetic engineering is the modification of an organism's genome through biotechnology. Since the 1970s, a variety of techniques have been developed to specifically add, remove and edit genes in an organism. Recently developed genome engineering techniques use engineered nuclease enzymes to create targeted DNA repair in a chromosome to either disrupt or edit a gene when the break is repaired. The related term synthetic biology is sometimes used to refer to extensive genetic engineering of an organism.


When did techniques begin to be developed to add, remove and edit genes?


What sort of enzymes do recently developed genome engineering techniques use?


What sort of DNA repair is created by modern genetic engineering techniques?


What term refers to extensive genetic engineering of an organism?


What has become a common research tool with model organisms?

Genetic engineering is now a routine research tool with model organisms. For example, genes are easily added to bacteria and lineages of knockout mice with a specific gene's function disrupted are used to investigate that gene's function. Many organisms have been genetically modified for applications in agriculture, industrial biotechnology, and medicine.


What do scientists explore by adding genes to mice with a certain gene's function disrupted?


What is an application for which organisms have been modified for?


What is another for which organisms have been modified for?


What is yet another application for which organisms have been modified for?


For what sort of organisms is the embryo normally engineered?

For multicellular organisms, typically the embryo is engineered which grows into the adult genetically modified organism. However, the genomes of cells in an adult organism can be edited using gene therapy techniques to treat genetic diseases.


What techniques can be used to alter the genomes of an adult organism to treat genetic disease?


What part of the organism is usually created which becomes a developed genetically altered organism?


What can be changed in an adult organism using gene therapy techniques?


What can be treated using genetic engineering?


What is the official name for Guinea-Bissau?

Guinea-Bissau (i/ˈɡɪni bɪˈsaʊ/, GI-nee-bi-SOW), officially the Republic of Guinea-Bissau (Portuguese: República da Guiné-Bissau, pronounced: [ʁeˈpublikɐ dɐ ɡiˈnɛ biˈsaw]), is a country in West Africa. It covers 36,125 square kilometres (13,948 sq mi) with an estimated population of 1,704,000.


What is the estimated population of Guinea-Bissau?


How many kilometers does Guinea-Bissau cover?


What kingdom was Guinea-Bissau once part of?

Guinea-Bissau was once part of the kingdom of Gabu, as well as part of the Mali Empire. Parts of this kingdom persisted until the 18th century, while a few others were under some rule by the Portuguese Empire since the 16th century. In the 19th century, it was colonized as Portuguese Guinea. Upon independence, declared in 1973 and recognised in 1974, the name of its capital, Bissau, was added to the country's name to prevent confusion with Guinea (formerly French Guinea). Guinea-Bissau has a history of political instability since independence, and no elected president has successfully served a full five-year term.


What empire was Guinea-Bissau once part of?


What year was Guinea-Bissau declared independent?


What country did Guinea-Bissau seek to differentiate itself from?


Guinea-Bissau has a history of what since independence?


What percentage of the population speaks Portuguese?

Only 14% of the population speaks Portuguese, established as the official language in the colonial period. Almost half the population (44%) speaks Crioulo, a Portuguese-based creole language, and the remainder speak a variety of native African languages. The main religions are African traditional religions and Islam; there is a Christian (mostly Roman Catholic) minority. The country's per-capita gross domestic product is one of the lowest in the world.


What percentage of the population speaks Crioulo?


What is their gross domestic product status?


What Islamic organization does Guinea-Bissau belong to?

Guinea-Bissau is a member of the United Nations, African Union, Economic Community of West African States, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, the Latin Union, Community of Portuguese Language Countries, La Francophonie and the South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone.


What Portuguese organization does Guinea-Bissau belong to?


What West African organization does Guinea-Bissau belong to?


What South Atlantic organization does Guinea-Bissau belong to?


What Latin organization does Guinea-Bissau belong to?


Guinea-Bissau was once part of the kingdom of Gabu, part of the Mali Empire; parts of this kingdom persisted until the 18th century. Other parts of the territory in the current country were considered by the Portuguese as part of their empire. Portuguese Guinea was known as the Slave Coast, as it was a major area for the exportation of African slaves by Europeans to the western hemisphere. Previously slaves had been traded by Arabs north to the northern part of Africa and into the Middle East.


Who exported African slaves to the western hemisphere?


What kingdom was Guinea-Bissau once a part of?


Early reports of Europeans reaching this area include those of the Venetian Alvise Cadamosto's voyage of 1455, the 1479–1480 voyage by Flemish-French trader Eustache de la Fosse, and Diogo Cão. In the 1480s this Portuguese explorer reached the Congo River and the lands of Bakongo, setting up the foundations of modern Angola, some 4200 km down the African coast from Guinea-Bissau.


What was the name of the Portuguese explorer?


What river did Diogo Cao reach in the 1480's?


What country is about 4200 km from Guinea-Bissau?


What areas were the first places colonized by the Portuguese?

Although the rivers and coast of this area were among the first places colonized by the Portuguese, who set up trading posts in the 16th century, they did not explore the interior until the 19th century. The local African rulers in Guinea, some of whom prospered greatly from the slave trade, controlled the inland trade and did not allow the Europeans into the interior. They kept them in the fortified coastal settlements where the trading took place. African communities that fought back against slave traders also distrusted European adventurers and would-be settlers. The Portuguese in Guinea were largely restricted to the port of Bissau and Cacheu. A small number of European settlers established isolated farms along Bissau's inland rivers.


When did the Portuguese first set up trading posts in Guinea-Bissau?


When did the Portuguese explore the interior of Guinea-Bissau?


Who controlled the inland trade in Guinea-Bissau during this time?


What ports were the Portuguese restricted to?


Who tried to establish a rival foothold at Bolama?

For a brief period in the 1790s, the British tried to establish a rival foothold on an offshore island, at Bolama. But by the 19th century the Portuguese were sufficiently secure in Bissau to regard the neighbouring coastline as their own special territory, also up north in part of present South Senegal.


When was a rival foothold attempted at Bolama?


Who regarded Bolama as their own in the 19th century?


What other area did the Portuguese regard as their special territory?


What rival did the Portuguese fend off in Guinea-Bissau?


What group started an armed rebellion in Guinea-Bissau?

An armed rebellion beginning in 1956 by the African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC) under the leadership of Amílcar Cabral gradually consolidated its hold on then Portuguese Guinea. Unlike guerrilla movements in other Portuguese colonies, the PAIGC rapidly extended its military control over large portions of the territory, aided by the jungle-like terrain, its easily reached borderlines with neighbouring allies, and large quantities of arms from Cuba, China, the Soviet Union, and left-leaning African countries. Cuba also agreed to supply artillery experts, doctors, and technicians. The PAIGC even managed to acquire a significant anti-aircraft capability in order to defend itself against aerial attack. By 1973, the PAIGC was in control of many parts of Guinea, although the movement suffered a setback in January 1973 when Cabral was assassinated.


Who was the leader of the armed rebellion?


Who supplied doctors and technicians to the rebels?


Independence was unilaterally declared on 24 September 1973. Recognition became universal following the 25 April 1974 socialist-inspired military coup in Portugal, which overthrew Lisbon's Estado Novo regime.


What date was independence considered universal?


What event caused the recognition to be universal?


Who was the first President of Guinea-Bissau?

Luís Cabral, brother of Amílcar and co-founder of PAIGC, was appointed the first President of Guinea-Bissau. Following independence, the PAIGC killed thousands of local Guinean soldiers who had fought along with the Portuguese Army against guerrillas. Some escaped to settle in Portugal or other African nations. One of the massacres occurred in the town of Bissorã. In 1980 the PAIGC acknowledged in its newspaper Nó Pintcha (dated 29 November 1980) that many Gueinean soldiers had been executed and buried in unmarked collective graves in the woods of Cumerá, Portogole, and Mansabá.


How many Guinean soldiers did the PAIGC kill?


When did the PAIGC acknowledge the executions?


Who controlled the country prior to 1984?

The country was controlled by a revolutionary council until 1984. The first multi-party elections were held in 1994. An army uprising in May 1998 led to the Guinea-Bissau Civil War and the president's ousting in June 1999. Elections were held again in 2000, and Kumba Ialá was elected president.


When were the first multi-party elections held?


What led to the Guinea-Bissau Civil War?


Who was elected president in the 2000 election?


In September 2003, a military coup was conducted. The military arrested Ialá on the charge of being "unable to solve the problems". After being delayed several times, legislative elections were held in March 2004. A mutiny of military factions in October 2004 resulted in the death of the head of the armed forces and caused widespread unrest.


When did the mutiny of military factions occur?


After the coup, when were presidential elections held?

In June 2005, presidential elections were held for the first time since the coup that deposed Ialá. Ialá returned as the candidate for the PRS, claiming to be the legitimate president of the country, but the election was won by former president João Bernardo Vieira, deposed in the 1999 coup. Vieira beat Malam Bacai Sanhá in a runoff election. Sanhá initially refused to concede, claiming that tampering and electoral fraud occurred in two constituencies including the capital, Bissau.


At that time, who ran claiming to be the legitimate president of the country?


Who did Vieira beat in a runoff election?


When was Vieira, a former president, deposed?


What was reported to be entering the country prior to the election?

Despite reports of arms entering the country prior to the election and some "disturbances during campaigning," including attacks on government offices by unidentified gunmen, foreign election monitors described the 2005 election overall as "calm and organized".


What type of "disturbances" were reported during the campaign?


How did foreign election monitors describe the election?


Where the election monitors local, or foreign?


When was the parliamentary election held?

Three years later, PAIGC won a strong parliamentary majority, with 67 of 100 seats, in the parliamentary election held in November 2008. In November 2008, President Vieira's official residence was attacked by members of the armed forces, killing a guard but leaving the president unharmed.


Who won a strong majority in the election?


How many seats did PAIGC win in the election?


Whose residence was attacked by members of the armed forces?


When did the attack on the residence occur?


On 2 March 2009, however, Vieira was assassinated by what preliminary reports indicated to be a group of soldiers avenging the death of the head of joint chiefs of staff, General Batista Tagme Na Wai. Tagme died in an explosion on Sunday, 1 March 2009, target of an assassination. Military leaders in the country pledged to respect the constitutional order of succession. National Assembly Speaker Raimundo Pereira was appointed as an interim president until a nationwide election on 28 June 2009. It was won by Malam Bacai Sanhá.


Who pledged to respect the constitutional order of succession?


On the evening of 12 April 2012, members of the country's military staged a coup d'état and arrested the interim president and a leading presidential candidate. Former vice chief of staff, General Mamadu Ture Kuruma, assumed control of the country in the transitional period and started negotiations with opposition parties.


Who assumed control of the country after the coup d'etat?


Guinea-Bissau is a republic. In the past, the government had been highly centralized. Multi-party governance was not established until mid-1991. The president is the head of state and the prime minister is the head of government. Since 1974, no president has successfully served a full five-year term.


When had the government been highly centralized?


When was multi-party governance established?


How many members compose the legislature?

At the legislative level, a unicameral Assembleia Nacional Popular (National People's Assembly) is made up of 100 members. They are popularly elected from multi-member constituencies to serve a four-year term. The judicial system is headed by a Tribunal Supremo da Justiça (Supreme Court), made up of nine justices appointed by the president; they serve at the pleasure of the president.


Is the legislature bicameral or unicameral?


How long do members serve in the legislature?


What is the head of the judicial system?


How many justices are on the Supreme Court?


João Bernardo "Nino" Vieira was elected in 2005 as President of Guinea-Bissau as an independent, being declared winner of the second round by the CNE (Comité Nacional de Eleições). Vieira returned to power in 2005 six years after being ousted from office during a civil war. Previously, he held power for 19 years after taking power in 1980 in a bloodless coup. In that action, he toppled the government of Luís Cabral.


What body made the declaration of who won the presidency?


How long was it since Vieira had held the office of president?


What year did Vieira first assume power?


Whose government did Vieira topple in 1980?


What was NOT triggered by Vieira's death?

He was killed on 2 March 2009, possibly by soldiers in retaliation for the assassination of General Batista Tagme Na Waie, the head of the joint chiefs of staff, killed in an explosion. Vieira's death did not trigger widespread violence, but there were signs of turmoil in the country, according to the advocacy group Swisspeace. Malam Bacai Sanhá was elected after a transition. In the 2009 election to replace the assassinated Vieira, Sanhá was the presidential candidate of the PAIGC while Kumba Ialá was the presidential candidate of the PRS.


In the 2009 election, who was the candidate of the PAIGC?


In the 2009 election, who was the candidate of the PRS?


In 2012, President Rachide Sambu-balde Malam Bacai Sanhá died. He belonged to PAIGC (African Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde), one of the two major political parties in Guinea-Bissau, along with the PRS (Party for Social Renewal). There are more than 20 minor parties.


Besides the PAIGC, what is the other major political party?


How many minor political parties are there?


How many regions does Guinea-Bissau contain?

Guinea-Bissau is divided into eight regions (regiões) and one autonomous sector (sector autónomo). These, in turn, are subdivided into 37 Sectors. The regions are:


How many autonomous sectors does Guinea-Bissau contain?


How many subdivided Sectors does Guinea-Bissau contain?


What country is on the north border of Guinea-Bissau?

Guinea-Bissau is bordered by Senegal to the north and Guinea to the south and east, with the Atlantic Ocean to its west. It lies mostly between latitudes 11° and 13°N (a small area is south of 11°), and longitudes 13° and 17°W.


What country is on the south border of Guinea-Bissau?


What latitudes does Guinea-Bissau mostly lie between?


What longitudes does Guinea-Bissau mostly lie between?


Guinea-Bissau is larger than what two countries?

At 36,125 square kilometres (13,948 sq mi), the country is larger in size than Taiwan or Belgium. It lies at a low altitude; its highest point is 300 metres (984 ft). The terrain of is mostly low coastal plain with swamps of Guinean mangroves rising to Guinean forest-savanna mosaic in the east. Its monsoon-like rainy season alternates with periods of hot, dry harmattan winds blowing from the Sahara. The Bijagos Archipelago lies off of the mainland.


How high is the highest point in Guinea-Bissau?


How many square kilometers is Guinea-Bissau?


Where does Guinea-Bissau get its hot dry winds from?


What is the average rainfall in Bissau, in millimetres?

Guinea-Bissau is warm all year around and there is little temperature fluctuation; it averages 26.3 °C (79.3 °F). The average rainfall for Bissau is 2,024 millimetres (79.7 in) although this is almost entirely accounted for during the rainy season which falls between June and September/October. From December through April, the country experiences drought.


When is the rainy season in Guinea-Bissau?


What does the country experience from December through April?


What is the average temperature in Guinea-Bissau?


How much of the population lives below the poverty line?

Guinea-Bissau's GDP per capita is one of the lowest in the world, and its Human Development Index is one of the lowest on earth. More than two-thirds of the population lives below the poverty line. The economy depends mainly on agriculture; fish, cashew nuts and ground nuts are its major exports.


What per capita index does Guinea-Bissau rank as one of the lowest in the world?


For what index does Guinea-Bissau rank as one of the lowest on earth?


What area depends on agriculture in Guinea-Bissau?


Political instability has resulted in what type of economic activity?

A long period of political instability has resulted in depressed economic activity, deteriorating social conditions, and increased macroeconomic imbalances. It takes longer on average to register a new business in Guinea-Bissau (233 days or about 33 weeks) than in any other country in the world except Suriname. [The Economist, Pocket World in Figures, 2008 Edition, London: Profile Books]


Political instability has resulted in what description of social conditions?


What type of imbalances have increased as a result of the instability?


How long does it take to register a business in Guinea-Bissau?


What is the one country that takes longer than Guinea-Bissau to register a business?


What did the main political parties sign to help the economy?

Guinea-Bissau has started to show some economic advances after a pact of stability was signed by the main political parties of the country, leading to an IMF-backed structural reform program. The key challenges for the country in the period ahead are to achieve fiscal discipline, rebuild public administration, improve the economic climate for private investment, and promote economic diversification. After the country became independent from Portugal in 1974 due to the Portuguese Colonial War and the Carnation Revolution, the rapid exodus of the Portuguese civilian, military, and political authorities resulted in considerable damage to the country's economic infrastructure, social order, and standard of living.


What organization backed a structural reform program?


When did Guinea-Bissau become independent?


What country left Guinea-Bissau in 1974?


What happened in Portugal that contributed to Guinea-Bissau's independence?


In what year did Guinea-Bissau start to bring some internal monetary stability to the country?

After several years of economic downturn and political instability, in 1997, Guinea-Bissau entered the CFA franc monetary system, bringing about some internal monetary stability. The civil war that took place in 1998 and 1999, and a military coup in September 2003 again disrupted economic activity, leaving a substantial part of the economic and social infrastructure in ruins and intensifying the already widespread poverty. Following the parliamentary elections in March 2004 and presidential elections in July 2005, the country is trying to recover from the long period of instability, despite a still-fragile political situation.


What did the government do in 1997 to increase monetary stability?


What years did the civil war take place?


When was there a military coup in Guinea-Bissau?


When did drug traffickers begin to use Guinea-Bissau?

Beginning around 2005, drug traffickers based in Latin America began to use Guinea-Bissau, along with several neighboring West African nations, as a transshipment point to Europe for cocaine. The nation was described by a United Nations official as being at risk for becoming a "narco-state". The government and the military have done little to stop drug trafficking, which increased after the 2012 coup d'état.


Where did the drug traffickers come from?


What was the final destination of the drugs going through Guinea-Bissau?


Who described Guinea-Bissau as being at risk for becoming a "narco-state"?


Who has done little to stop drug trafficking in the country?