What is a term for the Church of England and churches that align with it?

Other churches in the Anglican Communion around the world (e.g., the Episcopal Church in the United States, and the Anglican Church of Canada) still function under their own private systems of canon law.


What is an example of a member of the Anglican Communion in America?


What is an example of a member of the Anglican Communion in Canada?


What do extant churches of the Anglican Communion still operate with?


As of 2004, what do all Anglican Communion Churches share?

Currently, (2004), there are principles of canon law common to the churches within the Anglican Communion; their existence can be factually established; each province or church contributes through its own legal system to the principles of canon law common within the Communion; these principles have a strong persuasive authority and are fundamental to the self-understanding of each of the churches of the Communion; these principles have a living force, and contain in themselves the possibility of further development; and the existence of these principles both demonstrates unity and promotes unity within the Anglican Communion.


What term characterizes the way in which the existence of canon principles can be shown?


Through what does each member of the Anglican Communion make a contribution to Church law?


What kind of force could the canonical principles be said to have within the Communion?


What does having common principles show and support for churches int he Communion?


What are two other possible terms for canon law among some denominations?

In Presbyterian and Reformed churches, canon law is known as "practice and procedure" or "church order", and includes the church's laws respecting its government, discipline, legal practice and worship.


In what types of institutions are canon rules called "practice and procedure"?


What aspect of management is covered by church order?


What aspect of decorum is covered by practice and procedure?


What aspect of faith is covered by canon law?


What group took issue with the Roman canons?

Roman canon law had been criticized by the Presbyterians as early as 1572 in the Admonition to Parliament. The protest centered on the standard defense that canon law could be retained so long as it did not contradict the civil law. According to Polly Ha, the Reformed Church Government refuted this claiming that the bishops had been enforcing canon law for 1500 years.


In what year was there documented criticism of Roman church law by Presbyterians?


To whom did Presbyterians complain in 1572?


For how long did the Reformed Church state that canon had been administered by members of the church?


Which church officials were responsible for the administration of canon law?


What is a fundamental collection of documents of the Lutherans?

The Book of Concord is the historic doctrinal statement of the Lutheran Church, consisting of ten credal documents recognized as authoritative in Lutheranism since the 16th century. However, the Book of Concord is a confessional document (stating orthodox belief) rather than a book of ecclesiastical rules or discipline, like canon law. Each Lutheran national church establishes its own system of church order and discipline, though these are referred to as "canons."


Beginning in what century was the Book of Concord a central part of the Lutheran Church?


What kind of statement is the Book of Concord?


What are the legislative systems of various Lutheran institutions called?


What kind of belief is the subject of the Book of Concord?


How many official radio and television networks does the government of Somalia operate?

Communications in Somalia encompasses the communications services and capacity of Somalia. Telecommunications, internet, radio, print, television and postal services in the nation are largely concentrated in the private sector. Several of the telecom firms have begun expanding their activities abroad. The Federal government operates two official radio and television networks, which exist alongside a number of private and foreign stations. Print media in the country is also progressively giving way to news radio stations and online portals, as internet connectivity and access increases. Additionally, the national postal service is slated to be officially relaunched in 2013 after a long absence. In 2012, a National Communications Act was also approved by Cabinet members, which lays the foundation for the establishment of a National Communications regulator in the broadcasting and telecommunications sectors.


Are communication services in Somalia mainly located in the public or private sector?


As internet access increases, news media and online portals replace what form of media?


What year was the national postal service of Somalia relaunched?


In 2012, what act was approved to establish a National Communications regulator?


Are communications services in Somalia mostly concentrated in the public or private sector?


Communications in Somalia are mostly concentrated in what sector?


How many official rado iand TV networks does the governemt of Somalia run?


What type of media decreases and internet connectivity increases?


What types of media increases as internet connectivity and access increases?


What year is the postal service in Somalia set to relaunch?


Who funded the new telecommunications firms in Somalia?

After the start of the civil war, various new telecommunications companies began to spring up in the country and competed to provide missing infrastructure. Somalia now offers some of the most technologically advanced and competitively priced telecommunications and internet services in the world. Funded by Somali entrepreneurs and backed by expertise from China, Korea and Europe, these nascent telecommunications firms offer affordable mobile phone and internet services that are not available in many other parts of the continent. Customers can conduct money transfers (such as through the popular Dahabshiil) and other banking activities via mobile phones, as well as easily gain wireless Internet access.


China, Korea, and Europe lent what to the creation of the new firms.


What do the new telecommunications firms in Somalia offer that is not available in many other parts of the continent?


Money transfers and wireless internet are two things that customers can now accomplish via what?


When the civil war began, many telecomunications companies were created to provide missing what?


Sprint, ITT, and Telenor are examples of what?

After forming partnerships with multinational corporations such as Sprint, ITT and Telenor, these firms now offer the cheapest and clearest phone calls in Africa. These Somali telecommunication companies also provide services to every city, town and hamlet in Somalia. There are presently around 25 mainlines per 1,000 persons, and the local availability of telephone lines (tele-density) is higher than in neighboring countries; three times greater than in adjacent Ethiopia. Prominent Somali telecommunications companies include Somtel Network, Golis Telecom Group, Hormuud Telecom, Somafone, Nationlink, Netco, Telcom and Somali Telecom Group. Hormuud Telecom alone grosses about $40 million a year. Despite their rivalry, several of these companies signed an interconnectivity deal in 2005 that allows them to set prices, maintain and expand their networks, and ensure that competition does not get out of control.


Who provides service to every City, town, and hamlet in Somalia?


aproximately how many main lines are there per 1000 people?


what is another word for availability of telephone lines?


How much does Hormuud Telecom gross per year?


What year did Dahabhiil acquire the majority of Somtal network?

In 2008, Dahabshiil Group acquired a majority stake in Somtel Network, a Hargeisa-based telecommunications firm specialising in high speed broadband, mobile internet, LTE services, mobile money transfer and mobile phone services. The acquisition provided Dahabshiil with the necessary platform for a subsequent expansion into mobile banking, a growth industry in the regional banking sector. In 2014, Somalia's three largest telecommunication operators, Hormuud Telecom, NationLink and Somtel, also signed an interconnection agreement. The cooperative deal will see the firms establish the Somali Telecommunication Company (STC), which will allow their mobile clients to communicate across the three networks.


Buying Somtal Network allowed Dahabshiil to expand into what type of banking?


The STC allows its customers to communicate across how many networks?


Investing in what Industry is a sign that Somalia's economy is continuing to improve?

Investment in the telecom industry is held to be one of the clearest signs that Somalia's economy has continued to develop. The sector provides key communication services, and in the process facilitates job creation and income generation.


What sector provides key communication services?


What year was the national Communications act enacted?

On March 22, 2012, the Somali Cabinet unanimously approved the National Communications Act, which paves the way for the establishment of a National Communications regulator in the broadcasting and telecommunications sectors. The bill was passed following consultations between government representatives and communications, academic and civil society stakeholders. According to the Ministry of Information, Posts and Telecommunication, the Act is expected to create an environment conducive to investment and the certainty it provides will encourage further infrastructural development, resulting in more efficient service delivery.


What Act clears the way for a National Communications Regulator?


What types of stakeholders consulted on the bill to enact the National Communications Act?


The National Communications Act is expected to create and invironment favorable for what?


Continued infrastructure development results in more efficient what?


What is the name of the Somali postal service?

The Somali Postal Service (Somali Post) is the national postal service of the Federal Government of Somalia. It is part of the Ministry of Information, Posts and Telecommunication.


What is the name of the National postal service of Somalia?


When was the infrastructure of the postal service destroyed?

The national postal infrastructure was completely destroyed during the civil war. In order to fill the vacuum, Somali Post signed an agreement in 2003 with the United Arab Emirates' Emirates Post to process mail to and from Somalia. Emirates Post's mail transit hub at the Dubai International Airport was then used to forward mail from Somalia to the UAE and various Western destinations, including Italy, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Sweden, Switzerland and Canada.


What airport is home to the Emirates post mail hub?


How many phases made up the reconstruction plan for the Somali Post?

Concurrently, the Somali Transitional Federal Government began preparations to revive the national postal service. The government's overall reconstruction plan for Somali Post is structured into three Phases spread out over a period of ten years. Phase I will see the reconstruction of the postal headquarters and General Post Office (GPO), as well as the establishment of 16 branch offices in the capital and 17 in regional bases. As of March 2012, the Somali authorities have re-established Somalia's membership with the Universal Postal Union (UPU), and taken part once again in the Union's affairs. They have also rehabilitated the GPO in Mogadishu, and appointed an official Postal Consultant to provide professional advice on the renovations. Phase II of the rehabilitation project involves the construction of 718 postal outlets from 2014 to 2016. Phase III is slated to begin in 2017, with the objective of creating 897 postal outlets by 2022.


Over what period of time did the reconstruction plan for the Somali Post cover?


How many branch offices will be constructed in the capital in phase one of the reconstruction plan?


How many branch offices will be creted in general bases?


What year did Somali authorities rejoin the Universal Postal Union?


What year did postal service in Somalia resume?

On 1 November 2013, international postal services for Somalia officially resumed. The Universal Postal Union is now assisting the Somali Postal Service to develop its capacity, including providing technical assistance and basic mail processing equipment.


Who is helping the Somali Postal service reach its capacity?


What type of assistance does the postal union provide?


What type of equipment does the postal union provide?


There are a number of radio news agencies based in Somalia. Established during the colonial period, Radio Mogadishu initially broadcast news items in both Somali and Italian. The station was modernized with Russian assistance following independence in 1960, and began offering home service in Somali, Amharic and Oromo. After closing down operations in the early 1990s due to the civil war, the station was officially re-opened in the early 2000s by the Transitional National Government. In the late 2000s, Radio Mogadishu also launched a complementary website of the same name, with news items in Somali, Arabic and English.


What languages di Radio Mogadishu originally broadcast in?


What countrys assistance helped Radio Mogadishu modernize?


What type of services were offered in Somali, Amharic, and Oromo?


Mustaqbal Media Corporation is based where?

Other radio stations based in Mogadishu include Mustaqbal Media corporation and the Shabelle Media Network, the latter of which was in 2010 awarded the Media of the Year prize by the Paris-based journalism organisation, Reporters Without Borders (RSF). In total, about one short-wave and ten private FM radio stations broadcast from the capital, with several radio stations broadcasting from the central and southern regions.


In what year was Shabelle Media network awarded the media of the year prize?


How many short wave radio stations broadcast from the capital?


About how many private radio stations does the region of Puntland have?

The northeastern Puntland region has around six private radio stations, including Radio Garowe, Radio Daljir, Radio Codka-Nabbada and Radio Codka-Mudug. Radio Gaalkacyo, formerly known as Radio Free Somalia, operates from Galkayo in the north-central Mudug province. Additionally, the Somaliland region in the northwest has one government-operated radio station.


What is the former name of Radio Gaalkacyo?


Where does RAdio Gaalkacyo operate from?


How many government operated radio stations exist in the Somaliland region?


What TV station is the main public service broadcaster in Somalia?

The Mogadishu-based Somali National Television is the principal national public service broadcaster. On March 18, 2011, the Ministry of Information of the Transitional Federal Government began experimental broadcasts of the new TV channel. After a 20-year hiatus, the station was shortly thereafter officially re-launched on April 4, 2011. SNTV broadcasts 24 hours a day, and can be viewed both within Somalia and abroad via terrestrial and satellite platforms.


Where is Somali National Television located?


What year did experimental broadcasts of Somali National Television begin?


When was Somali Nation Television officially re-launched?


Howmany hours a day does SNTV broadcast?


Horn Cable Television and Universal TV are examples of what?

Additionally, Somalia has several private television networks, including Horn Cable Television and Universal TV. Two such TV stations re-broadcast Al-Jazeera and CNN. Eastern Television Network and SBC TV air from Bosaso, the commercial capital of Puntland. The Puntland and Somaliland regions also each have one government-run TV channel, Puntland TV and Radio and Somaliland National TV, respectively.


What type of Tv startions replay AL=jazeera and CNN?


What is the commercial capital of Puntland?


Howmany governemnt run channels do Puntland and Somaliland regions have?


Where was The Mogadishu Times published?

In the early 2000s, print media in Somalia reached a peak in activity. Around 50 newspapers were published in Mogadishu alone during this period, including Qaran, Mogadishu Times, Sana'a, Shabelle Press, Ayaamaha, Mandeeq, Sky Sport, Goal, The Nation, Dalka, Panorama, Aayaha Nolosha, Codka Xuriyada and Xidigta Maanta. In 2003, as new free electronic media outlets started to proliferate, advertisers increasingly began switching over from print ads to radio and online commercials in order to reach more customers. A number of the broadsheets in circulation subsequently closed down operations, as they were no longer able to cover printing costs in the face of the electronic revolution. In 2012, the political Xog Doon and Xog Ogaal and Horyaal Sports were reportedly the last remaining newspapers printed in the capital. According to Issa Farah, a former editor with the Dalka broadsheet, newspaper publishing in Somalia is likely to experience a resurgence if the National Somali Printing Press is re-opened and the sector is given adequate public support.


What year did free media outlets begin to expand?


Advertisers switched from print ads to what to reach more customers?


Whos is a former editor with The Delka Broadsheet?


According to the Centre for Law and Democracy (CLD) and the African Union/United Nations Information Support Team (IST), Somalia did not have systemic internet blocking or filtering as of December 2012. The application of content standards online was also unclear.


As of December 2012, Somalia did not have systematic what?


What internet standards were also unlear as of December, 2012?


What years was the first ISP established in Somalia?

Somalia established its first ISP in 1999, one of the last countries in Africa to get connected to the Internet. According to the telecommunications resource Balancing Act, growth in internet connectivity has since then grown considerably, with around 53% of the entire nation covered as of 2009. Both internet commerce and telephony have consequently become among the quickest growing local businesses.


Somalia was one of the last countries on what continent to get connected tothe internet?


In 2009, what percent of Somalia has internet coverage?


The quickest growing local businesses in Somalia are what types of businesses?


What was the numbe rof Somali internet users in the year 2000?

According to the Somali Economic Forum, the number of internet users in Somalia rose from only 200 in the year 2000 to 106,000 users in 2011, with the percentage continuing to rise. The number of mobile subscribers is similarly expected to rise from 512,682 in 2008 to around 6.1 million by 2015.


What was the number of internet users in the year 2011?


Goes the number of internet users in Somalia continue to rise or fall?


What was the number of mobile subscribers in Somalia in 2008?


What is the estimated number of mobile subscribers in Somalia in 2015?


The Somali Telecommunication Association (STA), a watchdog organization that oversees the policy development and regulatory framework of Somalia's ICT sector, reported in 2006 that there were over half a million users of internet services within the territory. There were also 22 established ISPs and 234 cyber cafes, with an annual growth rate of 15.6%.


In 2006, who reported that there were over half a million internet users within the territory?


How many established ISP were within the territory in 2006?


How many cyber cafes were withing the territory in 2006?


As of what year were dial up, wireless , and satellite services available?

As of 2009, dial up, wireless and satellite services were available. Dial up internet services in Somalia were among the fastest growing on the continent, with an annual landline growth rate of over 12.5%. The increase in usage was largely due to innovative policy initiatives adopted by the various Somali telecom operators, including free local in-town calls, a flat rate of $10 per month for unlimited calls, a low charge of $0.005 per minute for Internet connections, and a one-time connection fee of $50. Global Internet Company, a firm jointly owned by the major Somali telecommunication networks Hormuud Telecom, Telcom Somalia and Nationlink, was the country's largest ISP. It was at the time the only provider of dial up services in Somalia's south-central regions. In the northern Puntland and Somaliland regions, online networks offered internet dial up services to their own group of subscribers. Among these firms was Golis Telecom Somalia in the northeast and Telesom in the northwest.


What was the landline growth rate of Somalia in 2009?


What was the flat rate per month for unlimited landline calls in Somalia in the year 2009?


Who was the only provider of dial up service in Somalias SouthCentral regions in 2009?


Mogadishu and Bosaso are what in Somalia?

Broadband wireless services were offered by both dial up and non-dial up ISPs in major cities, such as Mogadishu, Bosaso, Hargeisa, Galkayo and Kismayo. Pricing ranged from $150 to $300 a month for unlimited internet access, with bandwidth rates of 64 kbit/s up and down. The main patrons of these wireless services were scholastic institutions, corporations, and UN, NGO and diplomatic missions. Mogadishu had the biggest subscriber base nationwide and was also the headquarters of the largest wireless internet services, among which were Dalkom (Wanaag HK), Orbit, Unitel and Webtel.


What city in Soalia has the largest nuber of subscribers?


Where was the headquarters of the largest wireless internet services?


What wsas the satellite internet growth rate as of 2009?

As of 2009, Internet via satellite had a steady growth rate of 10% to 15% per year. It was particularly in demand in remote areas that did not have either dialup or wireless online services. The local telecommunications company Dalkom Somalia provided internet over satellite, as well as premium routes for media operators and content providers, and international voice gateway services for global carriers. It also offered inexpensive bandwidth through its internet backbone, whereas bandwidth ordinarily cost customers from $2,500 to $3,000 per month through the major international bandwidth providers. The main clients of these local satellite services were internet cafes, money transfer firms and other companies, as well as international community representatives. In total, there were over 300 local satellite terminals available aross the nation, which were linked to teleports in Europe and Asia. Demand for the satellite services gradually began to fall as broadband wireless access rose. However, it increased in rural areas, as the main client base for the satellite services extended their operations into more remote locales.


Dalkom Somalia provided internet over what?


Who were one of the main clients of the local satellite service providers?


As broadband access rose, what happened to the demand for satellite services?


Hormuud Telecom launched what service in 2012?

In December 2012, Hormuud Telecom launched its Tri-Band 3G service for internet and mobile clients. The first of its kind in the country, this third generation mobile telecommunications technology offers users a faster and more secure connection.


what type of connection was the first of its kind in Somalia?


What type of connection does Tri-Band 3G offer its customers?


What year did Somalia receive its first fiber optic connection?

In November 2013, Somalia received its first fiber optic connection. The country previously had to rely on expensive satellite links due to the civil conflict, which limited internet usage. However, residents now have access to broadband internet cable for the first time after an agreement reached between Hormuud Telecom and Liquid Telecom. The deal will see Liquid Telecom link Hormuud to its 17,000 km (10,500 mile) network of terrestrial cables, which will deliver faster internet capacity. The fiber optic connection will also make online access more affordable to the average user. This in turn is expected to further increase the number of internet users. Dalkom Somalia reached a similar agreement with the West Indian Ocean Cable Company (WIOCC) Ltd, which it holds shares in. Effective the first quarter of 2014, the deal will establish fiber optic connectivity to and from Somalia via the EASSy cable. The new services are expected to reduce the cost of international bandwidth and to better optimize performance, thereby further broadening internet access. Dalkom Somalia is concurrently constructing a 1,000 square mile state-of-the-art data center in Mogadishu. The site will facilitate direct connection into the international fiber optic network by hosting equipment for all of the capital's ISPs and telecommunication companies.


in 2013, an agreement between Hormuud Telecom and Liquid Telecom provided residents access to what type of cable provider?


How many miles long is Liquid Telecoms Network?


How will the fiber optic connection impact the price for online access for the average user?


Where is Dalcom Somalia currently building a 1000 square mile data center?


Catalan (/ˈkætəlæn/; autonym: català [kətəˈla] or [kataˈla]) is a Romance language named for its origins in Catalonia, in what is northeastern Spain and adjoining parts of France. It is the national and only official language of Andorra, and a co-official language of the Spanish autonomous communities of Catalonia, the Balearic Islands, and Valencia (where the language is known as Valencian, and there exist regional standards). It also has semi-official status in the city of Alghero on the Italian island of Sardinia. It is also spoken with no official recognition in parts of the Spanish autonomous communities of Aragon (La Franja) and Murcia (Carche), and in the historic French region of Roussillon/Northern Catalonia, roughly equivalent to the department of Pyrénées-Orientales.


Where is Catalan the only official language?


What is the second most often spoken language is Catalonia?

According to the Statistical Institute of Catalonia in 2008 the Catalan language is the second most commonly used in Catalonia, after Spanish, as a native or self-defining language. The Generalitat of Catalunya spends part of its annual budget on the promotion of the use of Catalan in Catalonia and in other territories.


What is the most used language in Catalonia?


What is the type designation of Catalan in Catalonia?


What group spends money to promote the language?


Catalan evolved from Vulgar Latin around the eastern Pyrenees in the 9th century. During the Low Middle Ages it saw a golden age as the literary and dominant language of the Crown of Aragon, and was widely used all over the Mediterranean. The union of Aragon with the other territories of Spain in 1479 marked the start of the decline of the language. In 1659 Spain ceded Northern Catalonia to France, and Catalan was banned in both states in the early 18th century. 19th-century Spain saw a Catalan literary revival, which culminated in the 1913 orthographic standardization, and the officialization of the language during the Second Spanish Republic (1931–39). However, the Francoist dictatorship (1939–75) banned the language again.


When did Catalan develop in the Eastern Pyrenees?


When was Catalan's Golden Age as a dominant language?


What year started the decline of Catalan as a main language?


Since the Spanish transition to democracy (1975–1982), Catalan has been recognized as an official language, language of education, and language of mass media, all of which have contributed to its increased prestige. There is no parallel in Europe of such a large, bilingual, non-state speech community.


What has this official language state done for Catalan?


Where is there nothing like this non-state speech community?


Besides being the official language and language of education, what other group uses Catalan?


What is the division of Catalan dialects?

Catalan dialects are relatively uniform, and are mutually intelligible. They are divided into two blocks, Eastern and Western, differing mostly in pronunciation. The terms "Catalan" and "Valencian" (respectively used in Catalonia and the Valencian Community) are two different varieties of the same language. There are two institutions regulating the two standard varieties, the Institute of Catalan Studies in Catalonia and the Valencian Academy of the Language in Valencia.


What is the basic difference between the dialects?


What is the differenctiation between Catalan and Valencian?


What are Catalan and Valencian assumed to be?


What are Catalan and Valencian considered to be in the language?


What does Catalan have in common with other Romance languages in the same area?

Catalan shares many traits with its neighboring Romance languages. However, despite being mostly situated in the Iberian Peninsula, Catalan differs more from Iberian Romance (such as Spanish and Portuguese) in terms of vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar than from Gallo-Romance (Occitan, French, Gallo-Italic languages, etc.). These similarities are most notable with Occitan.


What other Iberian Romance languages are found in this area?


Besides vocabulary and grammar, what other diffinence is there from other similar area languages?


What are these similar Latin derived languages called?


Catalan has an inflectional grammar, with two genders (masculine, feminine), and two numbers (singular, plural). Pronouns are also inflected for case, animacy[citation needed] and politeness, and can be combined in very complex ways. Verbs are split in several paradigms and are inflected for person, number, tense, aspect, mood, and gender. In terms of pronunciation, Catalan has many words ending in a wide variety of consonants and some consonant clusters, in contrast with many other Romance languages.


What style of grammar does Catalan have?


What is used in Catalan as word endings that is different from other similar Romance languages?


The word Catalan derives from the territory of Catalonia, itself of disputed etymology. The main theory suggests that Catalunya (Latin Gathia Launia) derives from the name Gothia or Gauthia ("Land of the Goths"), since the origins of the Catalan counts, lords and people were found in the March of Gothia, whence Gothland > Gothlandia > Gothalania > Catalonia theoretically derived.


What is the root word from which Catalonia comes?


When did the reference Catelaner first appear?

In English, the term referring to a person first appears in the mid 14th century as Catelaner, followed in the 15th century as Catellain (from French). It is attested a language name since at least 1652. Catalan can be pronounced as /ˈkætəlæn/, /kætəˈlæn/ or /ˈkætələn/.


What is a Catalan person called in the 15th century?


What language is the source of the term Catellain?


What is the language source of the term Catelaner?


Since what year has this term been used?


Where is Valencia used instead of Catalan?

The endonym is pronounced /kə.təˈɫa/ in the Eastern Catalan dialects, and /ka.taˈɫa/ in the Western dialects. In the Valencian Community, the term valencià (/va.len.siˈa/) is frequently used instead. The names "Catalan" and "Valencian" are two names for the same language. See also status of Valencian below.


What are Catalan and Valencian the names for?


What affect does different pronunciations in the two areas of Catalan speakers produce?


By the 9th century, Catalan had evolved from Vulgar Latin on both sides of the eastern end of the Pyrenees, as well as the territories of the Roman province of Hispania Tarraconensis to the south. From the 8th century onwards the Catalan counts extended their territory southwards and westwards at the expense of the Muslims, bringing their language with them. This process was given definitive impetus with the separation of the County of Barcelona from the Carolingian Empire in 988.


When had Catalan covered the eastern end of the Pyrenees?


Besides the Pyrenees, what area had Catalan covered by the 9th century?


Who broadened their territory and the use of Catalan in the 8th century?


When did the County of Barcelona separate from the Carolengian Empire?


When did macaronic Latin start showing signs of Catalan?

In the 11th century, documents written in macaronic Latin begin to show Catalan elements, with texts written almost completely in Romance appearing by 1080. Old Catalan shared many features with Gallo-Romance, diverging from Old Occitan between the 11th and 14th centuries.


When did texts begin to appear solely in Romance?


To what language did Catalan display similarities?


What Gallo-Romance language did Old Catalan separate from?


When did Catalan rulers broaden their territory to north of the Ebro River?

During the 11th and 12th centuries the Catalan rulers expanded up to north of the Ebro river, and in the 13th century they conquered the Land of Valencia and the Balearic Islands. The city of Alghero in Sardinia was repopulated with Catalan speakers in the 14th century. The language also reached Murcia, which became Spanish-speaking in the 15th century.


When did the Catalan rulers take over Valencia and the Balearic Islands?


Where did the Catalan language reach in the 15th century?


When did Murcia become Spanish speaking?


In the Low Middle Ages, Catalan went through a golden age, reaching a peak of maturity and cultural richness. Examples include the work of Majorcan polymath Ramon Llull (1232–1315), the Four Great Chronicles (13th–14th centuries), and the Valencian school of poetry culminating in Ausiàs March (1397–1459). By the 15th century, the city of Valencia had become the sociocultural center of the Crown of Aragon, and Catalan was present all over the Mediterranean world. During this period, the Royal Chancery propagated a highly standardized language. Catalan was widely used as an official language in Sicily until the 15th century, and in Sardinia until the 17th. During this period, the language was what Costa Carreras terms "one of the 'great languages' of medieval Europe".


Where was the center of the Crown of Aragon?


What was the official language of Sicily until the 15th century?


Until what century was Catalan used as the official language in Sardinia?


Who called Catalan one of the great languages?


Martorell's outstanding novel of chivalry Tirant lo Blanc (1490) shows a transition from Medieval to Renaissance values, something that can also be seen in Metge's work. The first book produced with movable type in the Iberian Peninsula was printed in Catalan.


To what does Matorell's work show a transition?


What other writer showed a transition to the Renaissance?


In what was the first Catalan book printed on the Iberian Peninsula?


With the union of the crowns of Castille and Aragon (1479), the use of Spanish gradually became more prestigious. Starting in the 16th century, Catalan literature experienced a decline, the language came under the influence of Spanish, and the urban and literary classes became bilingual.


After 1479, what language became more valued?


When did Catalan literature begin a downward trend?


What language began to supersede Catalan?


At this time what classes became bilingual?


With the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659), Spain ceded the northern part of Catalonia to France, and soon thereafter the local Catalan varieties came under the influence of French, which in 1700 became the sole official language of the region.


What part of Catalonia did Spain give to France?


Why did Spain give part of Catalonia to France?


What language began to influence Catalan?


When did French become the official language of that part of Catalonia?


Shortly after the French Revolution (1789), the French First Republic prohibited official use of, and enacted discriminating policies against, the nonstandard languages of France (patois), such as Catalan, Alsatian, Breton, Occitan, Flemish, and Basque.


What upheaval had occurred in France just before the prohibition of patois?


Besides Catalan, Alsatian, and Breton, what other patois were banned?


What are French non standard languages called?


Following the French capture of Algeria (1833), that region saw several waves of Catalan-speaking settlers. People from the Spanish Alacant province settled around Oran, whereas Algiers received immigration from Northern Catalonia and Minorca. Their speech was known as patuet. By 1911, the number of Catalan speakers was around 100,000. After the declaration of independence of Algeria in 1962, almost all the Catalan speakers fled to Northern Catalonia (as Pieds-Noirs) or Alacant.


Where did the Algiers immigrants come from?


What was the Catalan immigrant's speech called?


How many Catalan speakers lived in Algiers by 1911?


When did most Catalan speakers leave northern Catalonia?


What is the official language of France?

Nowadays, France only recognizes French as an official language. Nevertheless, on 10 December 2007, the General Council of the Pyrénées-Orientales officially recognized Catalan as one of the languages of the department and seeks to further promote it in public life and education.


Where does the General Council want to promote Catalan?


Who recognized Catalan as a departmental language?


What language does the General Council want to promote?


What declined in the 16th and 17th centuries?

The decline of Catalan continued in the 16th and 17th centuries. The Catalan defeat in the War of Spanish Succession (1714) initiated a series of measures imposing the use of Spanish in legal documentation.


What did the war in 1714 mandate as the proper language in documentation?


Who was defeated in the War of Spanish Succession?


What did the 19th century produce in Catalan literature?

In parallel, however, the 19th century saw a Catalan literary revival (Renaixença), which has continued up to the present day. This period starts with Aribau's Ode to the Homeland (1833); followed in the second half of the 19th century, and the early 20th by the work of Verdaguer (poetry), Oller (realist novel), and Guimerà (drama).


When did Aribau write Ode to the Homeland?


In what century did Vedaguer, Oller, and Guimera wrte?


Since the transition what language has been proclaimed mandatory in schools?

Since the Spanish transition to democracy (1975–1982), Catalan has been institutionalizated as an official language, language of education, and language of mass media; all of which have contributed to its increased prestige. In Catalonia, there is no parallel of a large, bilingual, European, non-state speech community. The teaching of Catalan is mandatory in all schools, but it is possible to use Spanish for studying in the public education system of Catalonia in two situations, if the teacher assigned to a class chooses to use Spanish, or during the learning process of one or some recently arrived students. There is also some intergenerational shift towards Catalan.


Where is the teaching of Catalan mandatory?


Since the transition, what is the official language?


Besides as an official and an educational language, where else is Catalan the prefered language?


Where has Catalan always been the only language?

In Andorra, Catalan has always been the sole official language. Since the promulgation of the 1993 constitution, several Andorranization policies have been enforced, like Catalan medium education.


When was the Andorran constitution produced?


What policies are the Andorrans enforcing?


What kind of shifts are taking place in Catalan speaking areas?

On the other hand, there are several language shift processes currently taking place. In Northern Catalonia, Catalan has followed the same trend as the other minority languages of France, with most of its native speakers being 60 or older (as of 2004). Catalan is studied as a foreign language by 30% of the primary education students, and by 15% of the secondary. The cultural association La Bressola promotes a network of community-run schools engaged in Catalan language immersion programs.


How old are most of the native language speakers in northern Catalonia?


When was it determined that most native speakers in France are 60 or older?


What percentage of primary students study Catalan as a foreign language?


What do 15% of secondary school students study as a foreign language?


What is Catalan being supplanted by in Alicante?

In the Alicante province Catalan is being replaced by Spanish, and in Alghero by Italian. There are also well ingrained diglossic attitudes against Catalan in the Valencian Community, Ibiza, and to a lesser extent, in the rest of the Balearic islands.


What is Catalan being replaced by in Alghero?


What are the anti-Catalan attitudes in Valencia and Ibiza?


What is another expression for bilingual attitudes?


What is Spanish replacing in Alicante province?


To what branch of Gallo-Romance languages is Catalan attributed?

The ascription of Catalan to the Occitano-Romance branch of Gallo-Romance languages is not shared by all linguists and philologists, particularly among Spanish ones, such as Ramón Menéndez Pidal.


Who disagrees with putting Catalan in the Occitano-Romance branch?


What kind of linguists do not like placing Catalan in the Occitano-Romance category?


Catalan bears varying degrees of similarity to the linguistic varieties subsumed under the cover term Occitan language (see also differences between Occitan and Catalan and Gallo-Romance languages). Thus, as it should be expected from closely related languages, Catalan today shares many traits with other Romance languages.


What are the degrees of similarity with Occitan and Gallo-Romance languages?


What are there besides degrees of similarity with Occitan?


What does Catalan share with other Romance languages?


Why does Catalan share many traits with other Romance languages?


What does Catalan share with nearby Romance languages?

Catalan shares many traits with the other neighboring Romance languages (Italian, Sardinian, Occitan, and Spanish). However, despite being mostly situated in the Iberian Peninsula, Catalan has marked differences with the Ibero-Romance group (Spanish and Portuguese) in terms of pronunciation, grammar, and especially vocabulary; showing instead its closest affinity with Occitan and to a lesser extent Gallo-Romance (French, Franco-Provençal, Gallo-Italian).


Where is the Catalan language mostly located?


In pronunciation what is Catalan different from?


What are examples of Ibero-Romance languages?


To what group is Catalan most closely related?


What is the similarity between Catalan and Italian?

According to Ethnologue, the lexical similarity between Catalan and other Romance languages is: 87% with Italian; 85% with Portuguese; 80% with Spanish; 76% with Ladin; 75% with Sardinian; and 73% with Romanian.


What is the percent relationship of Catalan to Spanish?


What is the relationship similarity to Ladin?


During much of its history, and especially during the Francoist dictatorship (1939–1975), the Catalan language has often been degraded as a mere dialect of Spanish. This view, based on political and ideological considerations, has no linguistic validity. Spanish and Catalan have important differences in their sound systems, lexicon, and grammatical features, placing the language in a number of respects closer to Occitan (and French).


During what dictatorship was Catalan considered a dialect?


What area was Roman Tarraconensis language different from?

There is evidence that, at least from the a.d. 2nd century, the vocabulary and phonology of Roman Tarraconensis was different from the rest of Roman Hispania. Differentiation has arisen generally because Spanish, Asturian, and Galician-Portuguese share certain peripheral archaisms (Spanish hervir, Asturian/Portuguese ferver vs. Catalan bullir, Occitan bolir "to boil") and innovatory regionalisms (Sp novillo, Ast nuviellu vs. Cat torell, Oc taurèl "bullock"), while Catalan has a shared history with the Western Romance innovative core, especially Occitan.


What language branch did Catalan share a history with?


What is the origin of language elements found in Catalan and not in Spanish?

The Germanic superstrate has had different outcomes in Spanish and Catalan. For example, Catalan fang "mud" and rostir "to roast", of Germanic origin, contrast with Spanish lodo and asar, of Latin origin; whereas Catalan filosa "spinning wheel" and pols "temple", of Latin origin, contrast with Spanish rueca and sien, of Germanic origin.


What is the origin of some Spanish words?


What has different results in Spanish and Catalan?


What element in Spanish is more prominent than in Catalan?

The same happens with Arabic loanwords. Thus, Catalan alfàbia "large earthenware jar" and rajola "tile", of Arabic origin, contrast with Spanish tinaja and teja, of Latin origin; whereas Catalan oli "oil" and oliva "olive", of Latin origin, contrast with Spanish aceite and aceituna. However, the Arabic element in Spanish is generally much more prevalent.


What language loanwords are found in both Spanish and Catalan?


In which language is the Arabic element stand out more?


Where does the Catalan word alfabia come from?


What is the origin of the Spanish word teja?


What are the linguistic blocks Catalan lies between?

Situated between two large linguistic blocks (Ibero-Romance and Gallo-Romance), Catalan has many unique lexical choices, such as enyorar "to miss somebody", apaivagar "to calm down somebody", or rebutjar "reject".


What kind of linguistic choices does Catalan have?


What type of unique choices does Catalan have?


These territories are sometimes referred to as the Països Catalans (Catalan Countries), a denomination based on cultural affinity and common heritage, that has also had a subsequent political interpretation but no official status. Various interpretations of the term may include some or all of these regions.


What status does Catalan Countries have?


How is Catalan different from other Romance languages?

In contrast with other Romance languages, Catalan has many monosyllabic words; and those ending in a wide variety of consonants and some consonant clusters. Also, Catalan has final obstruent devoicing, thus featuring many couplets like amic "(male friend") vs. amiga ("female friend").


What other type of endings do Catalan words have?


What kind of final devoicing does the language have?


What is the standard pronunciation of Catalan?

Central Catalan is considered the standard pronunciation of the language. The descriptions below are mostly for this variety. For the differences in pronunciation of the different dialects, see the section pronunciation of dialects in this article.


Where do you look for the pronunciation of different dialects?


Where does Catalan get its vowel system?

Catalan has inherited the typical vowel system of Vulgar Latin, with seven stressed phonemes: /a ɛ e i ɔ o u/, a common feature in Western Romance, except Spanish. Balearic has also instances of stressed /ə/. Dialects differ in the different degrees of vowel reduction, and the incidence of the pair /ɛ e/.


What is the exception to this common characteristic?


How many reduced unstressed are vowels are there in Central Catalan?

In Central Catalan, unstressed vowels reduce to three: /a e ɛ/ > [ə]; /o ɔ u/ > [u]; /i/ remains distinct. The other dialects have different vowel reduction processes (see the section pronunciation of dialects in this article).


What kind of vowel processes do other dialects have?


Where do unstressed vowels reduce to three?


Where do you find dialectic vowel reductions?


What field studies the placement of Catalan in the world?

Catalan sociolinguistics studies the situation of Catalan in the world and the different varieties that this language presents. It is a subdiscipline of Catalan philology and other affine studies and has as an objective to analyse the relation between the Catalan language, the speakers and the close reality (including the one of other languages in contact).


What is the study of the differenet varieties of Catalan?


What does it want to do with the language, the speakers, and reality?


What outside affects does this study include?


What do the dialects of Catalan feature?

The dialects of the Catalan language feature a relative uniformity, especially when compared to other Romance languages; both in terms of vocabulary, semantics, syntax, morphology, and phonology. Mutual intelligibility between dialects is very high, estimates ranging from 90% to 95%. The only exception is the isolated idiosyncratic Alguerese dialect.


In comparison to what are the dialects uniform?


What is the percentage of intelligibility between dialects?


What dialect is the exception to intelligibility?


What is the major difference between the two blocks?

Catalan is split in two major dialectal blocks: Eastern Catalan, and Western Catalan. The main difference lies in the treatment of unstressed a and e; which have merged to /ə/ in Eastern dialects, but which remain distinct as /a/ and /e/ in Western dialects. There are a few other differences in pronunciation, verbal morphology, and vocabulary.


What have a and e done in eastern dialects?


What two dialects does Western Catalan include?

Western Catalan comprises the two dialects of Northwestern Catalan and Valencian; the Eastern block comprises four dialects: Central Catalan, Balearic, Rossellonese, and Alguerese. Each dialect can be further subdivided in several subdialects.


How many dialects are in the eastern group?


To what division does Central Catalan belong?


What other divisions can be made of dialects?


What block does Northwestern Catalan and Valencian belong to?


What comprises the standard pronunciation of Catalan?

Central Catalan is considered the standard pronunciation of the language and has the highest number of speakers. It is spoken in the densely populated regions of the Barcelona province, the eastern half of the province of Tarragona, and most of the province of Girona.


In what densely populated area is it spoken?


What part of the province of Tarragona is Central Catalan spoken?


Catalan has inherited the typical vowel system of Vulgar Latin, with seven stressed phonemes: /a ɛ e i ɔ o u/, a common feature in Western Romance, except Spanish. Balearic has also instances of stressed /ə/. Dialects differ in the different degrees of vowel reduction, and the incidence of the pair /ɛ e/.


How many stressed phonemes are there in Catalan?


What language form differs in the amount of vowel reduction?


Where do unstressed vowels reduce to three?

In Eastern Catalan (except Majorcan), unstressed vowels reduce to three: /a e ɛ/ > [ə]; /o ɔ u/ > [u]; /i/ remains distinct. There are a few instances of unreduced [e], [o] in some words. Alguerese has lowered [ə] to [a].


What is the exception to this reduction?


In what language do unstressed vowels reduce to four?

In Majorcan, unstressed vowels reduce to four: /a e ɛ/ follow the Eastern Catalan reduction pattern; however /o ɔ/ reduce to [o], with /u/ remaining distinct, as in Western Catalan.


What reduction pattern do some vowels follow?


What other pattern do other vowels follow?


/u/ remaining distinct is like what form of Catalan?


What do unstressed vowels reduce to in Western Catalan?

In Western Catalan, unstressed vowels reduce to five: /e ɛ/ > [e]; /o ɔ/ > [o]; /a u i/ remain distinct. This reduction pattern, inherited from Proto-Romance, is also found in Italian and Portuguese. Some Western dialects present further reduction or vowel harmony in some cases.


In what other languages is this pattern found?


What do other Western dialects sometimes offer?


What form has the same /e/ as Central and Western?

Central, Western, and Balearic differ in the lexical incidence of stressed /e/ and /ɛ/. Usually, words with /ɛ/ in Central Catalan correspond to /ə/ in Balearic and /e/ in Western Catalan. Words with /e/ in Balearic almost always have /e/ in Central and Western Catalan as well.[vague] As a result, Central Catalan has a much higher incidence of /e/.


What vowel does Central have a larger occurrence of?


What is the result of /e/ being the same in Central, Western and Belearic?


In verbs, 1st person present indicative desinence is -e (∅ in verbs of the 2nd and 3rd conjugation), or -o. E.g. parle, tem, sent (Valencian); parlo, temo, sento (Northwestern). In verbs, 1st person present indicative desinence is -o, -i or ∅ in all conjugations. E.g. parlo (Central), parl (Balearic), parli (Northern), ('I speak').


In nouns and adjectives, maintenance of /n/ of medieval plurals in proparoxytone words. E.g. hòmens 'men', jóvens 'youth'. In nouns and adjectives, loss of /n/ of medieval plurals in proparoxytone words. E.g. homes 'men', joves 'youth'.


When homens loses /n/, it becomes what word?


The medieval jovens becomes what what word?


What do the two blocks of Catalan display differences in?

Despite its relative lexical unity, the two dialectal blocks of Catalan (Eastern and Western) show some differences in word choices. Any lexical divergence within any of the two groups can be explained as an archaism. Also, usually Central Catalan acts as an innovative element.


How can you explain differences in the language groups?


Standard Catalan, virtually accepted by all speakers, is mostly based on Eastern Catalan, which is the most widely used dialect. Nevertheless, the standards of Valencia and the Balearics admit alternative forms, mostly traditional ones, which are not current in eastern Catalonia.


What language forms are not now used in eastern Catalonia?


The most notable difference between both standards is some tonic ⟨e⟩ accentuation, for instance: francès, anglès (IEC) – francés, anglés (AVL). Nevertheless, AVL's standard keeps the grave accent ⟨è⟩, without pronouncing this ⟨e⟩ as /ɛ/, in some words like: què ('what'), or València. Other divergences include the use of ⟨tl⟩ (AVL) in some words instead of ⟨tll⟩ like in ametla/ametlla ('almond'), espatla/espatlla ('back'), the use of elided demonstratives (este 'this', eixe 'that') in the same level as reinforced ones (aquest, aqueix) or the use of many verbal forms common in Valencian, and some of these common in the rest of Western Catalan too, like subjunctive mood or inchoative conjugation in -ix- at the same level as -eix- or the priority use of -e morpheme in 1st person singular in present indicative (-ar verbs): jo compre instead of jo compro ('I buy').


What forms are also common in the rest of Western Catalan?


In the Balearic Islands, IEC's standard is used but adapted for the Balearic dialect by the University of the Balearic Islands's philological section. In this way, for instance, IEC says it is correct writing cantam as much as cantem ('we sing') but the University says that the priority form in the Balearic Islands must be "cantam" in all fields. Another feature of the Balearic standard is the non-ending in the 1st person singular present indicative: jo compr ('I buy'), jo tem ('I fear'), jo dorm ('I sleep').


What is a first person singular feature of the Balearic standard?


Where has the IEC adapted its standard to the Alguerese dialect?

In Alghero, the IEC has adapted its standard to the Alguerese dialect. In this standard one can find, among other features: the definite article lo instead of el, special possessive pronouns and determinants la mia ('mine'), lo sou/la sua ('his/her'), lo tou/la tua ('yours'), and so on, the use of -v- /v/ in the imperfect tense in all conjugations: cantava, creixiva, llegiva; the use of many archaic words, usual words in Alguerese: manco instead of menys ('less'), calqui u instead of algú ('someone'), qual/quala instead of quin/quina ('which'), and so on; and the adaptation of weak pronouns.


What definite article is found rather than el?


What dialect employs many archaic words?


What type of pronouns has Alguerese adapted?


Where is the Catalan speaking part of Aragon?

In 2011, the Aragonese government passed a decree for the establishment of a new language regulator of Catalan in La Franja (the so-called Catalan-speaking areas of Aragon). The new entity, designated as Acadèmia Aragonesa del Català, shall allow a facultative education in Catalan and a standardization of the Catalan language in La Franja.


When did the government of Aragon degree the establishment of a language regulator?


What language is the regulator meant to standardize?


Where is the language to be regulated located?


Valencian is classified as a Western dialect, along with the northwestern varieties spoken in Western Catalonia (provinces of Lleida and the western half of Tarragona). The various forms of Catalan and Valencian are mutually intelligible (ranging from 90% to 95%)


What kind of Valencan is spoken in Western Catalonia?


Where are the provinces of Lleida and Tarragona?


What is the percentage of intelligibility between Catalan and Valencian?


How do linguists view Catalan and Valencian?

Linguists, including Valencian scholars, deal with Catalan and Valencian as the same language. The official regulating body of the language of the Valencian Community, the Valencian Academy of Language (Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua, AVL) declares the linguistic unity between Valencian and Catalan varieties.


How do Valencian scholars view Catalan and Valencian?


What is the official regulating body of Valencian?


Who says that there is linguistic unity between Catalan and Valencian?


The AVL, created by the Valencian parliament, is in charge of dictating the official rules governing the use of Valencian, and its standard is based on the Norms of Castelló (Normes de Castelló). Currently, everyone who writes in Valencian uses this standard, except the Royal Academy of Valencian Culture (Acadèmia de Cultura Valenciana, RACV), which uses for Valencian an independent standard.


Over what does the AVL make rules governing?


Who is exempt from the standard and uses their own?


What do most Valencian people think Valencian is in regards to Catalan?

Despite the position of the official organizations, an opinion poll carried out between 2001 and 2004 showed that the majority of the Valencian people consider Valencian different from Catalan. This position is promoted by people who do not use Valencian regularly. Furthermore, the data indicates that younger generations educated in Valencian are much less likely to hold these views. A minority of Valencian scholars active in fields other than linguistics defends the position of the Royal Academy of Valencian Culture (Acadèmia de Cultura Valenciana, RACV), which uses for Valencian a standard independent from Catalan.


When was an opinion poll done concerning Valencian?


Who is less likely to believe that Catalan and Valencian are different?


Who uses a Valencian standard separate from Catalan?


How many scholars outside of linguistics agree with the Royal Academy?


What has produced a great deal of controversy?

This clash of opinions has sparked much controversy. For example, during the drafting of the European Constitution in 2004, the Spanish government supplied the EU with translations of the text into Basque, Galician, Catalan, and Valencian, but the latter two were identical.


When did the EU create the European Constitution?


Who gave the EU translations of the European Constitution?


As what can divergence in the groups be shown?

Despite its relative lexical unity, the two dialectal blocks of Catalan (Eastern and Western) show some differences in word choices. Any lexical divergence within any of the two groups can be explained as an archaism. Also, usually Central Catalan acts as an innovative element.


How does central Catalan behave with the groups?


What are the two dialectical groups of Catalan?


What can use words from different dialects?

Literary Catalan allows the use of words from different dialects, except those of very restricted use. However, from the 19th century onwards, there is a tendency of favoring words of Northern dialects in detriment of others, even though nowadays there is a greater freedom of choice.


What kind of words are excepted from literary use?


When did the preference of use of words from northern dialects begin?


What affect did this favoring of northern dialects have on other dialects?


What kind of choice is now available in word choice?


Where does Catalan get a lot of its learned words?

Like other languages, Catalan has a large list of learned words from Greek and Latin. This process started very early, and one can find such examples in Ramon Llull's work. On the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries Catalan had a number of Greco-Latin learned words much superior to other Romance languages, as it can be attested for example in Roís de Corella's writings.


When did the process of acquiring words from Latin and Greek begin?


In whose work can you find examples of acquired words?


When did Catalan have a greater number of Greco-Latin words than other Romance languages?


Whose writings are a good example of learned words in Catalan?


The process of morphological derivation in Catalan follows the same principles as the other Romance languages, where agglutination is common. Many times, several affixes are appended to a preexisting lexeme, and some sound alternations can occur, for example elèctric [əˈlɛktrik] ("electrical") vs. electricitat [ələktrisiˈtat]. Prefixes are usually appended to verbs, for as in preveure ("foresee").


What kind of derivation in Catalan is similar to other languages?


What word additive is usually added to verbs?


What other word changes can occur in derivations?


What word supplement can be put on an already existing word base?


In gender inflection, the most notable feature is (compared to Portuguese, Spanish or Italian), the loss of the typical masculine suffix -o. Thus, the alternance of -o/-a, has been replaced by ø/-a. There are only a few exceptions, like minso/minsa ("scarce"). Many not completely predictable morphological alternations may occur, such as:


What kind of words does Catalan have few of?

Catalan has few suppletive couplets, like Italian and Spanish, and unlike French. Thus, Catalan has noi/noia ("boy"/"girl") and gall/gallina ("cock"/"hen"), whereas French has garçon/fille and coq/poule.


What languages have more couplets than Catalan?


What languages are similar to Catalan in numbers of couplets?


What language is not like Catalan in suppletive couplets?


What languages have a tendency to lose gender-invariable adjectives?

There is a tendency to abandon traditionally gender-invariable adjectives in favour of marked ones, something prevalent in Occitan and French. Thus, one can find bullent/bullenta ("boiling") in contrast with traditional bullent/bullent.


What is ab example of a gender marked adjective?


What would be the traditional form of a gender-invariable adjective?


As in the other Western Romance languages, the main plural expression is the suffix -s, which may create morphological alternations similar to the ones found in gender inflection, albeit more rarely. The most important one is the addition of -o- before certain consonant groups, a phonetic phenomenon that does not affect feminine forms: el pols/els polsos ("the pulse"/"the pulses") vs. la pols/les pols ("the dust"/"the dusts").


What can the addition of the suffix -s produce?


To what are these morphological changes similar?


What is an important plural alternation?


What does the large number of omissions make the determinatives?

The inflection of determinatives is complex, specially because of the high number of elisions, but is similar to the neighboring languages. Catalan has more contractions of preposition + article than Spanish, like dels ("of + the [plural]"), but not as many as Italian (which has sul, col, nel, etc.).


What is much like the neighboring languages?


What language does Catalan have more contractions than?


Catalan has less contractions than what language?


What type of word is added to the contraction of the preposition?


What has Central Catalan mostly abandoned?

Central Catalan has abandoned almost completely unstressed possessives (mon, etc.) in favour of constructions of article + stressed forms (el meu, etc.), a feature shared with Italian.


What other language shares this type of construction?


What is an example of an article +stressed forms?


What is an example of an unstressed possessive?


How many forms of personal pronouns are there in Catalan?

The morphology of Catalan personal pronouns is complex, specially in unstressed forms, which are numerous (13 distinct forms, compared to 11 in Spanish or 9 in Italian). Features include the gender-neutral ho and the great degree of freedom when combining different unstressed pronouns (65 combinations).


How many personal pronouns are there is Spanish?


What is the number of personal pronouns in Italian?


How many different combinations of unstressed pronouns are there?


Catalan pronouns exhibit T–V distinction, like all other Romance languages (and most European languages, but not Modern English). This feature implies the use of a different set of second person pronouns for formality.


What modern language does not have a T-Y distinction?


What does this imply the use an extra group of pronouns for?


What languages use extrapositioning in sentences less than Catalan?

This flexibility allows Catalan to use extraposition extensively, much more than French or Spanish. Thus, Catalan can have m'hi recomanaren ("they recommended me to him"), whereas in French one must say ils m'ont recommandé à lui, and Spanish me recomendaron a él. This allows the placement of almost any nominal term as a sentence topic, without having to use so often the passive voice (as in French or English), or identifying the direct object with a preposition (as in Spanish).


What languages use the passive voice more than Catalan?


What method does Spanish use to identify the object?


Like all the Romance languages, Catalan verbal inflection is more complex than the nominal. Suffixation is omnipresent, whereas morphological alternations play a secondary role. Vowel alternances are active, as well as infixation and suppletion. However, these are not as productive as in Spanish, and are mostly restricted to irregular verbs.


What system is common to Western Romance?

The Catalan verbal system is basically common to all Western Romance, except that most dialects have replaced the synthetic indicative perfect with a periphrastic form of anar ("to go") + infinitive.


What is the Catalan verbal system common to?


Catalan verbs are traditionally divided into three conjugations, with vowel themes -a-, -e-, -i-, the last two being split into two subtypes. However, this division is mostly theoretical. Only the first conjugation is nowadays productive (with about 3500 common verbs), whereas the third (the subtype of servir, with about 700 common verbs) is semiproductive. The verbs of the second conjugation are fewer than 100, and it is not possible to create new ones, except by compounding.


How many verbs are in the third conjugation?


Which conjugation has less than 100 verbs?


How many surnames does everyone in Spain have?

In Spain, every person officially has two surnames, one of which is the father's first surname and the other is the mother's first surname. The law contemplates the possibility of joining both surnames with the Catalan conjunction i ("and").


Which one of one's father's surnames is used?


What is Spain thinking of doing to the two surnames?


What conjunction would be used to join a person's surnames?


What is the official language of Estonia?

Estonian (eesti keel [ˈeːsti ˈkeːl] ( listen)) is the official language of Estonia, spoken natively by about 1.1 million people in Estonia and tens of thousands in various migrant communities. It belongs to the Finnic branch of the Uralic language family.


How many people in Estonia speak Estonian?


How many people in different migrant communities speak Estonian?


What branch of the Uralic language family does Estonian belong to?


What language family does Estonian belong to?


What country has Estonian as its official language?


In Estonia how many people speak Estonian as their native language


Of what language family is Estonian a part of?


On which branch of Uralic language family can Estonian be found?


How many estimated non native speakers of Estonian are there in Estonia?


Who is interested in the degrees of phonemic length?

One distinctive feature that has caused a great amount of interest among linguists is what is traditionally seen as three degrees of phonemic length: short, long, and "overlong", such that /sɑdɑ/, /sɑˑdɑ/ and /sɑːdɑ/ are distinct. In actuality, the distinction is not purely in the phonemic length, and the underlying phonological mechanism is still disputed.[citation needed]


What are the phonemic length's three degrees?


What is a matter of dispute among linguists regarding the distinction?


What Uralic language branch contains Estonian?

Estonian belongs to the Finnic branch of the Uralic languages, along with Finnish, Karelian, and other nearby languages. The Uralic languages do not belong to the Indo-European languages. Estonian is distantly related to Hungarian and to the Sami languages.


What are two other languages in the Finnic branch?


What language group is Estonian not a part of?


What languages are related to Estonian but not closely?


Who spoke German in what came to be known as Estonia?

Estonian has been influenced by Swedish, German (initially Middle Low German, which was the lingua franca of the Hanseatic League and spoken natively in the territories of what is today known as Estonia by a sizeable burgher community of Baltic Germans, later Estonian was also influenced by standard German), and Russian, though it is not related to them genetically.


Aside from standard German what German language influenced Estonian?


Like Finnish and Hungarian, Estonian is a somewhat agglutinative language, but unlike them, it has lost vowel harmony, the front vowels occurring exclusively on the first or stressed syllable, although in older texts the vowel harmony can still be recognized. Furthermore, the apocope of word-final sounds is extensive and has contributed to a shift from a purely agglutinative to a fusional language.[citation needed] The basic word order is subject–verb–object.


What language feature does Estonian, Finish and Hungarian share?


In what order are words put in sentences in the Estonian language?


What was the minimum number of waves through which modern Estonians migrated into Estonia?

The two different historical Estonian languages (sometimes considered dialects), the North and South Estonian languages, are based on the ancestors of modern Estonians' migration into the territory of Estonia in at least two different waves, both groups speaking considerably different Finnic vernaculars. Modern standard Estonian has evolved on the basis of the dialects of Northern Estonia.


What are the names of the two separate Estonian languages?


The domination of Estonia after the Northern Crusades, from the 13th century to 1918 by Denmark, Germany, Sweden, and Russia delayed indigenous literacy in Estonia.[citation needed]


Which countries took part in the Northern Crusades?


Following the crusades which country was dominated?


What did the aftermath of the crusades end up delaying in Estonia?


How far back do the first written records of Estonia's Finnic languages go?

The oldest written records of the Finnic languages of Estonia date from the 13th century. Originates Livoniae in Chronicle of Henry of Livonia contains Estonian place names, words and fragments of sentences.


Where can records of Estonian place names be found?


Which Chronicle contains the Originates Livoniae?


Aside from place names what else from the Estonian language can be found in the Originates Livoniae in Chronicle of Henry of Livonia?


What was the first Estonian language book to be published?

The earliest extant samples of connected (north) Estonian are the so-called Kullamaa prayers dating from 1524 and 1528. In 1525 the first book published in the Estonian language was printed. The book was a Lutheran manuscript, which never reached the reader and was destroyed immediately after publication.


What was the fate of the Lutheran manuscript printed in 1525?


At what point in its existence was the Lutheran manuscript destroyed?


What two people are responsible for the first still in existence book in the Estonian Language?

The first extant Estonian book is a bilingual German-Estonian translation of the Lutheran catechism by S. Wanradt and J. Koell dating to 1535, during the Protestant Reformation period. An Estonian grammar book to be used by priests was printed in German in 1637. The New Testament was translated into southern Estonian in 1686 (northern Estonian, 1715). The two languages were united based on northern Estonian by Anton thor Helle.


In what year was S. Wanradt and J. Koell's book written?


What book specifically for the use of priests was printed in Estonian?


What year was the priests' grammar book put into print?


Which Estonian poet's works were printed from 1810 to 1820?

The birth of native Estonian literature was in 1810 to 1820 when the patriotic and philosophical poems by Kristjan Jaak Peterson were published. Peterson, who was the first student at the then German-language University of Dorpat to acknowledge his Estonian origin, is commonly regarded as a herald of Estonian national literature and considered the founder of modern Estonian poetry. His birthday on March 14 is celebrated in Estonia as the Mother Tongue Day. A fragment from Peterson's poem "Kuu" expresses the claim reestablishing the birthright of the Estonian language:


What subjects were Kristjan Jaak Peterson poems on?


What is another name given for Peterson's birthday?


In the years between 1918 and 1940 how many Estonian language books were printed?

From 1525 to 1917 14,503 titles were published in Estonian, as opposed to the 23,868 titles which were published between 1918 and 1940.[citation needed]


In the roughly four centuries previous to 1918 how many Estonian language books were printed?


In what language were 14,503 books published prior to 1918?


What Age's ideas allowed Estonian writings to gain significance?

Writings in Estonian became significant only in the 19th century with the spread of the ideas of the Age of Enlightenment, during the Estophile Enlightenment Period (1750–1840). Although Baltic Germans at large regarded the future of Estonians as being a fusion with themselves, the Estophile educated class admired the ancient culture of the Estonians and their era of freedom before the conquests by Danes and Germans in the 13th century.


Who thought their future would be fused with Estonians?


Who had admiration for the ancient Estonian culture?


When did the ancient Estonian era of freedom come to an end?


What year did Estonia's War of Independence take place?

After the Estonian War of Independence in 1919, the Estonian language became the state language of the newly independent country. In 1945, 97.3% of Estonia considered itself ethnic Estonian and spoke the language.


After Estonia achieved independence what was made their state language?


What percentage of Estonians thought of themselves as ethnic Estonian's in 1945?


What language was spoken by ethnic Estonians?


When Estonia was invaded and occupied by the Soviet Union in World War II, the status of the Estonian language changed to the first of two official languages (Russian being the other one). As with Latvia many immigrants entered Estonia under Soviet encouragement. In the second half of the 1970s, the pressure of bilingualism (for Estonians) intensified, resulting in widespread knowledge of Russian throughout the country. The Russian language was termed as ‘the language of friendship of nations’ and was taught to Estonian children, sometimes as early as in kindergarten. Although teaching Estonian to non-Estonians in schools was compulsory, in practice learning the language was often considered unnecessary.


After the Soviet invasion what other language became the second official Estonian language?


What was another country with similar immigration patterns to post Soviet Estonia?


What became more intense in the 1970's in Estonia?


What historical event once again freed Estonia?

During the Perestroika era, The Law on the Status of the Estonian Language was adopted in January 1989. The collapse of the Soviet Union led to the restoration of Republic of Estonia's independence. Estonian went back to being the only state language in Estonia which in practice meant that use of Estonian was promoted while the use of Russian was discouraged.


Following the Soviet collapse what became the only official Estonian Language?


What language was no longer promoted as one of Estonia's main languages?


Following the departure of the Soviet immigrants what was the percentage of Estonians in Estonia?

The return of Soviet immigrants to their countries of origin has brought the proportion of Estonians in Estonia back above 70%. And again as in Latvia, today many of the remnant non-Estonians in Estonia have adopted the Estonian language; about 40% at the 2000 census.


How many groups of Estonian dialects are there?

The Estonian dialects are divided into two groups – the northern and southern dialects, historically associated with the cities of Tallinn in the north and Tartu in the south, in addition to a distinct kirderanniku dialect, that of the northeastern coast of Estonia.


What are the names of the Estonian dialect groups?


What is the northern city to which the northern dialect is associated?


Where is the kirderanniku dialect spoken?


What is the city where the southern dialect was historically spoken?


What dialect is also known as the central dialect?

The northern group consists of the keskmurre or central dialect that is also the basis for the standard language, the läänemurre or western dialect, roughly corresponding to Läänemaa and Pärnumaa, the saarte murre (islands') dialect of Saaremaa and Hiiumaa and the idamurre or eastern dialect on the northwestern shore of Lake Peipsi.


What dialects of the northern group are spoken on the saarte murre?


What is another name for Estonian's northern group's western dialect?


What dialects comprise the southern group?

The southern group (South Estonian language) consists of the Tartu, Mulgi, Võru (Võro) and Setu (Seto) dialects. These are sometimes considered either variants of a South Estonian language, or separate languages altogether. Also, Seto and Võro distinguish themselves from each other less by language and more by their culture and their respective Christian confession.


More importantly than their language aspect how do the Seto and Võro dialects set themselves apart from each other?


Aside from being thought of as variants of Estonian's southern group what else are the Tartu, Mulgi, Võru (Võro) and Setu (Seto) dialects sometimes considered?


What religion is associated with Seto and Võro?


From what script does the Estonian language get its alphabet?

Like Finnish, Estonian employs the Latin script as the basis for its alphabet, which adds the letters ä, ö, ü, and õ, plus the later additions š and ž. The letters c, q, w, x and y are limited to proper names of foreign origin, and f, z, š, and ž appear in loanwords and foreign names only. Ö and ü are pronounced similarly to their equivalents in Swedish and German. Unlike in standard German but like Finnish and Swedish (when followed by 'r'), Ä is pronounced [æ], as in English mat. The vowels Ä, Ö and Ü are clearly separate phonemes and inherent in Estonian, although the letter shapes come from German. The letter õ denotes /ɤ/, unrounded /o/, or a close-mid back unrounded vowel. It is almost identical to the Bulgarian ъ /ɤ̞/ and the Vietnamese ơ, and is used to transcribe the Russian ы.


What is another language that uses Latin for its alphabet?


In the Estonian language how is the letter A pronounced?


What principles usually govern the Estonian orthography?

Although the Estonian orthography is generally guided by phonemic principles, with each grapheme corresponding to one phoneme, there are some historical and morphological deviations from this: for example preservation of the morpheme in declension of the word (writing b, g, d in places where p, k, t is pronounced) and in the use of 'i' and 'j'.[clarification needed] Where it is very impractical or impossible to type š and ž, they are substituted with sh and zh in some written texts, although this is considered incorrect. Otherwise, the h in sh represents a voiceless glottal fricative, as in Pasha (pas-ha); this also applies to some foreign names.


To how many phoneme's does each grapheme correspond?


What type of deviations are there from the single phoneme to each grapheme general principle?


On what occasions are š and ž replaced with sh and zh?


What is an example of a word containing a voiceless glottal fricative?


In what Orthagraphy does Modern Estonian orthography have its basis?

Modern Estonian orthography is based on the Newer Orthography created by Eduard Ahrens in the second half of the 19th century based on Finnish orthography. The Older Orthography it replaced was created in the 17th century by Bengt Gottfried Forselius and Johann Hornung based on standard German orthography. Earlier writing in Estonian had by and large used an ad hoc orthography based on Latin and Middle Low German orthography. Some influences of the standard German orthography — for example, writing 'W'/'w' instead of 'V'/'v' persisted well into the 1930s.


Who is responsible for the creation of the Newer Orthography?


In what century was the Newer Orthography created?


Previous to the Newer Orthography what orthography was in place?


From what other country's orthography did the Older Orthography get its basis?


In Soviet international publications what language's transliteration are Estonian words and names often back-transliterations from?

It should be noted that Estonian words and names quoted in international publications from Soviet sources are often back-transliterations from the Russian transliteration. Examples are the use of "ya" for "ä" (e.g. Pyarnu instead of Pärnu), "y" instead of "õ" (e.g., Pylva instead of Põlva) and "yu" instead of "ü" (e.g., Pyussi instead of Püssi). Even in the Encyclopædia Britannica one can find "ostrov Khiuma", where "ostrov" means "island" in Russian and "Khiuma" is back-transliteration from Russian instead of "Hiiumaa" (Hiiumaa > Хийума(а) > Khiuma).


What famous encyclopedia contains a Russian back-transliteration of Estonian?


What is the Russian back-transliteration from Encyclopædia Britannica?


What is the typological form of Estonian?

Typologically, Estonian represents a transitional form from an agglutinating language to a fusional language. The canonical word order is SVO (subject–verb–object).


What is Estonian typologically transitioning from?


What sort of form is Estonian transitioning into?


How are words ordered in Estonian canonically?


What language lacks gendered nouns and pronouns?

In Estonian, nouns and pronouns do not have grammatical gender, but nouns and adjectives decline in fourteen cases: nominative, genitive, partitive, illative, inessive, elative, allative, adessive, ablative, translative, terminative, essive, abessive, and comitative, with the case and number of the adjective(s) always agreeing with that of the noun (except in the terminative, essive, abessive and comitative, where there is agreement only for the number, the adjective being in the genitive form). Thus the illative for kollane maja ("a yellow house") is kollasesse majja ("into a yellow house"), but the terminative is kollase majani ("as far as a yellow house"). With respect to the Proto-Finnic language, elision has occurred; thus, the actual case marker may be absent, but the stem is changed, cf. maja – majja and the Pohjanmaa dialect of Finnish maja – majahan.


In the nominative, genitive, partitive, illative, inessive, elative, allative, adessive, ablative, translative cases what always agrees with the noun in number and case?


What other language has a telicity contrast?

The direct object of the verb appears either in the accusative (for total objects) or in the partitive (for partial objects). The accusative coincides with the genitive in the singular and with nominative in the plural. Accusative vs. partitive case opposition of the object used with transitive verbs creates a telicity contrast, just as in Finnish. This is a rough equivalent of the perfective vs. imperfective aspect opposition.


Aside from the accusative, where can the direct object of the verb be found?


From what system is a distinctive future tense lacking?

The verbal system lacks a distinctive future tense (the present tense serves here) and features special forms to express an action performed by an undetermined subject (the "impersonal").


What is used in place of the future tense?


What does Estonian use to show actions performed by an undecided subject?


Close to 33 percent of Estonian's vocabulary belong to what group of languages?

Although the Estonian and Germanic languages are of very different origins, one can identify many similar words in Estonian and English, for example. This is primarily because the Estonian language has borrowed nearly one third of its vocabulary from Germanic languages, mainly from Low Saxon (Middle Low German) during the period of German rule, and High German (including standard German). The percentage of Low Saxon and High German loanwords can be estimated at 22–25 percent, with Low Saxon making up about 15 percent.[citation needed]


What is the main Germanic language from which Estonia gets the Germanic portion of its vocabulary?


When did Low Saxon make its appearance as part of the Estonian language?


From what other Germanic language does Estonian derive its vocabulary?


Standard German is part of what Germanic language?


What two letters can be replaced with each other a lot of the time in Estonian?

Often 'b' & 'p' are interchangeable, for example 'baggage' becomes 'pagas', 'lob' (to throw) becomes 'loopima'. The initial letter 's' is often dropped, for example 'skool' becomes 'kool', 'stool' becomes 'tool'.


What happens in many cases when a word starts with an 's'?


In an example of replacing 'b' with 'p' how is 'baggage' pronounced?


Who was the journalist who was also a language planner?

Estonian language planners such as Ado Grenzstein (a journalist active in Estonia in the 1870s–90s) tried to use formation ex nihilo, Urschöpfung; i.e. they created new words out of nothing.


In what years did Ado Grenzstein do journalism work in Estonia?


What is another term for making up words from nothing?


Who in the course of their language planning attempted to use the formation ex nihilo technique?


Of all of Estonian's language reformers who is the most well known?

The most famous reformer of Estonian, Johannes Aavik (1880–1973), used creations ex nihilo (cf. ‘free constructions’, Tauli 1977), along with other sources of lexical enrichment such as derivations, compositions and loanwords (often from Finnish; cf. Saareste and Raun 1965: 76). In Aavik’s dictionary (1921), which lists approximately 4000 words, there are many words which were (allegedly) created ex nihilo, many of which are in common use today. Examples are


What was the period of time in which Johannes Aavik was alive?


What is the technique Aavic used to create Estonian words out of nothing?


In what publication can examples of ex nihilo words be found?


How many words did Aavik put in his dictionary?


Many of the coinages that have been considered (often by Aavik himself) as words concocted ex nihilo could well have been influenced by foreign lexical items, for example words from Russian, German, French, Finnish, English and Swedish. Aavik had a broad classical education and knew Ancient Greek, Latin and French. Consider roim ‘crime’ versus English crime or taunima ‘to condemn, disapprove’ versus Finnish tuomita ‘to condemn, to judge’ (these Aavikisms appear in Aavik’s 1921 dictionary). These words might be better regarded as a peculiar manifestation of morpho-phonemic adaptation of a foreign lexical item.


What is another term for words created by Aavik?


Instead of being created from nothing Aavik's ex nihilo terms are thought to actually possibly have been influenced by what?


What is a source for the particles in paper?

Paper is a thin material produced by pressing together moist fibres of cellulose pulp derived from wood, rags or grasses, and drying them into flexible sheets. It is a versatile material with many uses, including writing, printing, packaging, cleaning, and a number of industrial and construction processes.


What is the last step in paper production?


When was the pulp papermaking process developed?

The pulp papermaking process is said to have been developed in China during the early 2nd century AD, possibly as early as the year 105 A.D., by the Han court eunuch Cai Lun, although the earliest archaeological fragments of paper derive from the 2nd century BC in China. The modern pulp and paper industry is global, with China leading its production and the United States right behind it.


What country was the process developed in?


What country is leading in production of paper?


What country is the second largest produced of paper?


Which court eunuch was associated with the papermaking process?


Who is credited with the papermaking process?

The oldest known archaeological fragments of the immediate precursor to modern paper, date to the 2nd century BC in China. The pulp papermaking process is ascribed to Cai Lun, a 2nd-century AD Han court eunuch. With paper as an effective substitute for silk in many applications, China could export silk in greater quantity, contributing to a Golden Age.


What material did paper replace upon its invention?


Which Age did the invention of the papermaking process contribute towards?


What century is the first papermaking process attributed to?


In what century did the papermaking process spread from China to Europe?

Its knowledge and uses spread from China through the Middle East to medieval Europe in the 13th century, where the first water powered paper mills were built. Because of paper's introduction to the West through the city of Baghdad, it was first called bagdatikos. In the 19th century, industrial manufacture greatly lowered its cost, enabling mass exchange of information and contributing to significant cultural shifts. In 1844, the Canadian inventor Charles Fenerty and the German F. G. Keller independently developed processes for pulping wood fibres.


Which middle eastern city did the papermaking process to Europe from?


What name did the process take on in Baghdad?


In which century did the process become much cheaper than before?


Which Canadian inventor helped F.G. Keller to develop their own process?


The word "paper" is etymologically derived from Latin papyrus, which comes from the Greek πάπυρος (papuros), the word for the Cyperus papyrus plant. Papyrus is a thick, paper-like material produced from the pith of the Cyperus papyrus plant, which was used in ancient Egypt and other Mediterranean cultures for writing before the introduction of paper into the Middle East and Europe. Although the word paper is etymologically derived from papyrus, the two are produced very differently and the development of the first is distinct from the development of the second. Papyrus is a lamination of natural plant fibres, while paper is manufactured from fibres whose properties have been changed by maceration.


What process changes the properties of the fibres used in papermaking?


What plant was used in Egypt to make papyrus?


What part of the Cyperus plant was used in making papyrus?


What is separated from the cellulose fibres?

To make pulp from wood, a chemical pulping process separates lignin from cellulose fibres. This is accomplished by dissolving lignin in a cooking liquor, so that it may be washed from the cellulose; this preserves the length of the cellulose fibres. Paper made from chemical pulps are also known as wood-free papers–not to be confused with tree-free paper; this is because they do not contain lignin, which deteriorates over time. The pulp can also be bleached to produce white paper, but this consumes 5% of the fibres; chemical pulping processes are not used to make paper made from cotton, which is already 90% cellulose.


What type of paper is paper made from chemical pulps known as?


What percentage of fibres are wasted in the bleaching process?


How many chemical pulping processes are there?

There are three main chemical pulping processes: the sulfite process dates back to the 1840s and it was the dominant method extent before the second world war. The kraft process, invented in the 1870s and first used in the 1890s, is now the most commonly practiced strategy, one of its advantages is the chemical reaction with lignin, that produces heat, which can be used to run a generator. Most pulping operations using the kraft process are net contributors to the electricity grid or use the electricity to run an adjacent paper mill. Another advantage is that this process recovers and reuses all inorganic chemical reagents. Soda pulping is another specialty process used to pulp straws, bagasse and hardwoods with high silicate content.


What decade does the sulfite process date to?


What is another process used to pulp straws with high silicate content?


Besides the thermomechanical process, what is a process used in pulping?

There are two major mechanical pulps, the thermomechanical one (TMP) and groundwood pulp (GW). In the TMP process, wood is chipped and then fed into large steam heated refiners, where the chips are squeezed and converted to fibres between two steel discs. In the groundwood process, debarked logs are fed into grinders where they are pressed against rotating stones to be made into fibres. Mechanical pulping does not remove the lignin, so the yield is very high, >95%, however it causes the paper thus produced to turn yellow and become brittle over time. Mechanical pulps have rather short fibres, thus producing weak paper. Although large amounts of electrical energy are required to produce mechanical pulp, it costs less than the chemical kind.


What is the main ingredient in the groundwood process?


What strength of paper is produced by mechanical pulps?


Recylced papers can be made with what new type of pulp?

Recycled papers can be made from 100% recycled materials or blended with virgin pulp, although they are (generally) not as strong nor as bright as papers made from the latter.


What type of clay improves the characteristics of the pulps used in papermaking?

Besides the fibres, pulps may contain fillers such as chalk or china clay, which improve its characteristics for printing or writing. Additives for sizing purposes may be mixed with it and/or applied to the paper web later in the manufacturing process; the purpose of such sizing is to establish the correct level of surface absorbency to suit ink or paint.


What besides china clay is used as a filler?


How is the water removed by force from a sheet of paper?

Pressing the sheet removes the water by force; once the water is forced from the sheet, a special kind of felt, which is not to be confused with the traditional one, is used to collect the water; whereas when making paper by hand, a blotter sheet is used instead.


What is used to collect the water expelled from pressing?


What is used to collect water when hand-making paper?


Besides a blotter sheet, what can be used to collect water?


What is the main component of drying the paper?

Drying involves using air and/or heat to remove water from the paper sheets; in the earliest days of paper making this was done by hanging the sheets like laundry; in more modern times various forms of heated drying mechanisms are used. On the paper machine the most common is the steam heated can dryer. These can reach temperatures above 200 °F (93 °C) and are used in long sequences of more than 40 cans; where the heat produced by these can easily dry the paper to less than 6% moisture.


At what percentage moisture content is the papermaking process trying to achieve in the end?


Besides calcium, coated paper has a thin layer of what?

Paper at this point is uncoated. Coated paper has a thin layer of material such as calcium carbonate or china clay applied to one or both sides in order to create a surface more suitable for high-resolution halftone screens. (Uncoated papers are rarely suitable for screens above 150 lpi.) Coated or uncoated papers may have their surfaces polished by calendering. Coated papers are divided into matte, semi-matte or silk, and gloss. Gloss papers give the highest optical density in the printed image.


What process is done to polish the surface of the paper?


What is the shiniest type of coated paper?


What papers give the best optical density?


What contraption is used to carry the paper to the web printing presses?

The paper is then fed onto reels if it is to be used on web printing presses, or cut into sheets for other printing processes or other purposes. The fibres in the paper basically run in the machine direction. Sheets are usually cut "long-grain", i.e. with the grain parallel to the longer dimension of the sheet.


If the paper is not to be used in the web printing process, what is done?


What type of paper is produced on a machine like the Fourdrinier?

All paper produced by paper machines as the Fourdrinier Machine are wove paper, i.e. the wire mesh that transports the web leaves a pattern that has the same density along the paper grain and across the grain. Textured finishes, watermarks and wire patterns imitating hand-made laid paper can be created by the use of appropriate rollers in the later stages of the machine.


What is used to apply watermarks and other patterns?


What is in common with the lentgh along and across the grain of paper produced by a machine such as the Fourdrinier?


What leaves a pattern on the paper that has a consistent density width and lengthwise?


What type of lines does wove paper not exhibit?

Wove paper does not exhibit "laidlines", which are small regular lines left behind on paper when it was handmade in a mould made from rows of metal wires or bamboo. Laidlines are very close together. They run perpendicular to the "chainlines", which are further apart. Handmade paper similarly exhibits "deckle edges", or rough and feathery borders.


What are small regular lines left on paper when handmade in a mould?


What runs perpendicular to the laidlines?


Which is lines are commonly higher in density, laidlines or chainlines?