How many extra characters does Dutch have in addition to the standard alphabet?

Dutch is written using the Latin script. Dutch uses one additional character beyond the standard alphabet, the digraph IJ. It has a relatively high proportion of doubled letters, both vowels and consonants, due to the formation of compound words and also to the spelling devices for distinguishing the many vowel sounds in the Dutch language. An example of five consecutive doubled letters is the word voorraaddoos (food storage container). The diaeresis (Dutch: trema) is used to mark vowels that are pronounced separately when involving a pre- or suffix. Whereas a hyphen is used when this problem occurs in compound words. For example; "beïnvloed" (influenced), but zee-eend (sea duck). Generally, other diacritical marks only occur in loanwords, though the acute accent can also be used for emphasis or to differentiate between two forms. Its most common use is to differentiate between the indefinite article 'een' (a, an) and the numeral 'één' (one).


What's the name for the additional character Dutch uses?


Because Dutch has many vowel sounds and compound words, what occurs frequently in Dutch spelling?


What is an example of a Dutch word that has double vowels or consonants five times in a row?


What's the name for the type of accent that Dutch used to mark the difference between the word for "a" or "an" and the word for "one"?


What was Buckingham Palace orginally known as?

Originally known as Buckingham House, the building at the core of today's palace was a large townhouse built for the Duke of Buckingham in 1703 on a site that had been in private ownership for at least 150 years. It was acquired by King George III in 1761 as a private residence for Queen Charlotte and became known as "The Queen's House". During the 19th century it was enlarged, principally by architects John Nash and Edward Blore, who constructed three wings around a central courtyard. Buckingham Palace became the London residence of the British monarch on the accession of Queen Victoria in 1837.


Who was Buckingham Palace was originally built for?


Which king acquired the Buckingham House in 1761?


What was Buckingham House known as when Queen Charlotte resided there?


Which two architects were commissioned to enlarge Buckingham in the 19th century?


For whom was Buckingham house originally built?


Who enlarged the house in the 19th century?


When did the palace become the London residence for the monarchs?


What colors were added in the partial redecoration overseen by King Edward VII?

The original early 19th-century interior designs, many of which survive, include widespread use of brightly coloured scagliola and blue and pink lapis, on the advice of Sir Charles Long. King Edward VII oversaw a partial redecoration in a Belle Époque cream and gold colour scheme. Many smaller reception rooms are furnished in the Chinese regency style with furniture and fittings brought from the Royal Pavilion at Brighton and from Carlton House. The palace has 775 rooms, and the garden is the largest private garden in London. The state rooms, used for official and state entertaining, are open to the public each year for most of August and September, and on selected days in winter and spring.


What original colors from the 19th century were used on the advice of Sir Charles Long?


In which style are many of the smaller reception rooms furnished in?


What house were many of the furniture and fittings brought from?


Who suggested the use of brightly coloured scagliola and blue and pink lapis?


Who oversaw the redecoration that used a Belle Époque cream and gold colour scheme?


Smaller reception rooms are decorated in which style?


Furniture and fittings were brought over from which house?


In the Middle Ages, the site of the future palace formed part of the Manor of Ebury (also called Eia). The marshy ground was watered by the river Tyburn, which still flows below the courtyard and south wing of the palace. Where the river was fordable (at Cow Ford), the village of Eye Cross grew. Ownership of the site changed hands many times; owners included Edward the Confessor and his queen consort Edith of Wessex in late Saxon times, and, after the Norman Conquest, William the Conqueror. William gave the site to Geoffrey de Mandeville, who bequeathed it to the monks of Westminster Abbey.


The site of the palace was once owned by which queen consort in the late Saxon times?


Who did William the Conqueror give the site of the palace to?


The site was passed to monks from which abbey?


The site of the palace formed part of which Manor in the Middles ages?


What was the name of the village that grew at Cow Ford?


Who gave the site to the monks of Westminster?


What was the name of the manor that previously existed on the site?


Which property tycoon inherited the property in the late 17th century?

Various owners leased it from royal landlords and the freehold was the subject of frenzied speculation during the 17th century. By then, the old village of Eye Cross had long since fallen into decay, and the area was mostly wasteland. Needing money, James I sold off part of the Crown freehold but retained part of the site on which he established a 4-acre (16,000 m2) mulberry garden for the production of silk. (This is at the northwest corner of today's palace.) Clement Walker in Anarchia Anglicana (1649) refers to "new-erected sodoms and spintries at the Mulberry Garden at S. James's"; this suggests it may have been a place of debauchery. Eventually, in the late 17th century, the freehold was inherited from the property tycoon Sir Hugh Audley by the great heiress Mary Davies.


Who established a mulberry garden on the property?


What product did the mulberry garden produce?


Who suggests that the mulberry garden is likely a place for debauchery?


What about the palace was subject to speculation in the 17th century?


Which village had fallen into decay but the 17th century?


Who sold off part of the Crown Freehold?


Possibly the first house erected within the site was that of a Sir William Blake, around 1624. The next owner was Lord Goring, who from 1633 extended Blake's house and developed much of today's garden, then known as Goring Great Garden. He did not, however, obtain the freehold interest in the mulberry garden. Unbeknown to Goring, in 1640 the document "failed to pass the Great Seal before King Charles I fled London, which it needed to do for legal execution". It was this critical omission that helped the British royal family regain the freehold under King George III.


Which owner developed much of the garden still seen today?


Under which king did the Royal Family regain the freehold title of the property?


Which king failed to execute Goring's freehold document before fleeing to London?


Who owned the first house built on the site?


Who developed what is much of today's garden at Buckingham?


What was the name of Lord Goring Garden?


Which king fled to London leaving allowing the Royal family to keep it's freehold on the property?


In what year did William Winde design the house which forms the core of the palace?

The house which forms the architectural core of the palace was built for the first Duke of Buckingham and Normanby in 1703 to the design of William Winde. The style chosen was of a large, three-floored central block with two smaller flanking service wings. Buckingham House was eventually sold by Buckingham's descendant, Sir Charles Sheffield, in 1761 to George III for £21,000. Sheffield's leasehold on the mulberry garden site, the freehold of which was still owned by the royal family, was due to expire in 1774.


How much did George III pay for the house?


In what year was the leasehold of the Mulberry site due to expire?


How many flanking service wings did the original Buckingham House have?


The house which is the core of Buckingham was first built for who?


Who designed the house for the Duke of Buckingham?


How many flanking service wings did Buckingham House have?


How much did George III pay for Buckingham House?


What did King George IV originally want the structure to be?

Remodelling of the structure began in 1762. After his accession to the throne in 1820, King George IV continued the renovation with the idea in mind of a small, comfortable home. While the work was in progress, in 1826, the King decided to modify the house into a palace with the help of his architect John Nash. Some furnishings were transferred from Carlton House, and others had been bought in France after the French Revolution. The external façade was designed keeping in mind the French neo-classical influence preferred by George IV. The cost of the renovations grew dramatically, and by 1829 the extravagance of Nash's designs resulted in his removal as architect. On the death of George IV in 1830, his younger brother King William IV hired Edward Blore to finish the work. At one stage, William considered converting the palace into the new Houses of Parliament, after the destruction of the Palace of Westminster by fire in 1834.


King William thought about converting the palace into what after a fire destroyed the Palace of Westminster in 1834?


Which architect helped modify the house into a palace?


In what year was Nash removed as architect?


Who was hired in 1830 to finish the work on the palace?


What year did remodeling of Buckingham House begin?


What was George IV's original plan for the house?


What year did the king decide to make it into a palace?


Who was the main architect that transformed the house into the palace?


Who did King William IV hired to finish the work after Nash was fired?


Who was the first monarch to reside at Buckingham Palace?

Buckingham Palace finally became the principal royal residence in 1837, on the accession of Queen Victoria, who was the first monarch to reside there; her predecessor William IV had died before its completion. While the state rooms were a riot of gilt and colour, the necessities of the new palace were somewhat less luxurious. For one thing, it was reported the chimneys smoked so much that the fires had to be allowed to die down, and consequently the court shivered in icy magnificence. Ventilation was so bad that the interior smelled, and when a decision was taken to install gas lamps, there was a serious worry about the build-up of gas on the lower floors. It was also said that staff were lax and lazy and the palace was dirty. Following the queen's marriage in 1840, her husband, Prince Albert, concerned himself with a reorganisation of the household offices and staff, and with the design faults of the palace. The problems were all rectified by the close of 1840. However, the builders were to return within the decade.


Who died before the palace was completed?


Buckingham became a principle residence for the Royal Family in which year?


What was the problem with chimneys in the palace?


At the end of which year were most of the design problems of the palace rectified under Prince Albert?


When did Buckingham officially become the principle royal residence?


Who was the first monarch to reside there?


Who died before seeing Buckingham Palace's completion?


What was the problem with the palace's chimneys?


Who dealt with the design faults of the palace?


Who designed the new wing for the palace in 1847?

By 1847, the couple had found the palace too small for court life and their growing family, and consequently the new wing, designed by Edward Blore, was built by Thomas Cubitt, enclosing the central quadrangle. The large East Front, facing The Mall, is today the "public face" of Buckingham Palace, and contains the balcony from which the royal family acknowledge the crowds on momentous occasions and after the annual Trooping the Colour. The ballroom wing and a further suite of state rooms were also built in this period, designed by Nash's student Sir James Pennethorne.


What is the East front of the palace known as?


The East Front contains what famous feature?


Who was the student of Nash that designed the ballroom wing?


Who designed a new wing for Queen Victoria and Prince Albert when they felt they needed more space?


What is considered the public face of the palace?


What other wing was built during this time?


Which of Nash's students designed The Ballroom?


The palace frequently hosted which type of events prior to the death of Prince Albert?

Before Prince Albert's death, the palace was frequently the scene of musical entertainments, and the greatest contemporary musicians entertained at Buckingham Palace. The composer Felix Mendelssohn is known to have played there on three occasions. Johann Strauss II and his orchestra played there when in England. Strauss's "Alice Polka" was first performed at the palace in 1849 in honour of the queen's daughter, Princess Alice. Under Victoria, Buckingham Palace was frequently the scene of lavish costume balls, in addition to the usual royal ceremonies, investitures and presentations.


Which composer played at Buckingham on three occasions?


Which piece of music by Johann Strauss was first performed at Buckingham in honor of Princess Alice?


Queen Victoria hosted which type of balls?


Before Prince Albert died what sort of entertainment was held at Buckingham?


Which composer played there on three occasions?


Who performed Alice Polka in honor of Princess Alice?


What type of balls did Queen Victoria hold?


Widowed in 1861, the grief-stricken Queen withdrew from public life and left Buckingham Palace to live at Windsor Castle, Balmoral Castle and Osborne House. For many years the palace was seldom used, even neglected. In 1864, a note was found pinned to the fence of Buckingham Palace, saying: "These commanding premises to be let or sold, in consequence of the late occupant's declining business." Eventually, public opinion forced the Queen to return to London, though even then she preferred to live elsewhere whenever possible. Court functions were still held at Windsor Castle, presided over by the sombre Queen habitually dressed in mourning black, while Buckingham Palace remained shuttered for most of the year.


What forced the Queen to return to London?


What was the fate of Buckingham after the left?


Where were court functions held upon the Queens return to London?


What did Queen Victoria do in response to his death?


Which house did Queen Victoria stay at after she left Buckingham?


What happened to Buckingham after Queen Victoria left?


Where did Queen Victoria hold court functions during this time?


How many principle bedrooms does the palace have?

The palace measures 108 metres (354 ft) by 120 metres (390 ft), is 24 metres (79 ft) high and contains over 77,000 m2 (830,000 sq ft) of floorspace. The floor area is smaller than the Royal Palace of Madrid, the Papal Palace in Rome, the Louvre in Paris, the Hofburg Palace in Vienna, or the Forbidden City. There are 775 rooms, including 19 state rooms, 52 principal bedrooms, 188 staff bedrooms, 92 offices, and 78 bathrooms. The principal rooms are contained on the piano nobile behind the west-facing garden façade at the rear of the palace. The centre of this ornate suite of state rooms is the Music Room, its large bow the dominant feature of the façade. Flanking the Music Room are the Blue and the White Drawing Rooms. At the centre of the suite, serving as a corridor to link the state rooms, is the Picture Gallery, which is top-lit and 55 yards (50 m) long. The Gallery is hung with numerous works including some by Rembrandt, van Dyck, Rubens and Vermeer; other rooms leading from the Picture Gallery are the Throne Room and the Green Drawing Room. The Green Drawing Room serves as a huge anteroom to the Throne Room, and is part of the ceremonial route to the throne from the Guard Room at the top of the Grand Staircase. The Guard Room contains white marble statues of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, in Roman costume, set in a tribune lined with tapestries. These very formal rooms are used only for ceremonial and official entertaining, but are open to the public every summer.


A large bow is a large feature of the facade in which stateroom?


How long is the Picture Gallery in yards?


Which rooms has large white marble statues of Prince Albert and Queen Victoria?


How many staterooms does the palace have?


How many bathrooms does the palace have?


The 1855 Room is name for which European emperor?

Directly underneath the State Apartments is a suite of slightly less grand rooms known as the semi-state apartments. Opening from the Marble Hall, these rooms are used for less formal entertaining, such as luncheon parties and private audiences. Some of the rooms are named and decorated for particular visitors, such as the 1844 Room, decorated in that year for the State visit of Tsar Nicholas I of Russia, and, on the other side of the Bow Room, the 1855 Room, in honour of the visit of Emperor Napoleon III of France. At the centre of this suite is the Bow Room, through which thousands of guests pass annually to the Queen's Garden Parties in the Gardens. The Queen and Prince Philip use a smaller suite of rooms in the north wing.


Which room is named for visit of Tsar Nicolas I of Russia?


Guests attending the Queen's Garden Parties will mostly likely see which room?


Where are the suites located that the Queen and Prince Phillip use?


Which rooms are used for less formal entertaining such as luncheons or private audiences?


What is the name of the slightly less luxurious staterooms located underneath the State Apartments?


What type of entertaining are the semi-state apartments used for?


Where are the Queen and Prince Phillip's apartments located?


Where did many of the fittings for the new east wing come from?

Between 1847 and 1850, when Blore was building the new east wing, the Brighton Pavilion was once again plundered of its fittings. As a result, many of the rooms in the new wing have a distinctly oriental atmosphere. The red and blue Chinese Luncheon Room is made up from parts of the Brighton Banqueting and Music Rooms with a large oriental chimney piece sculpted by Richard Westmacott. The Yellow Drawing Room has wallpaper supplied in 1817 for the Brighton Saloon, and a chimney piece which is a European vision of how the Chinese chimney piece may appear. It has nodding mandarins in niches and fearsome winged dragons, designed by Robert Jones.


What is the theme for the new east wing?


The red and blue Chinese Luncheon Room has what as a main feature?


Who designed the chimney piece in The Yellow Drawing Room?


What was Blore building between 1847 and 1850?


Many rooms in the new east wing are in what style?


Parts of the Brighton Banqueting and Music Rooms from Brighton Pavilion make up which Buckingham Room?


Which room has the famous balcony used by the royals?

At the centre of this wing is the famous balcony with the Centre Room behind its glass doors. This is a Chinese-style saloon enhanced by Queen Mary, who, working with the designer Sir Charles Allom, created a more "binding" Chinese theme in the late 1920s, although the lacquer doors were brought from Brighton in 1873. Running the length of the piano nobile of the east wing is the great gallery, modestly known as the Principal Corridor, which runs the length of the eastern side of the quadrangle. It has mirrored doors, and mirrored cross walls reflecting porcelain pagodas and other oriental furniture from Brighton. The Chinese Luncheon Room and Yellow Drawing Room are situated at each end of this gallery, with the Centre Room obviously placed in the centre.


What is the main theme of the Centre Room?


Which Queen enhanced the Chinese theme of the Centre Room in the 1920s?


The lacquer doors in the Centre Room were brought from Brighton in which year?


The Principle Corridor features which type of doors?


Which designer did Queen Mary work with to enhance the Centre Room?


The Principle Corridor has which type of doors?


What year were the lacquer doors brought from Brighton?


Where do foreign heads of stay usually stay in Buckingham Palace?

When paying a state visit to Britain, foreign heads of state are usually entertained by the Queen at Buckingham Palace. They are allocated a large suite of rooms known as the Belgian Suite, situated at the foot of the Minister's Staircase, on the ground floor of the north-facing Garden Wing. The rooms of the suite are linked by narrow corridors, one of them is given extra height and perspective by saucer domes designed by Nash in the style of Soane. A second corridor in the suite has Gothic influenced cross over vaulting. The Belgian Rooms themselves were decorated in their present style and named after Prince Albert's uncle Léopold I, first King of the Belgians. In 1936, the suite briefly became the private apartments of the palace when they were occupied by King Edward VIII.


What floor are the Belgian Suites located?


The Belgian Suite is located at the foot of which staircase?


How are the rooms of the Belgian Suites linked?


What is the style of the saucer domes in the Belgian Suite?


Where do foreign heads of stay at Buckingham Palace?


The Belgian Suite is located at the bottom of which staircase?


On which floor is the Belgian Suite located?


How are the rooms in the Belgian Suite connected?


Aside from being the home of the monarchy and a tourist attraction, what else is Buckingham Palace known for?

Thus, Buckingham Palace is a symbol and home of the British monarchy, an art gallery and a tourist attraction. Behind the gilded railings and gates which were completed by the Bromsgrove Guild in 1911 and Webb's famous façade, which has been described in a book published by the Royal Collection as looking "like everybody's idea of a palace", is not only a weekday home of the Queen and Prince Philip but also the London residence of the Duke of York and the Earl and Countess of Wessex. The palace also houses the offices of the Queen, Prince Philip, Duke of York, Earl and Countess of Wessex, Princess Royal, and Princess Alexandra, and is the workplace of more than 800 people.


Who made the palaces gilded railings and gates?


How many people work at Buckingham Palace?


Buckingham Palace is also the London Residence for which Duke?


Who completed the palaces gilded railing and gates?


In what year were the railings and gates completed?


Buckingham Palace is actually owned by whom?

The palace, like Windsor Castle, is owned by the Crown Estate. It is not the monarch's personal property, unlike Sandringham House and Balmoral Castle. Many of the contents from Buckingham Palace, Windsor Castle, Kensington Palace, and St James's Palace are part of the Royal Collection, held in trust by the Sovereign; they can, on occasion, be viewed by the public at the Queen's Gallery, near the Royal Mews. Unlike the palace and the castle, the purpose-built gallery is open continually and displays a changing selection of items from the collection. It occupies the site of the chapel destroyed by an air raid in World War II. The palace's state rooms have been open to the public during August and September and on selected dates throughout the year since 1993. The money raised in entry fees was originally put towards the rebuilding of Windsor Castle after the 1992 fire devastated many of its state rooms. 476,000 people visited the palace in the 2014–15 financial year.


Where can the public view items from the Royal Collection?


What was located on the site that is now the Queen's Gallery?


What part of the palace has been open to the public every August and September and other select dates since 1993?


Who owns Buckingham Palace and Windsor Castle?


Where can the public view the Royal Collection?


Since when have the palaces rooms been opened to the public?


How many people visited the palace in the 2014.2015 fiscal year?


What is the official dress code today at Buckingham Palace?

Formerly, men not wearing military uniform wore knee breeches of an 18th-century design. Women's evening dress included obligatory trains and tiaras or feathers in their hair (or both). The dress code governing formal court uniform and dress has progressively relaxed. After World War I, when Queen Mary wished to follow fashion by raising her skirts a few inches from the ground, she requested a lady-in-waiting to shorten her own skirt first to gauge the king's reaction. King George V was horrified, so the queen kept her hemline unfashionably low. Following their accession in 1936, King George VI and his consort, Queen Elizabeth, allowed the hemline of daytime skirts to rise. Today, there is no official dress code. Most men invited to Buckingham Palace in the daytime choose to wear service uniform or lounge suits; a minority wear morning coats, and in the evening, depending on the formality of the occasion, black tie or white tie.


Which Queen tried and failed to raise the hemline of her dress after WWI?


Which King was horrified to see the Queen's hemline raised a few inches?


The hemline of daytime skirts were allowed to rise after which year?


The knee breeches men formerly wore to the palace were of what era's design?


From what century were men's knee breeches worn at Buckingham designed in?


What were women obliged to wear in their hair?


Which queen wanted to shorten her skirt's hemline?


Which King was horrified to see the raised hemline on the Queen?


What is the dress code today at Buckingham?


Under whose reign did court presentations of young aristocratic ladies take place?

Court presentations of aristocratic young ladies to the monarch took place at the palace from the reign of Edward VII. These young women were known as débutantes, and the occasion—termed their "coming out"—represented their first entrée into society. Débutantes wore full court dress, with three tall ostrich feathers in their hair. They entered, curtsied, and performed a choreographed backwards walk and a further curtsy, while manoeuvring a dress train of prescribed length. (The ceremony, known as an evening court, corresponded to the "court drawing rooms" of Victoria's reign.) After World War II, the ceremony was replaced by less formal afternoon receptions, usually without choreographed curtsies and court dress.


What was the name for the ceremony where debutantes had their first introduction into society?


Debutantes wore the feather of which bird in their hair?


After WWII "coming out" ceremonies were replaces with what event?


Under whose reign were young debutantes presented to society at Court?


What types of feathers did debutantes wear in their hair?


What was the occasion where debutantes were presented to society called?


After WWII what was the coming out ceremony replaced with?


Investitures, which include the conferring of knighthoods by dubbing with a sword, and other awards take place in the palace's Ballroom, built in 1854. At 36.6 m (120 ft) long, 18 m (59 ft) wide and 13.5 m (44 ft) high, it is the largest room in the palace. It has replaced the throne room in importance and use. During investitures, the Queen stands on the throne dais beneath a giant, domed velvet canopy, known as a shamiana or a baldachin, that was used at the Delhi Durbar in 1911. A military band plays in the musicians' gallery as award recipients approach the Queen and receive their honours, watched by their families and friends.


Which room has The Ballroom replaced in terms of both use and importance?


What does the Queen stand on during Investitures?


Knighthood is given by being dubbed with what object?


The Ballroom replaced which other room in terms of importance and use?


State banquets also take place in the Ballroom; these formal dinners are held on the first evening of a state visit by a foreign head of state. On these occasions, for up to 170 guests in formal "white tie and decorations", including tiaras, the dining table is laid with the Grand Service, a collection of silver-gilt plate made in 1811 for the Prince of Wales, later George IV. The largest and most formal reception at Buckingham Palace takes place every November when the Queen entertains members of the diplomatic corps. On this grand occasion, all the state rooms are in use, as the royal family proceed through them, beginning at the great north doors of the Picture Gallery. As Nash had envisaged, all the large, double-mirrored doors stand open, reflecting the numerous crystal chandeliers and sconces, creating a deliberate optical illusion of space and light.


In what month does the Queen entertain the diplomatic corps?


What is used to set the dining table for formal dinners?


What is the dining table laid with for state banquets?


Who was the Grand Service originally made for?


Adjacent to the palace is the Royal Mews, also designed by Nash, where the royal carriages, including the Gold State Coach, are housed. This rococo gilt coach, designed by Sir William Chambers in 1760, has painted panels by G. B. Cipriani. It was first used for the State Opening of Parliament by George III in 1762 and has been used by the monarch for every coronation since George IV. It was last used for the Golden Jubilee of Elizabeth II. Also housed in the mews are the coach horses used at royal ceremonial processions.


When was the Gold State Coach first used?


The Royal Mews houses which type of animal?


In what year was the Gold State Coach first used?


In what year did Edward VII ascend to the throne?

In 1901 the accession of Edward VII saw new life breathed into the palace. The new King and his wife Queen Alexandra had always been at the forefront of London high society, and their friends, known as "the Marlborough House Set", were considered to be the most eminent and fashionable of the age. Buckingham Palace—the Ballroom, Grand Entrance, Marble Hall, Grand Staircase, vestibules and galleries redecorated in the Belle époque cream and gold colour scheme they retain today—once again became a setting for entertaining on a majestic scale but leaving some to feel King Edward's heavy redecorations were at odds with Nash's original work.


Kind Edward VII and Queen Alexandra's friends were know as what?


Some thought that King Edward VII's redecoration choices were at odds with whose prior work?


Which king commissioned massive redecoration in the Belle Epoque cream and gold color scheme?


What were the group of friends of King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra called?


What was at odds with Nash's original work in the palace?


When did King Edward VII take the throne?


What colors were used in the redecorations overseen by King Edward VII?


Under whose reign did the last major building works take place?

The last major building work took place during the reign of King George V when, in 1913, Sir Aston Webb redesigned Blore's 1850 East Front to resemble in part Giacomo Leoni's Lyme Park in Cheshire. This new, refaced principal façade (of Portland stone) was designed to be the backdrop to the Victoria Memorial, a large memorial statue of Queen Victoria, placed outside the main gates. George V, who had succeeded Edward VII in 1910, had a more serious personality than his father; greater emphasis was now placed on official entertaining and royal duties than on lavish parties. He arranged a series of command performances featuring jazz musicians such as the Original Dixieland Jazz Band (1919) – the first jazz performance for a head of state, Sidney Bechet, and Louis Armstrong (1932), which earned the palace a nomination in 2009 for a (Kind of) Blue Plaque by the Brecon Jazz Festival as one of the venues making the greatest contribution to jazz music in the United Kingdom. George V's wife Queen Mary was a connoisseur of the arts, and took a keen interest in the Royal Collection of furniture and art, both restoring and adding to it. Queen Mary also had many new fixtures and fittings installed, such as the pair of marble Empire-style chimneypieces by Benjamin Vulliamy, dating from 1810, which the Queen had installed in the ground floor Bow Room, the huge low room at the centre of the garden façade. Queen Mary was also responsible for the decoration of the Blue Drawing Room. This room, 69 feet (21 metres) long, previously known as the South Drawing Room, has a ceiling designed specially by Nash, coffered with huge gilt console brackets.


The principle facade of the East Front is made from what type of stone?


Which king preferred official entertaining and royal duties to lavish parties?


Who added and restored furniture to The Royal Collection?


Who was responsible for decorating The Blue Drawing Room?


The refaced facade was made from what type of stone?


Which king placed more emphasis on official entertaining and royal duties instead of lavish parties?


What collection did Queen Mary take an interest in by adding and restoring pieces?


Who lived at Buckingham Palace during WWI?

During World War I, the palace, then the home of King George V and Queen Mary, escaped unscathed. Its more valuable contents were evacuated to Windsor but the royal family remained in situ. The King imposed rationing at the palace, much to the dismay of his guests and household. To the King's later regret, David Lloyd George persuaded him to go further by ostentatiously locking the wine cellars and refraining from alcohol, to set a good example to the supposedly inebriated working class. The workers continued to imbibe and the King was left unhappy at his enforced abstinence. In 1938, the north-west pavilion, designed by Nash as a conservatory, was converted into a swimming pool.


Where were valuable items from Buckingham Palace taken during WWI?


The king refrained from doing what during the war?


In what year was the north-west pavilion turned into a swimming pool?


Who persuaded the king to lock the wine cellars during WWI?


Buckingham Palace was untouched during which war?


Where were valuables evacuated to during the war?


What did the King give up during the war?


Who convinced the king to lock the wine cellars?


What was the north-west pavilion converted into in 1938?


How many times was the palace bombed in WWII?

During World War II, the palace was bombed nine times, the most serious and publicised of which resulted in the destruction of the palace chapel in 1940. Coverage of this event was played in cinemas all over the UK to show the common suffering of rich and poor. One bomb fell in the palace quadrangle while King George VI and Queen Elizabeth were in residence, and many windows were blown in and the chapel destroyed. War-time coverage of such incidents was severely restricted, however. The King and Queen were filmed inspecting their bombed home, the smiling Queen, as always, immaculately dressed in a hat and matching coat seemingly unbothered by the damage around her. It was at this time the Queen famously declared: "I'm glad we have been bombed. Now I can look the East End in the face". The royal family were seen as sharing their subjects' hardship, as The Sunday Graphic reported:


Which monarchs were in residence at Buckingham Palace during WWII?


The bombing of Buckingham Palace showed what to the public?


What was destroyed in one of the bombing that hit the palace in WWII?


The King and Queen were filmed doing what after a bombing?


The royal family was seen as sharing what with their subjects after the bombings?


What is the date of the Battle of Britain Day?

On 15 September 1940, known as the Battle of Britain Day, an RAF pilot, Ray Holmes of No. 504 Squadron RAF rammed a German bomber he believed was going to bomb the Palace. Holmes had run out of ammunition and made the quick decision to ram it. Holmes bailed out. Both aircraft crashed. In fact the Dornier Do 17 bomber was empty. It had already been damaged, two of its crew had been killed and the remainder bailed out. Its pilot, Feldwebel Robert Zehbe, landed, only to die later of wounds suffered during the attack. During the Dornier's descent, it somehow unloaded its bombs, one of which hit the Palace. It then crashed into the forecourt of London Victoria station. The bomber's engine was later exhibited at the Imperial War Museum in London. The British pilot became a King's Messenger after the war, and died at the age of 90 in 2005.


What did Ray Holmes think the German pilot was going to bomb?


What type of airplane was the German craft Holmes rammed into?


What did Ray Holmes believe the German pilot was targeting?


What did Holmes do to stop the German Plane?


What type of aircraft was the German Plane?


What type of energy makes an incandescent light bulb glow?

An incandescent light bulb, incandescent lamp or incandescent light globe is an electric light with a wire filament heated to a high temperature, by passing an electric current through it, until it glows with visible light (incandescence). The hot filament is protected from oxidation with a glass or quartz bulb that is filled with inert gas or evacuated. In a halogen lamp, filament evaporation is prevented by a chemical process that redeposits metal vapor onto the filament, extending its life. The light bulb is supplied with electric current by feed-through terminals or wires embedded in the glass. Most bulbs are used in a socket which provides mechanical support and electrical connections.


Which part of the incandescent light bulb is heated?


What part of a halogen light bulb supplies electric current?


What provides the electricity to most light bulbs?


Which type of light bulb uses inert gas?


Are incandescent bulbs more or less efficient than most electric lighting?

Incandescent bulbs are much less efficient than most other types of electric lighting; incandescent bulbs convert less than 5% of the energy they use into visible light, with standard light bulbs averaging about 2.2%. The remaining energy is converted into heat. The luminous efficacy of a typical incandescent bulb is 16 lumens per watt, compared with 60 lm/W for a compact fluorescent bulb or 150 lm/W for some white LED lamps. Some applications of the incandescent bulb deliberately use the heat generated by the filament. Such applications include incubators, brooding boxes for poultry, heat lights for reptile tanks, infrared heating for industrial heating and drying processes, lava lamps, and the Easy-Bake Oven toy. Incandescent bulbs typically have short lifetimes compared with other types of lighting; around 1,000 hours for home light bulbs versus typically 10,000 hours for compact fluorescents and 30,000 hours for lighting LEDs.


What percentage of energy does a standard light bulb actually convert to visible light?


Which is more efficient: compact fluorescent or LED lights?


How long does a typical incandescent light bulb last?


What happens to the energy that an incandescent bulb does not convert into light?


What law did Australia make about incandescent light bulbs?

Incandescent bulbs have been replaced in many applications by other types of electric light, such as fluorescent lamps, compact fluorescent lamps (CFL), cold cathode fluorescent lamps (CCFL), high-intensity discharge lamps, and light-emitting diode lamps (LED). Some jurisdictions, such as the European Union, China, Canada and United States, are in the process of phasing out the use of incandescent light bulbs while others, including Colombia, Mexico, Cuba, Argentina, Brazil and Australia, have prohibited them already.


How is the United States treating incandescent light bulbs?


Who patented an incandescent light bulb in Russia in 1874?

In 1872, Russian Alexander Lodygin invented an incandescent light bulb and obtained a Russian patent in 1874. He used as a burner two carbon rods of diminished section in a glass receiver, hermetically sealed, and filled with nitrogen, electrically arranged so that the current could be passed to the second carbon when the first had been consumed. Later he lived in the USA, changed his name to Alexander de Lodyguine and applied and obtained patents for incandescent lamps having chromium, iridium, rhodium, ruthenium, osmium, molybdenum and tungsten filaments, and a bulb using a molybdenum filament was demonstrated at the world fair of 1900 in Paris.


What did Lodygin use as a burner in his lamp?


In what year did Lodygin demonstrate a lamp at the World's Fair?


What did Lodygin change his name to after moving to the USA?


Where did Joseph Swan demonstrate his lamp in January 1879?

With the help of Charles Stearn, an expert on vacuum pumps, in 1878, Swan developed a method of processing that avoided the early bulb blackening. This received a British Patent in 1880.[dubious – discuss] On 18 December 1878, a lamp using a slender carbon rod was shown at a meeting of the Newcastle Chemical Society, and Swan gave a working demonstration at their meeting on 17 January 1879. It was also shown to 700 who attended a meeting of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Newcastle upon Tyne on 3 February 1879. These lamps used a carbon rod from an arc lamp rather than a slender filament. Thus they had low resistance and required very large conductors to supply the necessary current, so they were not commercially practical, although they did furnish a demonstration of the possibilities of incandescent lighting with relatively high vacuum, a carbon conductor, and platinum lead-in wires. Besides requiring too much current for a central station electric system to be practical, they had a very short lifetime. Swan turned his attention to producing a better carbon filament and the means of attaching its ends. He devised a method of treating cotton to produce 'parchmentised thread' and obtained British Patent 4933 in 1880. From this year he began installing light bulbs in homes and landmarks in England. His house was the first in the world to be lit by a lightbulb and also the first house in the world to be lit by hydroelectric power. In 1878 the home of Lord Armstrong at Cragside was also among the first houses to be lit by electricity. In the early 1880s he had started his company. In 1881, the Savoy Theatre in the City of Westminster, London was lit by Swan incandescent lightbulbs, which was the first theatre, and the first public building in the world, to be lit entirely by electricity.


Which vacuum pump expert helped Swan invent his lamp?


Why was Swan's first lamp not commercially viable?


When did Swan receive a patent for parchmentised thread?


What was the first public building to install electric lighting?


When did Edison begin research into incandescent lighting?

Thomas Edison began serious research into developing a practical incandescent lamp in 1878. Edison filed his first patent application for "Improvement In Electric Lights" on 14 October 1878. After many experiments, first with carbon in the early 1880s and then with platinum and other metals, in the end Edison returned to a carbon filament. The first successful test was on 22 October 1879, and lasted 13.5 hours. Edison continued to improve this design and by 4 November 1879, filed for a US patent for an electric lamp using "a carbon filament or strip coiled and connected ... to platina contact wires." Although the patent described several ways of creating the carbon filament including using "cotton and linen thread, wood splints, papers coiled in various ways," Edison and his team later discovered that a carbonized bamboo filament could last more than 1200 hours. In 1880, the Oregon Railroad and Navigation Company steamer, Columbia, became the first application for Edison's incandescent electric lamps (it was also the first ship to execute use of a dynamo).


With what material did Edison make his first filament?


How long did Edison's light burn during his first successful test in 1879?


What type of wood did Edison use in his improved filament?


What was the name of the first ship to use Edison's lamp?


Who founded Electro-Dynamic Light Company?

Albon Man, a New York lawyer, started Electro-Dynamic Light Company in 1878 to exploit his patents and those of William Sawyer. Weeks later the United States Electric Lighting Company was organized. This company didn't made their first commercial installation of incandescent lamps until the fall of 1880 at the Mercantile Safe Deposit Company in New York City, about six months after the Edison incandescent lamps had been installed on the Columbia. Hiram S. Maxim was the chief engineer at the United States Electric Lighting Company.


Who was the chief engineer at the United States Electric Lighting Company?


Where did Electro-Dynamic Light Company install its first lights?


When did Electro-Dynamic Light Company install its first lights?


Which company was organized first, Electro-Dynamic Light Company or United States Electric Lighting Company?


Who developed a heat-treating method that allowed carbon filaments to be molded into shapes?

Lewis Latimer, employed at the time by Edison, developed an improved method of heat-treating carbon filaments which reduced breakage and allowed them to be molded into novel shapes, such as the characteristic "M" shape of Maxim filaments. On 17 January 1882, Latimer received a patent for the "Process of Manufacturing Carbons", an improved method for the production of light bulb filaments, which was purchased by the United States Electric Light Company. Latimer patented other improvements such as a better way of attaching filaments to their wire supports.


When did Latimer patent his "Process of Manufacturing Carbons"?


Which company purchased Latimer's patent?


Who employed Latimer when he developed his first patent?


Which inventors patented the tungsten filament lamp?

On 13 December 1904, Hungarian Sándor Just and Croatian Franjo Hanaman were granted a Hungarian patent (No. 34541) for a tungsten filament lamp that lasted longer and gave brighter light than the carbon filament. Tungsten filament lamps were first marketed by the Hungarian company Tungsram in 1904. This type is often called Tungsram-bulbs in many European countries. Filling a bulb with an inert gas such as argon or nitrogen retards the evaporation of the tungsten filament compared to operating it in a vacuum. This allows for greater temperatures and therefore greater efficacy with less reduction in filament life.


When did Just and Hanaman receive their patent for the tungsten filament lamp?


Which company first marketed the tungsten filament lamp?


What type of gas fills a tungsten filament bulb?


What is a common alternate name for the tungsten filament bulb in Europe?


Luminous efficacy of a light source may be defined in two ways. The radiant luminous efficacy (LER) is the ratio of the visible light flux emitted (the luminous flux) to the total power radiated over all wavelengths. The source luminous efficacy (LES) is the ratio of the visible light flux emitted (the luminous flux) to the total power input to the source, such as a lamp. Visible light is measured in lumens, a unit which is defined in part by the differing sensitivity of the human eye to different wavelengths of light. Not all wavelengths of visible electromagnetic energy are equally effective at stimulating the human eye; the luminous efficacy of radiant energy (LER) is a measure of how well the distribution of energy matches the perception of the eye. The units of luminous efficacy are "lumens per watt" (lpw). The maximum LER possible is 683 lm/W for monochromatic green light at 555 nanometers wavelength, the peak sensitivity of the human eye.


In how many ways can one define luminous efficacy of a light source?


What is the definition of radiant luminous efficacy?


At what temperature does a thermal radiator most efficiently produce light?

The spectrum emitted by a blackbody radiator at temperatures of incandescent bulbs does not match the sensitivity characteristics of the human eye; the light emitted does not appear white, and most is not in the range of wavelengths at which the eye is most sensitive. Tungsten filaments radiate mostly infrared radiation at temperatures where they remain solid – below 3,695 K (3,422 °C; 6,191 °F). Donald L. Klipstein explains it this way: "An ideal thermal radiator produces visible light most efficiently at temperatures around 6,300 °C (6,600 K; 11,400 °F). Even at this high temperature, a lot of the radiation is either infrared or ultraviolet, and the theoretical luminous efficacy (LER) is 95 lumens per watt." No known material can be used as a filament at this ideal temperature, which is hotter than the sun's surface. An upper limit for incandescent lamp luminous efficacy (LER) is around 52 lumens per watt, the theoretical value emitted by tungsten at its melting point.


What is the upper limit for LER of an incandescent lamp?


What type of radiation makes up the majority of tungsten filament emissions?


What is the flaw in the color of light produced by an incandescent bulb?


What is the theoretical LER value of tungsten at its melting point?


Although inefficient, incandescent light bulbs have an advantage in applications where accurate color reproduction is important, since the continuous blackbody spectrum emitted from an incandescent light-bulb filament yields near-perfect color rendition, with a color rendering index of 100 (the best possible). White-balancing is still required to avoid too "warm" or "cool" colors, but this is a simple process that requires only the color temperature in Kelvin as input for modern, digital visual reproduction equipment such as video or still cameras unless it is completely automated. The color-rendering performance of incandescent lights cannot be matched by LEDs or fluorescent lights, although they can offer satisfactory performance for non-critical applications such as home lighting. White-balancing such lights is therefore more complicated, requiring additional adjustments to reduce for example green-magenta color casts, and even when properly white-balanced, the color reproduction will not be perfect.


Of incandescent lights, fluorescent lights and LEDs, which has the best color-rendering performance?


What is the color rendering index of an incandescent light?


Why do incandescent lights have superior color rendering?


What is the highest possible color rendering index score?


Do fluorescent lights have a higher or lower luminous efficiency than incandescents?

There are many non-incandescent light sources, such as the fluorescent lamp, high-intensity discharge lamps and LED lamps, which have higher luminous efficiency, and some have been designed to be retrofitted in fixtures for incandescent lights. These devices produce light by luminescence. These lamps produce discrete spectral lines and do not have the broad "tail" of invisible infrared emissions. By careful selection of which electron energy level transitions are used, and fluorescent coatings which modify the spectral distribution, the spectrum emitted can be tuned to mimic the appearance of incandescent sources, or other different color temperatures of white light. Due to the discrete spectral lines rather than a continuous spectrum, the light is not ideal for applications such as photography and cinematography.


How can luminescent light sources be modified to resemble the appearance of incandescents?


Why are luminescent light sources not ideal for photography?


What appliance requires more energy due to the use of incandescent lighting?

The initial cost of an incandescent bulb is small compared to the cost of the energy it uses over its lifetime. Incandescent bulbs have a shorter life than most other lighting, an important factor if replacement is inconvenient or expensive. Some types of lamp, including incandescent and fluorescent, emit less light as they age; this may be an inconvenience, or may reduce effective lifetime due to lamp replacement before total failure. A comparison of incandescent lamp operating cost with other light sources must include illumination requirements, cost of the lamp and labor cost to replace lamps (taking into account effective lamp lifetime), cost of electricity used, effect of lamp operation on heating and air conditioning systems. When used for lighting in houses and commercial buildings, the energy lost to heat can significantly increase the energy required by a building's air conditioning system. During the heating season heat produced by the bulbs is not wasted, although in most cases it is more cost effective to obtain heat from the heating system. Regardless, over the course of a year a more efficient lighting system saves energy in nearly all climates.


Do incandescent lights have a longer or shorter life than other lighting sources?


What are some factors to consider in calculating operating costs of lighting?


Do incandescent lights emit more, less, or the same amount of light as they age?


What is more cost-effective, heat from incandescent bulbs or heat from a building's heating system?


Do incandescent light bulbs use more or less energy as compared to CFLs and LED lamps?

Since incandescent light bulbs use more energy than alternatives such as CFLs and LED lamps, many governments have introduced measures to ban their use, by setting minimum efficacy standards higher than can be achieved by incandescent lamps. Measures to ban light bulbs have been implemented in the European Union, the United States, Russia, Brazil, Argentina, Canada and Australia, among others. In the Europe the EC has calculated that the ban contributes 5 to 10 billion euros to the economy and saves 40 TWh of electricity every year, translating in CO2 emission reductions of 15 million tonnes.


How much does the incandescent light ban in Europe contribute to the economy each year?


How much energy does the incandescent light ban in Europe save each year?


How much CO2 emissions does the incandescent light ban in Europe save each year?


How are laws written that bring about a ban of incandescent light bulbs?


Is the environmental performance of CFLs better or worse than that of incandescents?

Objections to banning the use of incandescent light bulbs include the higher initial cost of alternatives and lower quality of light of fluorescent lamps. Some people have concerns about the health effects of fluorescent lamps. However, even though they contain mercury, the environmental performance of CFLs is much better than that of light bulbs, mostly because they consume much less energy and therefore strongly reduce the environmental impact of power production. LED lamps are even more efficient, and are free of mercury. They are regarded as the best solution in terms of cost effectiveness and robustness.


Which type of light bulbs is considered most cost effective and robust?


What are some objections to banning incandescent bulbs?


What substance in CFL bulbs raises health concerns?


Do CFLs consume more, less, or the same amount of energy as incandescent bulbs?


Which company introduced hybrid incandescent bulbs?

Prompted by legislation in various countries mandating increased bulb efficiency, new "hybrid" incandescent bulbs have been introduced by Philips. The "Halogena Energy Saver" incandescents can produce about 23 lm/W; about 30 percent more efficient than traditional incandescents, by using a reflective capsule to reflect formerly wasted infrared radiation back to the filament from which it can be re-emitted as visible light. This concept was pioneered by Duro-Test in 1980 with a commercial product that produced 29.8 lm/W. More advanced reflectors based on interference filters or photonic crystals can theoretically result in higher efficiency, up to a limit of about 270 lm/W (40% of the maximum efficacy possible). Laboratory proof-of-concept experiments have produced as much as 45 lm/W, approaching the efficacy of compact fluorescent bulbs.


How much more efficient are Halogena Energy Saver bulbs compared to incandescents?


What company first marketed light bulbs using the reflective capsule technique to increase energy efficiency?


What is the theoretical maximum efficiency of reflective capsule bulbs?


What is the maximum efficiency of reflective capsule bulbs as tested in labs?


What is the name of the air-tight glass enclosure in an incandescent bulb?

Incandescent light bulbs consist of an air-tight glass enclosure (the envelope, or bulb) with a filament of tungsten wire inside the bulb, through which an electric current is passed. Contact wires and a base with two (or more) conductors provide electrical connections to the filament. Incandescent light bulbs usually contain a stem or glass mount anchored to the bulb's base that allows the electrical contacts to run through the envelope without air or gas leaks. Small wires embedded in the stem in turn support the filament and its lead wires.


How many conductors are present in the bulb's base?


What prevents air or gas leaks from a light bulb?


What function do small wires in a light bulb's stem perform?


What is the powdery substance in coated glass light bulbs?

Most light bulbs have either clear or coated glass. The coated glass bulbs have a white powdery substance on the inside called kaolin. Kaolin, or kaolinite, is a white, chalky clay in a very fine powder form, that is blown in and electrostatically deposited on the interior of the bulb. It diffuses the light emitted from the filament, producing a more gentle and evenly distributed light. Manufacturers may add pigments to the kaolin to adjust the characteristics of the final light emitted from the bulb. Kaolin diffused bulbs are used extensively in interior lighting because of their comparatively gentle light. Other kinds of colored bulbs are also made, including the various colors used for "party bulbs", Christmas tree lights and other decorative lighting. These are created by coloring the glass with a dopant; which is often a metal like cobalt (blue) or chromium (green). Neodymium-containing glass is sometimes used to provide a more natural-appearing light.


How is kaolin placed inside a light bulb?


What is the effect of a kaolin coating on the light cast?


How are Christmas colored light bulbs created?


How does kaolin create a more gentle light?


What is the name for a base with one or more contacts at the tip and one at the shell?

Many arrangements of electrical contacts are used. Large lamps may have a screw base (one or more contacts at the tip, one at the shell) or a bayonet base (one or more contacts on the base, shell used as a contact or used only as a mechanical support). Some tubular lamps have an electrical contact at either end. Miniature lamps may have a wedge base and wire contacts, and some automotive and special purpose lamps have screw terminals for connection to wires. Contacts in the lamp socket allow the electric current to pass through the base to the filament. Power ratings for incandescent light bulbs range from about 0.1 watt to about 10,000 watts.


What is the name for a lamp base with one or more contacts on the base and a shell used as a contact or used only as a mechanical support?


What is the purpose of contacts in the lamp socket?


What is the range of power ratings for incandescent bulbs?


Which types of lamps use screw terminals for connection to wires?


What is a potential problem with the use of gas in a light bulb?

The role of the gas is to prevent evaporation of the filament, without introducing significant heat losses. For these properties, chemical inertness and high atomic or molecular weight is desirable. The presence of gas molecules knocks the liberated tungsten atoms back to the filament, reducing its evaporation and allowing it to be operated at higher temperature without reducing its life (or, for operating at the same temperature, prolongs the filament life). It however introduces heat losses (and therefore efficiency loss) from the filament, by heat conduction and heat convection.


What are the ideal chemical properties for the gas in a light bulb?


What is the purpose of the gas in a light bulb?


How do gases prevent evaporation of the filament?


What type of machine manufactures glass light bulbs.

In manufacturing the glass bulb, a type of "ribbon machine" is used. A continuous ribbon of glass is passed along a conveyor belt, heated in a furnace, and then blown by precisely aligned air nozzles through holes in the conveyor belt into molds. Thus the glass bulbs are created. After the bulbs are blown, and cooled, they are cut off the ribbon machine; a typical machine of this sort produces 50,000 bulbs per hour. The filament and its supports are assembled on a glass stem, which is fused to the bulb. The air is pumped out of the bulb, and the evacuation tube in the stem press is sealed by a flame. The bulb is then inserted into the lamp base, and the whole assembly tested.


How many bulbs does the average ribbon machine produce per hour?


How is the filament attached to the bulb?


What blows the glass bulbs into their characteristic shape?


What material were the first light bulb filaments made from?

The first successful light bulb filaments were made of carbon (from carbonized paper or bamboo). Early carbon filaments had a negative temperature coefficient of resistance — as they got hotter, their electrical resistance decreased. This made the lamp sensitive to fluctuations in the power supply, since a small increase of voltage would cause the filament to heat up, reducing its resistance and causing it to draw even more power and heat even further. In the "flashing" process, carbon filaments were heated by current passing through them while in an evacuated vessel containing hydrocarbon vapor (usually gasoline). The carbon deposited on the filament by this treatment improved the uniformity and strength of filaments as well as their efficiency. A metallized or "graphitized" filament was first heated in a high-temperature oven before flashing and lamp assembly. This transformed the carbon into graphite which further strengthened and smoothed the filament. This also changed the filament to have a positive temperature coefficient, like a metallic conductor, and helped stabilize the lamp's power consumption, temperature and light output against minor variations in supply voltage.


What was the primary problem with early carbon filaments?


What were the positive effects of the flashing process?


What properties of graphite improved the filament?


What are the effects of giving the filament a positive temperature coefficient?


What company invented the tantalum light filament?

In 1902, the Siemens company developed a tantalum lamp filament. These lamps were more efficient than even graphitized carbon filaments and could operate at higher temperatures. Since tantalum metal has a lower resistivity than carbon, the tantalum lamp filament was quite long and required multiple internal supports. The metal filament had the property of gradually shortening in use; the filaments were installed with large loops that tightened in use. This made lamps in use for several hundred hours quite fragile. Metal filaments had the property of breaking and re-welding, though this would usually decrease resistance and shorten the life of the filament. General Electric bought the rights to use tantalum filaments and produced them in the US until 1913.


In what year was the tantalum light filament invented?


What were the major advantages of the tantalum light filament?


Who purchased the rights to the tantalum light filament from Siemens?


When did GE cease production of the tantalum light filament?


What was the problem with manufacturing the tungsten filament?

In 1906, the tungsten filament was introduced. Tungsten metal was initially not available in a form that allowed it to be drawn into fine wires. Filaments made from sintered tungsten powder were quite fragile. By 1910, a process was developed by William D. Coolidge at General Electric for production of a ductile form of tungsten. The process required pressing tungsten powder into bars, then several steps of sintering, swaging, and then wire drawing. It was found that very pure tungsten formed filaments that sagged in use, and that a very small "doping" treatment with potassium, silicon, and aluminium oxides at the level of a few hundred parts per million greatly improved the life and durability of the tungsten filaments.


Who developed the ductile form of tungsten?


When was the ductile form of tungsten invented?


When was the tungsten filament introduced?


What other materials were combined with tungsten?


How long is a typical uncoiled tungsten filament for a 60-watt bulb?

To improve the efficiency of the lamp, the filament usually consists of multiple coils of coiled fine wire, also known as a 'coiled coil'. For a 60-watt 120-volt lamp, the uncoiled length of the tungsten filament is usually 22.8 inches (580 mm), and the filament diameter is 0.0018 inches (0.046 mm). The advantage of the coiled coil is that evaporation of the tungsten filament is at the rate of a tungsten cylinder having a diameter equal to that of the coiled coil. The coiled-coil filament evaporates more slowly than a straight filament of the same surface area and light-emitting power. As a result, the filament can then run hotter, which results in a more efficient light source, while reducing the evaporation so that the filament will last longer than a straight filament at the same temperature.


What is the advantage of a coiled-coil filament over a straight filament?


What positive effects does a slower-evaporating filament enable?


What is the typical diameter of the filament on a 60-watt bulb?


What is the negative effect of "hot spots" forming on the filament?

One of the problems of the standard electric light bulb is filament notching due to evaporation of the filament. Small variations in resistivity along the filament cause "hot spots" to form at points of higher resistivity; a variation of diameter of only 1% will cause a 25% reduction in service life. These hot spots evaporate faster than the rest of the filament, which increases the resistance at that point—this creates a positive feedback that ends in the familiar tiny gap in an otherwise healthy-looking filament. Irving Langmuir found that an inert gas, instead of vacuum, would retard evaporation. General service incandescent light bulbs over about 25 watts in rating are now filled with a mixture of mostly argon and some nitrogen, or sometimes krypton. Lamps operated on direct current develop random stairstep irregularities on the filament surface which may cut lifespan in half compared to AC operation; different alloys of tungsten and rhenium can be used to counteract the effect.


Who discovered that inert gas could slow evaporation?


Which gases are typically used in a light bulb?


Which type of alloys can decrease "stairstep" irregularities in light bulb filaments?


While inert gas reduces filament evaporation, it also conducts heat from the filament, thereby cooling the filament and reducing efficiency. At constant pressure and temperature, the thermal conductivity of a gas depends upon the molecular weight of the gas and the cross sectional area of the gas molecules. Higher molecular weight gasses have lower thermal conductivity, because both the molecular weight is higher and also the cross sectional area is higher. Xenon gas improves efficiency because of its high molecular weight, but is also more expensive, so its use is limited to smaller lamps.


What affects the thermal conductivity of a gas?


How does the molecular weight of a gas relate to thermal conductivity?


What is the advantage of using inert gas in a light bulb?


What determines how fast a tungsten filament evaporates?

During ordinary operation, the tungsten of the filament evaporates; hotter, more-efficient filaments evaporate faster. Because of this, the lifetime of a filament lamp is a trade-off between efficiency and longevity. The trade-off is typically set to provide a lifetime of several hundred to 2,000 hours for lamps used for general illumination. Theatrical, photographic, and projection lamps may have a useful life of only a few hours, trading life expectancy for high output in a compact form. Long-life general service lamps have lower efficiency but are used where the cost of changing the lamp is high compared to the value of energy used.


What is the typical goal for the life of a tungsten filament bulb?


Which types of lamps may have particularly short lives?


What is the typical tradeoff in light bulb design?


What darkens a conventional bulb over its lifetime?

In a conventional lamp, the evaporated tungsten eventually condenses on the inner surface of the glass envelope, darkening it. For bulbs that contain a vacuum, the darkening is uniform across the entire surface of the envelope. When a filling of inert gas is used, the evaporated tungsten is carried in the thermal convection currents of the gas, depositing preferentially on the uppermost part of the envelope and blackening just that portion of the envelope. An incandescent lamp that gives 93% or less of its initial light output at 75% of its rated life is regarded as unsatisfactory, when tested according to IEC Publication 60064. Light loss is due to filament evaporation and bulb blackening. Study of the problem of bulb blackening led to the discovery of the Edison effect, thermionic emission and invention of the vacuum tube.


What is the IEC guideline for an unacceptable level of light loss?


What are the primary causes of light loss?


Where in the bulb is evaporated tungsten deposited when inert gas is used?


Where in the bulb is evaporated tungsten deposited when a vacuum is used?


How does water vapor inside a light bulb affect lamp darkening?

A very small amount of water vapor inside a light bulb can significantly affect lamp darkening. Water vapor dissociates into hydrogen and oxygen at the hot filament. The oxygen attacks the tungsten metal, and the resulting tungsten oxide particles travel to cooler parts of the lamp. Hydrogen from water vapor reduces the oxide, reforming water vapor and continuing this water cycle. The equivalent of a drop of water distributed over 500,000 lamps will significantly increase darkening. Small amounts of substances such as zirconium are placed within the lamp as a getter to react with any oxygen that may bake out of the lamp components during operation.


What is an example of a substance that is added to light bulbs to reduce this effect?


How much water is necessary to result in this darkening affect?


Does the halogen bulp increase, reduce, or have no effect on filament evaporation?

The halogen lamp reduces uneven evaporation of the filament and eliminates darkening of the envelope by filling the lamp with a halogen gas at low pressure, rather than an inert gas. The halogen cycle increases the lifetime of the bulb and prevents its darkening by redepositing tungsten from the inside of the bulb back onto the filament. The halogen lamp can operate its filament at a higher temperature than a standard gas filled lamp of similar power without loss of operating life. Such bulbs are much smaller than normal incandescent bulbs, and are widely used where intense illumination is needed in a limited space. Fiber-optic lamps for optical microscopy is one typical application.


How does the halogen bulb decrease darkening over time?


Does a halogen bulb operate at a higher or lower temperature than an incandescent?


How does the size of a halogen bulb compare to an incandescent?


What is the most common situation when a halogen bulb is used?


What did an alternate version of the incandescent lamp substitute for a wire filament?

A variation of the incandescent lamp did not use a hot wire filament, but instead used an arc struck on a spherical bead electrode to produce heat. The electrode then became incandescent, with the arc contributing little to the light produced. Such lamps were used for projection or illumination for scientific instruments such as microscopes. These arc lamps ran on relatively low voltages and incorporated tungsten filaments to start ionization within the envelope. They provided the intense concentrated light of an arc lamp but were easier to operate. Developed around 1915, these lamps were displaced by mercury and xenon arc lamps.


What was a common application for this type of bulb?


Incandescent lamps are nearly pure resistive loads with a power factor of 1. This means the actual power consumed (in watts) and the apparent power (in volt-amperes) are equal. Incandescent light bulbs are usually marketed according to the electrical power consumed. This is measured in watts and depends mainly on the resistance of the filament, which in turn depends mainly on the filament's length, thickness, and material. For two bulbs of the same voltage, type, color, and clarity, the higher-powered bulb gives more light.


What principally determines the wattage of an incandescent bulb?


What determines the resistance of the filament?


How close do incandescent lamps come to pure resistive loads?


All other things being equal, how does wattage affect light emitted?


What determines the resistance of a filament?

The actual resistance of the filament is temperature dependent. The cold resistance of tungsten-filament lamps is about 1/15 the hot-filament resistance when the lamp is operating. For example, a 100-watt, 120-volt lamp has a resistance of 144 ohms when lit, but the cold resistance is much lower (about 9.5 ohms). Since incandescent lamps are resistive loads, simple phase-control TRIAC dimmers can be used to control brightness. Electrical contacts may carry a "T" rating symbol indicating that they are designed to control circuits with the high inrush current characteristic of tungsten lamps. For a 100-watt, 120-volt general-service lamp, the current stabilizes in about 0.10 seconds, and the lamp reaches 90% of its full brightness after about 0.13 seconds.


What does a "T" rating symbol on an electrical contact mean?


How long does it take a typical 100-watt bulb to achieve 90% of its brightness?


How does the cold resistance of tungsten filament lamps compare to the hot resistance?


What is the resistance of a typical lit 100-watt incandescent bulb?


What do the letters identify in a bulb shape designation?

Incandescent light bulbs come in a range of shapes and sizes. The names of the shapes may be slightly different in some regions. Many of these shapes have a designation consisting of one or more letters followed by one or more numbers, e.g. A55 or PAR38. The letters represent the shape of the bulb. The numbers represent the maximum diameter, either in 1⁄8 of an inch, or in millimeters, depending on the shape and the region. For example, 63 mm reflectors are designated R63, but in the US, they are known as R20 (2.5 in). However, in both regions, a PAR38 reflector is known as PAR38.


What do the numbers identify in a bulb shape designation?


Can the name of a certain bulb shape vary?


What units are the bulb sizes measured in?


Which company introduced standard base sizes for incandescent lamps?

Very small lamps may have the filament support wires extended through the base of the lamp, and can be directly soldered to a printed circuit board for connections. Some reflector-type lamps include screw terminals for connection of wires. Most lamps have metal bases that fit in a socket to support the lamp and conduct current to the filament wires. In the late 19th century, manufacturers introduced a multitude of incompatible lamp bases. General Electric introduced standard base sizes for tungsten incandescent lamps under the Mazda trademark in 1909. This standard was soon adopted across the US, and the Mazda name was used by many manufacturers under license through 1945. Today most incandescent lamps for general lighting service use an Edison screw in candelabra, intermediate, or standard or mogul sizes, or double contact bayonet base. Technical standards for lamp bases include ANSI standard C81.67 and IEC standard 60061-1 for common commercial lamp sizes, to ensure interchangeablitity between different manufacturer's products. Bayonet base lamps are frequently used in automotive lamps to resist loosening due to vibration. A bipin base is often used for halogen or reflector lamps.


In what year were standard base sizes introduced for incandescent lamps?


What are some common technical standards for lamp bases?


What is the typical base type for automotive lamps?


What is the typical base type for halogen lamps?


What level of voltage reduction is required to double the life of an incandescent bulb?

This means that a 5% reduction in operating voltage will more than double the life of the bulb, at the expense of reducing its light output by about 16%. This may be a very acceptable trade off for a light bulb that is in a difficult-to-access location (for example, traffic lights or fixtures hung from high ceilings). Long-life bulbs take advantage of this trade-off. Since the value of the electric power they consume is much more than the value of the lamp, general service lamps emphasize efficiency over long operating life. The objective is to minimize the cost of light, not the cost of lamps. Early bulbs had a life of up to 2500 hours, but in 1924 a cartel agreed to limit life to 1000 hours. When this was exposed in 1953, General Electric and other leading American manufacturers were banned from limiting the life.


When did light bulb manufacturers establish a cartel to limit bulb life?


When did authorities break up the light bulb cartel?


What was the artificially low limit on bulb life placed by the cartel?


What is an example of a good application for a long-life bulb?


When did the "Centennial Light" begin burning?

The relationships above are valid for only a few percent change of voltage around rated conditions, but they do indicate that a lamp operated at much lower than rated voltage could last for hundreds of times longer than at rated conditions, albeit with greatly reduced light output. The "Centennial Light" is a light bulb that is accepted by the Guinness Book of World Records as having been burning almost continuously at a fire station in Livermore, California, since 1901. However, the bulb emits the equivalent light of a four watt bulb. A similar story can be told of a 40-watt bulb in Texas that has been illuminated since 21 September 1908. It once resided in an opera house where notable celebrities stopped to take in its glow, and was moved to an area museum in 1977.


When did the long-lasting bulb in Texas begin continuing illumination?


Where did the Texas bulb begin its life?


At what temperature does a typical 50-hour-life projection bulb operate?

In flood lamps used for photographic lighting, the tradeoff is made in the other direction. Compared to general-service bulbs, for the same power, these bulbs produce far more light, and (more importantly) light at a higher color temperature, at the expense of greatly reduced life (which may be as short as two hours for a type P1 lamp). The upper temperature limit for the filament is the melting point of the metal. Tungsten is the metal with the highest melting point, 3,695 K (6,191 °F). A 50-hour-life projection bulb, for instance, is designed to operate only 50 °C (122 °F) below that melting point. Such a lamp may achieve up to 22 lumens per watt, compared with 17.5 for a 750-hour general service lamp.


Which metal has the highest melting point?


How does the color temperature differ for photographic lighting?


How many lumens per watt does a typical 100-watt, 120-volt lamp produce?

Lamps designed for different voltages have different luminous efficacy. For example, a 100-watt, 120-volt lamp will produce about 17.1 lumens per watt. A lamp with the same rated lifetime but designed for 230 V would produce only around 12.8 lumens per watt, and a similar lamp designed for 30 volts (train lighting) would produce as much as 19.8 lumens per watt. Lower voltage lamps have a thicker filament, for the same power rating. They can run hotter for the same lifetime before the filament evaporates.


How many lumens per watt does a typical train light produce?


How does filament size relate to voltage level?


What is the effect of a thicker filament on bulb temperature?


What made power distribution economically viable in Edison's lamp?

In addressing the question of who invented the incandescent lamp, historians Robert Friedel and Paul Israel list 22 inventors of incandescent lamps prior to Joseph Swan and Thomas Edison. They conclude that Edison's version was able to outstrip the others because of a combination of three factors: an effective incandescent material, a higher vacuum than others were able to achieve (by use of the Sprengel pump) and a high resistance that made power distribution from a centralized source economically viable.


How many inventors came up with electric lamps before Thomas Edison?


How did Edison achieve a higher vacuum than other inventors?


Which historians wrote about the advantages of Edison's lamp over other early versions?


What can clothing provide during hazardous activities?

Physically, clothing serves many purposes: it can serve as protection from the elements, and can enhance safety during hazardous activities such as hiking and cooking. It protects the wearer from rough surfaces, rash-causing plants, insect bites, splinters, thorns and prickles by providing a barrier between the skin and the environment. Clothes can insulate against cold or hot conditions. Further, they can provide a hygienic barrier, keeping infectious and toxic materials away from the body. Clothing also provides protection from harmful UV radiation.


What type of surfaces can clothing protect from?


What does clothing keep toxic materials away from?


What can insulate against cold or hot conditions?


What type of radiation can clothing provide some protection from?


What isn't it easy to determine about clothing?

There is no easy way to determine when clothing was first developed, but some information has been inferred by studying lice. The body louse specifically lives in clothing, and diverge from head lice about 107,000 years ago, suggesting that clothing existed at that time. Another theory is that modern humans are the only survivors of several species of primates who may have worn clothes and that clothing may have been used as long ago as 650 thousand years ago. Other louse-based estimates put the introduction of clothing at around 42,000–72,000 BP.


What organism has provided some information about the timeline of clothing?


What habitat is the body louse specific to?


What may modern humans be the only survivor of several species of?


How many thousands of years ago may have clothing been worn?


What obvious improvement does clothing bestow upon the wearer?

The most obvious function of clothing is to improve the comfort of the wearer, by protecting the wearer from the elements. In hot climates, clothing provides protection from sunburn or wind damage, while in cold climates its thermal insulation properties are generally more important. Shelter usually reduces the functional need for clothing. For example, coats, hats, gloves, and other superficial layers are normally removed when entering a warm home, particularly if one is residing or sleeping there. Similarly, clothing has seasonal and regional aspects, so that thinner materials and fewer layers of clothing are generally worn in warmer seasons and regions than in colder ones.


In what type of climate does clothing protect against sunburn and wind damage?


What property of clothing is important in cold climates?


What type of material tends to be worn in warmer seasons?


What variety has there been in the materials of clothing throughout history?

Clothing can and has in history been made from a very wide variety of materials. Materials have ranged from leather and furs, to woven materials, to elaborate and exotic natural and synthetic fabrics. Not all body coverings are regarded as clothing. Articles carried rather than worn (such as purses), worn on a single part of the body and easily removed (scarves), worn purely for adornment (jewelry), or those that serve a function other than protection (eyeglasses), are normally considered accessories rather than clothing, as are footwear and hats.


What is an article that is carried rather than worn that isn't regarded as clothing?


Jewelry isn't considered clothing because it's usually worn purely for what reason?


What are footwear and hats both considered?


What is an example of something that serves a function other than protection?


What does clothing protect from things which may injure it?

Clothing protects against many things that might injure the uncovered human body. Clothes protect people from the elements, including rain, snow, wind, and other weather, as well as from the sun. However, clothing that is too sheer, thin, small, tight, etc., offers less protection. Clothes also reduce risk during activities such as work or sport. Some clothing protects from specific environmental hazards, such as insects, noxious chemicals, weather, weapons, and contact with abrasive substances. Conversely, clothing may protect the environment from the clothing wearer, as with doctors wearing medical scrubs.


Rain, snow, and wind are what class of things clothing protects the wearer from?


Clothing that is too sheer will offer less what?


What type of hazard is noxious chemicals?


What type of clothing do doctors wear to protect their surroundings?


What animal has shown extreme inventiveness in the clothing it has devised?

Humans have shown extreme inventiveness in devising clothing solutions to environmental hazards. Examples include: space suits, air conditioned clothing, armor, diving suits, swimsuits, bee-keeper gear, motorcycle leathers, high-visibility clothing, and other pieces of protective clothing. Meanwhile, the distinction between clothing and protective equipment is not always clear-cut—since clothes designed to be fashionable often have protective value and clothes designed for function often consider fashion in their design. Wearing clothes also has social implications. They cover parts of the body that social norms require to be covered, act as a form of adornment, and serve other social purposes.


What are space suits an example of a solution to?


What type of implication might a certain type of clothing have?


What value may clothing designed to be fashionable also have?


What century do dissertation on clothing first appear from?

Although dissertations on clothing and its function appear from the 19th century as colonising countries dealt with new environments, concerted scientific research into psycho-social, physiological and other functions of clothing (e.g. protective, cartage) occurred in the first half of the 20th century, with publications such as J. C. Flügel's Psychology of Clothes in 1930, and Newburgh's seminal Physiology of Heat Regulation and The Science of Clothing in 1949. By 1968, the field of environmental physiology had advanced and expanded significantly, but the science of clothing in relation to environmental physiology had changed little. While considerable research has since occurred and the knowledge-base has grown significantly, the main concepts remain unchanged, and indeed Newburgh's book is still cited by contemporary authors, including those attempting to develop thermoregulatory models of clothing development.


What year was J. C. Flügel's Psychology of Clothes published?


Whose book entitled Physiology of Heat Regulation and The Science of Clothing was published in 1949?


How much had the science of clothing in relation to environmental factors changed by 1968?


What have remained unchanged while the knowledge has grown?


What is an example of clothing that was once seen as exclusively for males?

In Western societies, skirts, dresses and high-heeled shoes are usually seen as women's clothing, while neckties are usually seen as men's clothing. Trousers were once seen as exclusively male clothing, but are nowadays worn by both genders. Male clothes are often more practical (that is, they can function well under a wide variety of situations), but a wider range of clothing styles are available for females. Males are typically allowed to bare their chests in a greater variety of public places. It is generally acceptable for a woman to wear traditionally male clothing, while the converse is unusual.


What gender's clothing is often more practical?


What can males typically bare in more places?


What would be unlikely to raise eyebrows if a woman were to wear it?


What is a common opinion about men wearing women's clothing?


Who was allowed to wear gamrents dyed with Tyrian purple in ancient Rome?

In some societies, clothing may be used to indicate rank or status. In ancient Rome, for example, only senators could wear garments dyed with Tyrian purple. In traditional Hawaiian society, only high-ranking chiefs could wear feather cloaks and palaoa, or carved whale teeth. Under the Travancore Kingdom of Kerala, (India), lower caste women had to pay a tax for the right to cover their upper body. In China, before establishment of the republic, only the emperor could wear yellow. History provides many examples of elaborate sumptuary laws that regulated what people could wear. In societies without such laws, which includes most modern societies, social status is instead signaled by the purchase of rare or luxury items that are limited by cost to those with wealth or status. In addition, peer pressure influences clothing choice.


Who was allowed to wear feather cloaks and palaoa in old school Hawaiian society?


What right were lower caste women required to pay a tax to acquire?


What country once only allowed their emperor to wear yellow?


How was the earliest clothing kept on the body?

According to archaeologists and anthropologists, the earliest clothing likely consisted of fur, leather, leaves, or grass that were draped, wrapped, or tied around the body. Knowledge of such clothing remains inferential, since clothing materials deteriorate quickly compared to stone, bone, shell and metal artifacts. Archeologists have identified very early sewing needles of bone and ivory from about 30,000 BC, found near Kostenki, Russia in 1988. Dyed flax fibers that could have been used in clothing have been found in a prehistoric cave in the Republic of Georgia that date back to 36,000 BP.


What does clothing materials do more quickly compared to stone and bone?


Who has identified needles from about 30,000 B.C.?


Where have flax fibers which may have been used in clothing found?


What group of people debate when humans stated wearing clothes?

Scientists are still debating when people started wearing clothes. Ralf Kittler, Manfred Kayser and Mark Stoneking, anthropologists at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, have conducted a genetic analysis of human body lice that suggests clothing originated quite recently, around 170,000 years ago. Body lice is an indicator of clothes-wearing, since most humans have sparse body hair, and lice thus require human clothing to survive. Their research suggests the invention of clothing may have coincided with the northward migration of modern Homo sapiens away from the warm climate of Africa, thought to have begun between 50,000 and 100,000 years ago. However, a second group of researchers using similar genetic methods estimate that clothing originated around 540,000 years ago (Reed et al. 2004. PLoS Biology 2(11): e340). For now, the date of the origin of clothing remains unresolved.[citation needed]


What type of analysis has been conducted on human body lice?


What do lice require human clothing to do?


What may have the invention of clothing happened with?


What about the origin of clothing remains unanswered?


Various cultures have come up with ways of making clothes from what?

Different cultures have evolved various ways of creating clothes out of cloth. One approach simply involves draping the cloth. Many people wore, and still wear, garments consisting of rectangles of cloth wrapped to fit – for example, the dhoti for men and the sari for women in the Indian subcontinent, the Scottish kilt or the Javanese sarong. The clothes may simply be tied up, as is the case of the first two garments; or pins or belts hold the garments in place, as in the case of the latter two. The precious cloth remains uncut, and people of various sizes or the same person at different sizes can wear the garment.


Many people still wear clothes that are what shape?


What precious material may remain uncut?


What had somewhat became an international style by the early 21st century?

By the early years of the 21st century, western clothing styles had, to some extent, become international styles. This process began hundreds of years earlier, during the periods of European colonialism. The process of cultural dissemination has perpetuated over the centuries as Western media corporations have penetrated markets throughout the world, spreading Western culture and styles. Fast fashion clothing has also become a global phenomenon. These garments are less expensive, mass-produced Western clothing. Donated used clothing from Western countries are also delivered to people in poor countries by charity organizations.


Cultural dissemination has continued over the what?


What have Western corporations penetrated?


Who has been spreading Western culture and styles?


Who donates discard Western clothing to people in poor places?


Safety reasons may be why someone wears this type of clothing.

Most sports and physical activities are practiced wearing special clothing, for practical, comfort or safety reasons. Common sportswear garments include shorts, T-shirts, tennis shirts, leotards, tracksuits, and trainers. Specialized garments include wet suits (for swimming, diving or surfing), salopettes (for skiing) and leotards (for gymnastics). Also, spandex materials are often used as base layers to soak up sweat. Spandex is also preferable for active sports that require form fitting garments, such as volleyball, wrestling, track & field, dance, gymnastics and swimming.


Leotards are an example of what type of garment?


What's an example of a form fitting garment?


What type of sport is wrestling considered?


Changes keep happening because new cultural stuff meets these type of innovations.

The world of clothing is always changing, as new cultural influences meet technological innovations. Researchers in scientific labs have been developing prototypes for fabrics that can serve functional purposes well beyond their traditional roles, for example, clothes that can automatically adjust their temperature, repel bullets, project images, and generate electricity. Some practical advances already available to consumers are bullet-resistant garments made with kevlar and stain-resistant fabrics that are coated with chemical mixtures that reduce the absorption of liquids.


What have researchers in science labs been making?


What elementary force can some specialized fabrics generate?


What can garments made with kevlar resist?


Stain-resistant fabrics are coated with chemicals to reduce what?


What type of conditions do many garment works endure?

Though mechanization transformed most aspects of human industry by the mid-20th century, garment workers have continued to labor under challenging conditions that demand repetitive manual labor. Mass-produced clothing is often made in what are considered by some to be sweatshops, typified by long work hours, lack of benefits, and lack of worker representation. While most examples of such conditions are found in developing countries, clothes made in industrialized nations may also be manufactured similarly, often staffed by undocumented immigrants.[citation needed]


What type of clothing is frequently the product of sweatshops?


What is a feature of sweatshops beyond lack of benefits and representation?


Poor conditions found in developing countries may also be found in what type of nations?


What type of immigrant often staff sweatshops?


The abolishing of the MFA made what possible?

Outsourcing production to low wage countries like Bangladesh, China, India and Sri Lanka became possible when the Multi Fibre Agreement (MFA) was abolished. The MFA, which placed quotas on textiles imports, was deemed a protectionist measure.[citation needed] Globalization is often quoted as the single most contributing factor to the poor working conditions of garment workers. Although many countries recognize treaties like the International Labor Organization, which attempt to set standards for worker safety and rights, many countries have made exceptions to certain parts of the treaties or failed to thoroughly enforce them. India for example has not ratified sections 87 and 92 of the treaty.[citation needed]


What is often identified as the reason for less than ideal working conditions for garment workers?


What treaty tries to set standards for worker safety and rights?


What country has failed to ratify sections 87 and 92 of the ILO?


What have humans used for clothing since prehistoric times?

The use of animal fur in clothing dates to prehistoric times. It is currently associated in developed countries with expensive, designer clothing, although fur is still used by indigenous people in arctic zones and higher elevations for its warmth and protection. Once uncontroversial, it has recently been the focus of campaigns on the grounds that campaigners consider it cruel and unnecessary. PETA, along with other animal rights and animal liberation groups have called attention to fur farming and other practices they consider cruel.


Indigenous people in what zones use fur for warmth and protection?


Using animal fur as clothing was once considered what?


Who considers animal fur to be cruel and unnecessary?


What's the four letter name of an animal liberation group?


Many kinds of clothing are designed to be ironed before they are worn to remove wrinkles. Most modern formal and semi-formal clothing is in this category (for example, dress shirts and suits). Ironed clothes are believed to look clean, fresh, and neat. Much contemporary casual clothing is made of knit materials that do not readily wrinkle, and do not require ironing. Some clothing is permanent press, having been treated with a coating (such as polytetrafluoroethylene) that suppresses wrinkles and creates a smooth appearance without ironing.


What type of clothing is believed to look neat, fresh and clean?


Permanent press materials have been treated with what?


What does polytetrafluoroethylene suppress?


A resin used for making non-wrinkle shirts releases formaldehyde, which could cause contact dermatitis for some people; no disclosure requirements exist, and in 2008 the U.S. Government Accountability Office tested formaldehyde in clothing and found that generally the highest levels were in non-wrinkle shirts and pants. In 1999, a study of the effect of washing on the formaldehyde levels found that after 6 months after washing, 7 of 27 shirts had levels in excess of 75 ppm, which is a safe limit for direct skin exposure.


What can cause contact dermatitis for some people?