Who is another prime minister who reiterated the principles of cabinet solidarity?


Aside from Walpole, who else denied that there was no such thing as the prime minister?

Walpole always denied that he was "prime minister", and throughout the 18th century parliamentarians and legal scholars continued to deny that any such position was known to the Constitution. George II and George III made strenuous efforts to reclaim the personal power of the monarch, but the increasing complexity and expense of government meant that a minister who could command the loyalty of the Commons was increasingly necessary. The long tenure of the wartime prime minister William Pitt the Younger (1783–1801), combined with the mental illness of George III, consolidated the power of the post. The title was first referred to on government documents during the administration of Benjamin Disraeli but did not appear in the formal British Order of precedence until 1905.


Which kings tried to get power back to the monarchy?


During whose government did prime minister first see use on official state documents?


When was the position of prime minister finally formalized?


In the U.S. and governments modeled on it, who holds executive power?

By the late 20th century, the majority of the world's countries had a prime minister or equivalent minister, holding office under either a constitutional monarchy or a ceremonial president. The main exceptions to this system have been the United States and the presidential republics in Latin America modelled on the U.S. system, in which the president directly exercises executive authority.


Which non-elected official has held the longest term as prime minister?

Bahrain's prime minister, Sheikh Khalifah bin Sulman Al Khalifah has been in the post since 1970, making him the longest serving non-elected prime minister.


When did Khalifa first take the post of prime minister?


What country does Khalifah serve for as prime minister?


Greece, Finland, Romania and Turkey use what kind of government?

The post of prime minister may be encountered both in constitutional monarchies (such as Belgium, Denmark, Japan, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Malaysia, Morocco, Spain, Sweden, Thailand, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom), and in parliamentary republics in which the head of state is an elected official (such as Finland ,the Czech Republic, France, Greece, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Ireland, Pakistan, Portugal, Montenegro, Croatia, Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia and Turkey). See also "First Minister", "Premier", "Chief Minister", "Chancellor", "Taoiseach", "Statsminister" and "Secretary of State": alternative titles usually equivalent in meaning to, or translated as, "prime minister".


In whic type of government is the leader elected?


What is the term for the head of China's government?

This contrasts with the presidential system, in which the president (or equivalent) is both the head of state and the head of the government. In some presidential or semi-presidential systems, such as those of France, Russia or South Korea, the prime minister is an official generally appointed by the president but usually approved by the legislature and responsible for carrying out the directives of the president and managing the civil service. The head of government of the People's Republic of China is referred to as the Premier of the State Council and the premier of the Republic of China (Taiwan) is also appointed by the president, but requires no approval by the legislature.


What is another name for the Republic of China?


Whose consent is not required for the Taiwanese premier to take office?


What is the term for a situation in which the president and prime minister come from different political parties?

Appointment of the prime minister of France requires no approval by the parliament either, but the parliament may force the resignation of the government. In these systems, it is possible for the president and the prime minister to be from different political parties if the legislature is controlled by a party different from that of the president. When it arises, such a state of affairs is usually referred to as (political) cohabitation.


What can the French parliament cause in order to oust the prime minister?


Which constitution details the role and abilities of the prime minister?

Bangladesh's constitution clearly outlines the functions and powers of the Prime Minister, and also details the process of his/her appointment and dismissal.


What other considerations are included in the constitution of Bangladesh as regards the prime minister?


What is directly above the premier in the People's Republic of China?

The People's Republic of China constitution set a premier just one place below the National People's Congress in China. Premier read as (Simplified Chinese: 总理; pinyin: Zŏnglĭ) in Chinese.


Which law first referred to the prime minister in Canada?

Canada's constitution, being a 'mixed' or hybrid constitution (a constitution that is partly formally codified and partly uncodified) originally did not make any reference whatsoever to a prime minister, with her or his specific duties and method of appointment instead dictated by "convention". In the Constitution Act, 1982, passing reference to a "Prime Minister of Canada" is added, though only regarding the composition of conferences of federal and provincial first ministers.


The Constitution Act mentions the prime minister in the context of which kinds of other ministers?


What document details the role and abilities given to the prime minister of the Czech Republic?

Czech Republic's constitution clearly outlines the functions and powers of the Prime Minister of the Czech Republic, and also details the process of his/her appointment and dismissal.


When was prime minister first mentioned in a government document in the UK?

The United Kingdom's constitution, being uncodified and largely unwritten, makes no mention of a prime minister. Though it had de facto existed for centuries, its first mention in official state documents did not occur until the first decade of the twentieth century. Accordingly, it is often said "not to exist", indeed there are several instances of parliament declaring this to be the case. The prime minister sits in the cabinet solely by virtue of occupying another office, either First Lord of the Treasury (office in commission), or more rarely Chancellor of the Exchequer (the last of whom was Balfour in 1905).


Who was the last prime minister to serve simultaneously as Chancellor of the Exchequer?


When did Balfour last hold the titles of prime minister and Chancellor of the Exchequer?


Which prime minister was appointed only one time?

Most prime ministers in parliamentary systems are not appointed for a specific term in office and in effect may remain in power through a number of elections and parliaments. For example, Margaret Thatcher was only ever appointed prime minister on one occasion, in 1979. She remained continuously in power until 1990, though she used the assembly of each House of Commons after a general election to reshuffle her cabinet.


When was Thatcher appointed prime minister?


What did Margaret Thatcher reconfigure following each general election?


What is the name of the prime ministerial position in Ireland?

Some states, however, do have a term of office of the prime minister linked to the period in office of the parliament. Hence the Irish Taoiseach is formally 'renominated' after every general election. (Some constitutional experts have questioned whether this process is actually in keeping with the provisions of the Irish constitution, which appear to suggest that a taoiseach should remain in office, without the requirement of a renomination, unless s/he has clearly lost the general election.) The position of prime minister is normally chosen from the political party that commands majority of seats in the lower house of parliament.


From where is the Irish prime minister usually selected?


When is the Irish Taoiseach renominated?


Most parliamentary governments need to have the support of what governmental body?

In parliamentary systems, governments are generally required to have the confidence of the lower house of parliament (though a small minority of parliaments, by giving a right to block supply to upper houses, in effect make the cabinet responsible to both houses, though in reality upper houses, even when they have the power, rarely exercise it). Where they lose a vote of confidence, have a motion of no confidence passed against them, or where they lose supply, most constitutional systems require either:


Which political division does not often utilize its power, if it has any?


What kind of referendum can the lower house of parliament take against the government?


Who can put a stop the parliamentary attempts at dissovling itself in some areas?

The latter in effect allows the government to appeal the opposition of parliament to the electorate. However, in many jurisdictions a head of state may refuse a parliamentary dissolution, requiring the resignation of the prime minister and his or her government. In most modern parliamentary systems, the prime minister is the person who decides when to request a parliamentary dissolution.


If the head of state prevents the dissolution of parliament, what needs to happen?


In contemporary parliamentary governments, which official is usually in charge of asking parliament to dissolve?


When was the convention of prime ministers initiating the dissolution of parliament started?

Older constitutions often vest this power in the cabinet. In the United Kingdom, for example, the tradition whereby it is the prime minister who requests a dissolution of parliament dates back to 1918. Prior to then, it was the entire government that made the request. Similarly, though the modern 1937 Irish constitution grants to the Taoiseach the right to make the request, the earlier 1922 Irish Free State Constitution vested the power in the Executive Council (the then name for the Irish cabinet).


In Ireland, when was the power to dissolve parliament assigned to the prime minister?


The 1922 Irish Free State Constitution previously gave what body the power to dissolve parliament?


What was the Executive Council an alternate name for?


What process signals the need for the prime minister to resign in Australia?

In Australia, the Prime Minister is expected to step down if s/he loses the majority support of his/her party under a spill motion as have many such as Tony Abbott, Julia Gillard and Kevin Rudd.


What is the Russian term for prime minister?

In the Russian constitution the prime minister is actually titled Chairman of the government while the Irish prime minister is called the Taoiseach (which is rendered into English as prime minister), and in Israel he is Rosh HaMemshalah meaning "head of the government". In many cases, though commonly used, "prime minister" is not the official title of the office-holder; the Spanish prime minister is the President of the Government (Presidente del Gobierno).


What is the Israeli term for prime minister?


What is the term used in spain for prime minister?


What is the Irish term for prime minister?


What is the Italian term for the prime minister?

Other common forms include president of the council of ministers (for example in Italy, Presidente del Consiglio dei Ministri), President of the Executive Council, or Minister-President. In the Scandinavian countries the prime minister is called statsminister in the native languages (i.e. minister of state). In federations, the head of government of subnational entities such as provinces is most commonly known as the premier, chief minister, governor or minister-president.


What is the native term for prime minister in Scandinavia?


What is a term that is used to mean prime minister?

The convention in the English language is to call nearly all national heads of government "prime minister" (sometimes modified to the equivalent term of premier), regardless of the correct title of the head of government as applied in his or her respective country. The few exceptions to the rule are Germany and Austria, whose heads of government titles are almost always translated as Chancellor; Monaco, whose head of government is referred to as the Minister of State; and Vatican City, for which the head of government is titled the Secretary of State. In the case of Ireland, the head of government is occasionally referred to as the Taoiseach by English speakers. A stand-out case is the President of Iran, who is not actually a head of state, but the head of the government of Iran. He is referred to as "president" in both the Persian and English languages.


Which countries use the term chancellor to denote the head of government?


What is the head of Monaco's government called?


What is the term for the highest position in government in Vatican City?


What is the head of Iran's government called?


In what kinds of nations can the head of government attain the title of Excellency?

In non-Commonwealth countries the prime minister may be entitled to the style of Excellency like a president. In some Commonwealth countries prime ministers and former prime ministers are styled Right Honourable due to their position, for example in the Prime Minister of Canada. In the United Kingdom the prime minister and former prime ministers may appear to also be styled Right Honourable, however this is not due to their position as head of government but as a privilege of being current members of Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council.


What honorific title can be given to prime ministers in commonwealth nations?


What are British prime ministers part of that grants them the title Right Honourable?


What is an example of a country where prime ministers can be called Right Honourable solely because of their position?


What kind of government is in operation in the United Kingdom?

In the UK, where devolved government is in place, the leaders of the Scottish, Northern Irish and Welsh Governments are styled First Minister. In India, The Prime Minister is referred to as "Pradhan Mantri", meaning "prime minister". In Pakistan, the prime minister is referred to as "Wazir-e-Azam", meaning "Grand Vizier".


What are the heads of government in Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland called?


What is the Indian term for Prime Minister?


What is the term for prime minister in Pakistan?


What is the head of government's office called in Canada?

The Prime Minister's executive office is usually called the Office of the Prime Minister in the case of the Canada and other Commonwealth countries, it is called Cabinet Office in United Kingdom. Some Prime Minister's office do include the role of Cabinet. In other countries, it is called the Prime Minister's Department or the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet as for Australia.


What is the head of government's office called in the UK?


What's a common abbreviation for the term institute of technology?

Institute of technology (also: university of technology, polytechnic university, technikon, and technical college) is a designation employed for a wide range of learning institutions awarding different types of degrees and operating often at variable levels of the educational system. It may be an institution of higher education and advanced engineering and scientific research or professional vocational education, specializing in science, engineering, and technology or different sorts of technical subjects. It may also refer to a secondary education school focused in vocational training.[citation needed] The term institute of technology is often abbreviated IT and is not to be confused with information technology.


In what century did the term polytechnic first show up?

The English term polytechnic appeared in the early 19th century, from the French École Polytechnique, an engineering school founded in 1794 in Paris. The French term comes from the Greek πολύ (polú or polý) meaning "many" and τεχνικός (tekhnikós) meaning "arts".


What school founded in 1794 first used a form of the word polytechnic in its name?


What language does the French word polytechnique come from?


What word means the same thing as "institute of technology"?

While the terms "institute of technology" and "polytechnic" are synonymous, the preference concerning which one is the preferred term varies from country to country.[citation needed]


What was the first institute of technology in the world?

The institutes of technology and polytechnics have been in existence since at least the 18th century, but became popular after World War II with the expansion of engineering and applied science education, associated with the new needs created by industrialization. The world's first institution of technology, the Berg-Schola (today its legal successor is the University of Miskolc) was founded by the Court Chamber of Vienna in Selmecbánya, Kingdom of Hungary in 1735 in order to train specialists of precious metal and copper mining according to the requirements of the industrial revolution in Hungary. The oldest German Institute of Technology is the Braunschweig University of Technology (founded in 1745 as "Collegium Carolinum"). Another exception is the École Polytechnique, which has educated French élites since its foundation in 1794. In some cases, polytechnics or institutes of technology are engineering schools or technical colleges.


What war led to the increased popularity of institutes of technology and polytechnics?


What was the founding name of the Braunschweig University of Technology?


In what year was the École Polytechnique founded?


What kind of institutions do countries like Germany and Switzerland consider institutes of technology to be?

In several countries, like Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland and Turkey, institutes of technology and polytechnics are institutions of higher education, and have been accredited to award academic degrees and doctorates. Famous examples are the Istanbul Technical University, ETH Zurich, İYTE, Delft University of Technology and RWTH Aachen, all considered universities.[citation needed]


In what year were polytechnics in the UK given the university designation?

In countries like Iran, Finland, Malaysia, Portugal, Singapore or the United Kingdom, there is often a significant and confused distinction between polytechnics and universities. In the UK a binary system of higher education emerged consisting of universities (research orientation) and Polytechnics (engineering and applied science and professional practice orientation). Polytechnics offered university equivalent degrees from bachelor's, master's and PhD that were validated and governed at the national level by the independent UK Council for National Academic Awards. In 1992 UK Polytechnics were designated as universities which meant they could award their own degrees. The CNAA was disbanded. The UK's first polytechnic, the Royal Polytechnic Institution (now the University of Westminster) was founded in 1838 in Regent Street, London. In Ireland the term institute of technology is the more favored synonym of a regional technical college though the latter is the legally correct term; however, Dublin Institute of Technology is a university in all but name as it can confer degrees in accordance with law, Cork Institute of Technology and another of other Institutes of Technology have delegated authority from HETAC to make awards to and including master's degree level—Level 9 of the National Framework for Qualifications (NFQ)—for all areas of study and Doctorate level in a number of others.


What is the name of the Royal Polytechnic Institution now?


What street is the University of Westminster on?


What term was used in some countries to describe select universities that focus on technological education in applied science and engineering?

In a number of countries, although being today generally considered similar institutions of higher learning across many countries, polytechnics and institutes of technology used to have a quite different statute among each other, its teaching competences and organizational history. In many cases polytechnic were elite technological universities concentrating on applied science and engineering and may also be a former designation for a vocational institution, before it has been granted the exclusive right to award academic degrees and can be truly called an institute of technology. A number of polytechnics providing higher education is simply a result of a formal upgrading from their original and historical role as intermediate technical education schools. In some situations, former polytechnics or other non-university institutions have emerged solely through an administrative change of statutes, which often included a name change with the introduction of new designations like institute of technology, polytechnic university, university of applied sciences, or university of technology for marketing purposes. Such emergence of so many upgraded polytechnics, former vocational education and technical schools converted into more university-like institutions has caused concern where the lack of specialized intermediate technical professionals lead to industrial skill shortages in some fields, being also associated to an increase of the graduate unemployment rate. This is mostly the case in those countries, where the education system is not controlled by the state and everybody can grant degrees.[citation needed] Evidence have also shown a decline in the general quality of teaching and graduate's preparation for the workplace, due to the fast-paced conversion of that technical institutions to more advanced higher level institutions. Mentz, Kotze and Van der Merwe (2008) argues that all the tools are in place to promote the debate on the place of technology in higher education in general and in Universities of Technology specifically. The aspects of this debate can follow the following lines: • To what degree is technology defined as a concept? • What is the scope of technology discourse? • What is the place and relation of science with technology? • How useful is the Mitcham framework in thinking about technology in South Africa? • Can a measure of cooperation as opposed to competition be achieved amongst higher education institutions? • Who ultimately is responsible for vocational training and what is the role of technology in this?


What name did some universities switch to in the 1990s for marketing purposes?

During the 1970s to early 1990s, the term was used to describe state owned and funded technical schools that offered both vocational and higher education. They were part of the College of Advanced Education system. In the 1990s most of these merged with existing universities, or formed new ones of their own. These new universities often took the title University of Technology, for marketing rather than legal purposes. AVCC report The most prominent such university in each state founded the Australian Technology Network a few years later.


What system were institutes of technology a part of during the seventies, eighties, and early nineties?


What's the four-letter abbreviation for technically minded technical and further education institutes?

Since the mid-1990s, the term has been applied to some technically minded technical and further education (TAFE) institutes. A recent example is the Melbourne Polytechnic rebranding and repositioning in 2014 from Northern Melbourne Institute of TAFE. These primarily offer vocational education, although some like Melbourne Polytechnic are expanding into higher education offering vocationally oriented applied bachelor degress. This usage of the term is most prevalent historically in NSW and the ACT. The new terminology is apt given that this category of institution are becoming very much like the institutes of the 1970s–1990s period.


What is the new name of the Northern Melbourne Institute of TAFE?


TAFE Tasmania started a three-year restructuring in what year?

In Tasmania in 2009 the old college system and TAFE Tasmania have started a 3-year restructure to become the Tasmanian Polytechnic www.polytechnic.tas.edu.au, Tasmanian Skills Institute www.skillsinstitute.tas.edu.au and Tasmanian Academy www.academy.tas.edu.au


In Australia, how many universities are recognized as Universities of Technology?

In the higher education sector, there are seven designated Universities of Technology in Australia (though, note, not all use the phrase "university of technology", such as the Universities of Canberra and South Australia, which used to be Colleges of Advanced Education before transitioning into fully-fledged universities with the ability - most important of all - to confer doctorates):


What's the German word for a tertiary education institution?

Fachhochschule is a German type of tertiary education institution and adopted later in Austria and Switzerland. They do not focus exclusively on technology, but may also offer courses in social science, medicine, business and design. They grant bachelor's degrees and master's degrees, and focus more on teaching than research and more on specific professions than on science.


In addition to Bachelor's degrees, what other kind of degree can one earn from a Fachhochschule?


What term is used in Belgium and the Netherlands to refer to an institution like a German Fachhochschule?

Hogeschool is used in Belgium and in the Netherlands. The hogeschool has many similarities to the Fachhochschule in the German language areas and to the ammattikorkeakoulu in Finland.


What term refers to the process that a hogeschool undergoes before it's able to award Master's degrees?

Hogeschool institutions in the Flemish Community of Belgium (such as the Erasmus Hogeschool Brussel) are currently undergoing a process of academization. They form associations with a university and integrate research into the curriculum, which will allow them to deliver academic master's degrees.


How many institutes of technology in the Netherlands have converted into full-fledged universities in the past few decades?

In the Netherlands, four former institutes of technology have become universities over the past decades. These are the current three Technical Universities (at Delft, Eindhoven and Enschede), plus the former agricultural institute in Wageningen. A list of all hogescholen in the Netherlands, including some which might be called polytechnics, can be found here.


How many Technical Universities are there in the Netherlands today?


What country has Institutes of Technology/Polytechnic Institutes from which students can earn certificates, diplomas, and degrees?

In Cambodia, there are Institutes of Technology/Polytechnic Institutes, and Universities that offer instruction in a variety of programs that can lead to: certificates, diplomas, and degrees. Institutes of Technology/Polytechnic Institutes and Universities tend to be independent institutions.


What are polytechnic divisions of national universities called in Canada?

In Canada, there are Affiliate Schools, Colleges, Institutes of Technology/Polytechnic Institutes, and Universities that offer instruction in a variety of programs that can lead to: engineering and applied science degrees, apprenticeship and trade programs, certificates, and diplomas. Affiliate Schools are polytechnic divisions belonging to a national university and offer select technical and engineering programs. Colleges, Institutes of Technology/Polytechnic Institutes, and Universities tend to be independent institutions.


In what city is the École Polytechnique de Montréal located?

Credentials are typically conferred at the undergraduate level, however university-affiliated schools like the École de technologie supérieure and the École Polytechnique de Montréal (both of which are located in Quebec), also offer graduate and postgraduate programs, in accordance with provincial higher education guidelines. Canadian higher education institutions, at all levels, undertake directed and applied research with financing allocated through public funding, private equity, or industry sources.


In addition to private equity and industry sources, what's a third source of research funding for institutions of higher learning in Canada?


What is Canada's national alliance of 11 research-focused schools called?

Some of Canada's most esteemed colleges and polytechnic institutions also partake in collaborative institute-industry projects, leading to technology commercialization, made possible through the scope of Polytechnics Canada; a national alliance of eleven leading research-intensive colleges and institutes of technology.


What kind of projects does Polytechnics Canada sponsor that can lead to technology commercialization?


In what year was the Imperial Tientsin University founded in China?

China's modern higher education began in 1895 with the Imperial Tientsin University which was a polytechnic plus a law department. Liberal arts were not offered until three years later at Capital University. To this day, about half of China's elite universities remain essentially polytechnical.


What was the first university to offer courses in liberal arts?


What portion of China's elite universities still have a primary polytechnical focus today?


What year did Croatia pass a law regarding polytechnic education?

In Croatia there are many polytechnic institutes and colleges that offer a polytechnic education. The law about polytechnic education in Croatia was passed in 1997.


What institution is in charge of tracking volcanic activity in the Galápagos Islands?

EPN is known for research and education in the applied science, astronomy, atmospheric physics, engineering and physical sciences. The Geophysics Institute monitors over the country`s seismic, tectonic and volcanic activity in the continental territory and in the Galápagos Islands.


What observatory is the National Observatory of Ecuador?

One of the oldest observatories in South America is the Quito Astronomical Observatory. Founded in 1873 and located 12 minutes south of the Equator in Quito, Ecuador. The Quito Astronomical Observatory is the National Observatory of Ecuador and is located in the Historic Center of Quito and is managed by the National Polytechnic School.


What school oversees the Quito Astronomical Observatory?


When was the Quito Astronomical Observatory founded?


EPN's Nuclear Science Department is among how many of its kind in Ecuador?

The Nuclear Science Department at EPN is the only one in Ecuador and has the large infrastructure, related to irrradiation factilities like cobalt-60 source and Electron beam processing.


If the mission is achieved, professionals will apply what they've learned to what goal?

Its mission is to provide high quality education, training and research in the areas of science and technology to produce qualified professionals that can apply their knowledge and skills in the country's development.


MIT raised money to cover tuition, room and board for what number of students?

MIT raises funds from non-governmental organizations and individuals who support the mission and objectives of the Institute. Tigray Development Association, its supporters, and REST have provided the initial funds for the launching of the Institute. As a result of the unstinting efforts made by the Provisional Governing Board to obtain technical and financial assistance, the Institute has so far secured financial and material support as well as pledges of sponsorship for 50 students, covering their tuition fees, room and board up to graduation. The MIT has also been able to create linkages with some universities and colleges in the United States of America, which have provided manpower and material support to MIT. The institute is governed by a provisional governing board.


What's the equivalent of Universities of Technology in French-speaking areas?

Universities of Technology are categorised as universities, are allowed to grant B.Sc. (Tech.), M.Sc. (Tech.), Lic.Sc. (Tech.), Ph.D. and D.Sc.(Tech.) degrees and roughly correspond to Instituts de technologie of French-speaking areas and Technische Universität of Germany in prestige. In addition to universities of technology, some universities, e.g. University of Oulu and Åbo Akademi University, are allowed to grant the B.Sc. (tech.), M.Sc. (tech.) and D.Sc. (Tech.) degrees.


How many credits were needed for an M.Sc. (Tech.) degree before the Bologna Process?

Universities of Technology are academically similar to other (non-polytechnic) universities. Prior to Bologna process, M.Sc. (Tech.) required 180 credits, whereas M.Sc. from a normal university required 160 credits. The credits between Universities of Technology and normal universities are comparable.


How many credits were needed for an M.Sc. from a traditional university prior to the Bologna Process?


In what country are polytechnic schools designated uniquely from academic universities?

Polytechnic schools are distinct from academic universities in Finland. Ammattikorkeakoulu is the common term in Finland, as is the Swedish alternative "yrkeshögskola" – their focus is on studies leading to a degree (for instance insinööri, engineer; in international use, Bachelor of Engineering) in kind different from but in level comparable to an academic bachelor's degree awarded by a university. Since 2006 the polytechnics have offered studies leading to master's degrees (Master of Engineering). After January 1, 2006, some Finnish ammattikorkeakoulus switched the English term "polytechnic" to the term "university of applied sciences" in the English translations of their legal names. The ammattikorkeakoulu has many similarities to the hogeschool in Belgium and in the Netherlands and to the Fachhochschule in the German language areas.


What word means polytechnic school in Finnish?


What's the Swedish word for a polytechnic school?


Universities that encompass several engineering schools provide curricula in sciences and what other field?

Collegiate universities grouping several engineering schools or multi-site clusters of French grandes écoles provide sciences and technology curricula as autonomous higher education engineering institutes. They include :


What are an institute of technology called in France?

In addition, France's education system includes many institutes of technology, embedded within most French universities. They are referred-to as institut universitaire de technologie (IUT). Instituts universitaires de technologie provide undergraduate technology curricula. 'Polytech institutes', embedded as a part of eleven French universities provide both undergraduate and graduate engineering curricula.


What's the three-letter acronym for institut universitaire de technologie?


What's the term in German for what those in French-speaking Switzerland call haute école specialisée?

In the French-speaking part of Switzerland exists also the term haute école specialisée for a type of institution called Fachhochschule in the German-speaking part of the country. (see below).


In Eastern Europe, what is the word for an institute of technology?

Higher education systems, that are influenced by the French education system set at the end of the 18th century, use a terminology derived by reference to the French École polytechnique. Such terms include Écoles Polytechniques (Algeria, Belgium, Canada, France, Switzerland, Tunisia), Escola Politécnica (Brasil, Spain), Polytechnicum (Eastern Europe).


What century in France's history included the French École polytechnique that influenced education systems in other countries?


What term in Brasil and Spain refers to a polytechnic institute?


Fachhochschulen first came about in the early years of what decade?

Fachhochschulen were first founded in the early 1970s. They do not focus exclusively on technology, but may also offer courses in social science, medicine, business and design. They grant bachelor's degrees and master's degrees, and focus more on teaching than research and more on specific professions than on science.


Fachhochschulen favor an education in what, as opposed to research?


In addition to technology, Fachhochschulen offer courses in social science, medicine, design, and what other discipline?


What's the abbreviation for a Technische Universität?

Technische Universität (abbreviation: TU) are the common terms for universities of technology or technical university. These institutions can grant habilitation and doctoral degrees and focus on research.


What's the main focus of a Technische Universität?


Which department's faculty can be associated with university hospitals?

The nine largest and most renowned Technische Universitäten in Germany have formed TU9 German Institutes of Technology as community of interests. Technische Universitäten normally have faculties or departements of natural sciences and often of economics but can also have units of cultural and social sciences and arts. RWTH Aachen, TU Dresden and TU München also have a faculty of medicine associated with university hospitals (Klinikum Aachen, University Hospital Dresden, Rechts der Isar Hospital).


How many Technische Universitäten make up the TU9 German Institutes of Technology?


How many institutes of technology are there in Germany?

There are 17 universities of technology in Germany with about 290,000 students enrolled. The four states of Bremen, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Saxony-Anhalt and Schleswig-Holstein are not operating a Technische Universität. Saxony and Lower Saxony have the highest counts of TUs, while in Saxony three out of four universities are universities of technology.


What's the approximate number of students in Germany who are enrolled in a university of technology?


Which German state has the highest ratio of universities of technology to standard universities?


What's the joint project of TU Clausthal, TU Braunschweig, and the University of Hanover called?

Niedersächsische Technische Hochschule is a joint-venture of TU Clausthal, TU Braunschweig and University of Hanover. Some universities in Germany can also be seen as institutes of technology due to comprising a wide spread of technical sciences and having a history as a technical university. Examples are


What's the name of the Act that changed how Greek public institutes of technology were designated?

In Greece, there are 2 "Polytechnics" part of the public higher education in Greece and they confer a 5-year Diplom Uni (300E.C.T.S – I.S.C.E.D. 5A), the National Technical University of Athens and the Technical University of Crete. Also, there are Greek Higher Technological Educational Institutes (Ανώτατα Τεχνολογικά Εκπαιδευτικά Ιδρύματα – Α.T.E.I). After the N.1404/1983 Higher Education Reform Act (Ν.1404/1983 - 2916/2001 - Ν. 3549/2007 - N. 3685/2008 - N. 4009/2011) the Technological Educational Institute constitute, a parallel and equivalent with universities part of the public higher education in Greece. They confer 4-year bachelor's degree (Diplom FH) (240E.C.T.S – I.S.C.E.D. 5A).


What was the very first polytechnic school in Hong Kong?

The first polytechnic in Hong Kong is The Hong Kong Polytechnic, established in 1972 through upgrading the Hong Kong Technical College (Government Trade School before 1947). The second polytechnic, the City Polytechnic of Hong Kong, was founded in 1984. These polytechnics awards diplomas, higher diplomas, as well as academic degrees. Like the United Kingdom, the two polytechnics were granted university status in 1994, and renamed The Hong Kong Polytechnic University and the City University of Hong Kong respectively. The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, a university with a focus in applied science, engineering and business, was founded in 1991.


What was the original name of Hong Kong Polytechnic?


In what year was the City Polytechnic of Hong Kong founded?


What Hong Kong university was created in 1991?


When did the two polytechnic schools in Hong Kong receive status as universities?


What kind of mining did the world's first institute of technology prepare students for?

The world's first Institute of Technology the Berg-Schola (Bergschule) established in Selmecbánya, Kingdom of Hungary by the Court Chamber of Vienna in 1735 providing Further education to train specialists of precious metal and copper mining. In 1762 the institute ranked up to be Academia providing Higher Education courses. After the Treaty of Trianon the institute had to be moved to Sopron.


What's the founding year of the first institute of technology ever?


How many private institutes of technology are there in India?

There are 16 autonomous Indian Institutes of Technology in addition to 30 National Institutes of Technology which are Government Institutions. In addition to these there are many other Universities which offer higher technical courses. The Authority over technical education in India is the AICTE.


How many government-affiliated institutes of technology are there in India?


What organization oversees India's technical education institutions?


What's the name of the diploma awarded in India for technical or vocational coursework?

In India there are many polytechnic institutes and collages that offer a polytechnic education. In India a Diploma in Engineering is a specific academic award usually awarded in technical or vocational courses e.g. Engineering, Pharmacy, Designing, etc. These Institutions offer three year diploma in engineering post Tenth class. These institutes have affiliation from state bord of technical education of respective state governments. after which one can apply for post of junior engineer or continue higher studies by appearing for exams of AMIE to become an engineering graduate.


How many government-owned public institutes of technology does Indonesia have?

There are four public institutes of technology in Indonesia that owned by the government of Indonesia. Other than that, there are hundreds other institute that owned by private or other institutions.


Rather than four-year Bachelor's degrees, Politeknik offer a diploma after how many years?

However, in Bahasa Indonesia, Politeknik carries a rather different meaning than Institut Teknologi. Politeknik provides vocational education and typically offers three-year Diploma degrees, which is similar to associate degrees, instead of full, four-year bachelor's degree and the more advanced Master's and doctoral degrees being offered by an Institut Teknologi.


What was the original name of Ireland's Institute of Technology system?

Ireland has an "Institute of Technology" system, formerly referred to as Regional Technical College (RTCs) system. The terms "IT" and "IT's" are now widely used to describe an Institute(s) of Technology. These institutions offer sub-degree, degree and post-graduate level studies. Unlike the Irish university system an Institute of Technology also offers sub-degree programmes such as 2-year Higher Certificate programme in various academic fields of study. Some institutions have "delegated authority" that allows them to make awards in their own name, after authorisation by the Higher Education & Training Awards Council.


What Irish institute of technology evolved independently of the Regional Technical College System?

Dublin Institute of Technology developed separately from the Regional Technical College system, and after several decades of association with the University of Dublin, Trinity College it acquired the authority to confer its own degrees.


What term in higher education refers to technical universities that award engineering degrees?

In higher education, Politecnico refers to a technical university awarding degrees in engineering. Historically there were two Politecnici, one in each of the two largest industrial cities of the north:


Traditionally, how many Politecnici were there?


What city houses the headquarters of the Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia?

In 2003, the Ministry of Education, Universities and Research and the Ministry of Economy and Finance jointly established the Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia (Italian Institute of Technology), headquartered in Genoa with 10 laboratories around Italy, which however focuses on research and does not offer undergraduate degrees.


What college was the forerunner for the engineering faculty at the University of Tokyo?

In Japan, an institute of technology (工業大学, kōgyō daigaku?) is a type of university that specializes in the sciences. See also the Imperial College of Engineering, which was the forerunner of the University of Tokyo's engineering faculty.


What area of discipline do Japan's institutes of technology specialize in?


What country has operated polytechnic institutes for nearly 44 years?

Polytechnics in Malaysia has been operated for almost 44 years. The institutions provide courses for bachelor's degree & Bachelor of Science (BSc) (offer at Premier Polytechnics for September 2013 intake & 2014 intake), Advanced Diploma, Diploma and Special Skills Certificate. It was established by the Ministry of Education with the help of UNESCO in 1969. The amount of RM24.5 million is used to fund the pioneer of Politeknik Ungku Omar located in Ipoh, Perak from the United Nations Development Program (UNDP).


What international organization partnered with Malaysia's Ministry of Education in 1969?


In what city in the state of Perak is the Politeknik Ungku Omar located?


How many polytechnic institutes does Malaysia have now?

At present, Malaysia have developed 32 polytechnic at all over states in engineering, agriculture, commerce, hospitality and design courses with 60,840 students in 2009 to 87,440 students in 2012.


How many students were enrolled in polytechnic schools in Malaysia in 2009?


How many students were enrolled in polytechnic schools in Malaysia in 2012?


What's the name of Mauritius's sole technical university?

The only technical university in Mauritius is the University of Technology, Mauritius with its main campus situated in La Tour Koenig, Pointe aux Sables. It has a specialized mission with a technology focus. It applies traditional and beyond traditional approaches to teaching, training, research and consultancy. The university has been founded with the aim to play a key role in the economic and social development of Mauritius through the development of programmes of direct relevance to the country’s needs, for example in areas like technology, sustainable development science, and public sector policy and management.


What's the focus of Mauritius's University of Technology's specialized mission?


What country considers their polytechnics, universities, and colleges state-owned institutions?

New Zealand polytechnics are established under the Education Act 1989 as amended, and are considered state-owned tertiary institutions along with universities, colleges of education, and wānanga; there is today often much crossover in courses and qualifications offered between all these types of Tertiary Education Institutions. Some have officially taken the title 'institute of technology' which is a term recognized in government strategies equal to that of the term 'polytechnic'. One has opted for the name 'Universal College of Learning' (UCOL), and another 'Unitec New Zealand'. These are legal names but not recognized terms like 'polytechnic' or 'institute of technology'. Many if not all now grant at least bachelor-level degrees.


In what year was the Education Act originally passed in New Zealand?


What school did Massey University combine with?

Since the 1990s, there has been consolidation in New Zealand's state-owned tertiary education system. In the polytechnic sector: Wellington Polytechnic amalgamated with Massey University. The Central Institute of Technology explored a merger with the Waikato Institute of Technology, which was abandoned, but later, after financial concerns, controversially amalgamated with Hutt Valley Polytechnic, which in turn became Wellington Institute of Technology. Some smaller polytechnics in the North Island, such as Waiarapa Polytechnic, amalgamated with UCOL. (The only other amalgamations have been in the colleges of education.)


In what decade did New Zealand's tertiary education institutions begin consolidation?


What school considered a merger with Waikato Institute of Technology that was later abandoned?


What island was Waiarapa Polytechnic located on before it merged with UCOL?


What's the only polytechnic school in New Zealand to be designated a university?

The Auckland University of Technology is the only polytechnic to have been elevated to university status; while Unitec has had repeated attempts blocked by government policy and consequent decisions; Unitec has not been able to convince the courts to overturn these decisions.


In Pakistan, a student's tests in what grade determine their admission to a diploma program?

The Polytechnic institutes in Pakistan, offer a diploma spanning three years in different branches. Students are admitted to the diploma program based on their results in the 10th grade standardized exams. The main purpose of Polytechnic Institutes is to train people in various trades.


What are people being trained for, mainly, in Pakistan's polytechnic institutes?


How many years does it usually take to earn a diploma from polytechnic schools in Pakistan?


What two-letter abbreviation is used for undergraduate engineering courses?

After successfully completing a diploma at a polytechnic, students can gain lateral entry to engineering degree (under graduate) courses called BE, which are conducted by engineering colleges affiliated to universities or University of Engineering & Technology or University of Engineering Sciences.


What's Pakistan's program called that's comparable to the British A Level?

University of Engineering & Technology or University of Engineering Sciences are the recognized universities that grant Bachelor's and master's degrees in undergraduate and graduate studies respectively. The Bachelor of Science degree awarded by Universities of Engineering & Technology or University of Engineering Sciences are 4 years full-time program after finishing 13 years of education (international high school certificate) in Pakistan known as F.Sc equivalent to British system A-Level.


What word do they use in Poland for an institute of technology?

Politechnika (translated as a "technical university" or "university of technology") is a main kind of technical university name in Poland. There are some biggest Polytechnic in Poland:


What is the Portuguese word for the short-cycle degrees awarded prior to 1988?

The designation "Institute of Technology" is not applied at all, being meaningless in Portugal. However, there are higher education educational institutions in Portugal since the 1980s, which are called polytechnics. After 1998 they were upgraded to institutions which are allowed to confer bachelor's degrees (the Portuguese licenciatura). Before then, they only awarded short-cycle degrees which were known as bacharelatos and did not provide further education. After the Bologna Process in 2007, they have been allowed to offer 2nd cycle (master's) degrees to its students. The polytechnical higher education system provides a more practical training and is profession-oriented, while the university higher education system has a strong theoretical basis and is highly research-oriented.


What process was instituted in 2007 that brought Master's degrees to the polytechnic education system?


What's the name of Singapore's centralized institute that students can attend before university?

Polytechnics in Singapore provides industry oriented education equivalent to a junior college or sixth form college in the UK. Singapore retains a system similar but not the same as in the United Kingdom from 1970–1992, distinguishing between polytechnics and universities. Unlike the British Polytechnic (United Kingdom) system Singapore Polytechnics do not offer bachelors, masters or PhD degrees. Under this system, most Singaporean students sit for their O-Level examinations after a four or five years of education in secondary school, and apply for a place at either a technical school termed ITE, a polytechnic or a university-preparatory school (a junior college or the Millennia Institute, a centralized institute). Polytechnic graduates may be granted transfer credits when they apply to local and overseas universities, depending on the overall performance in their grades, as well as the university's policies on transfer credits. A few secondary schools are now offering six-year program which leads directly to university entrance.


How many polytechnics are there in Singapore?

Polytechnics offer three-year diploma courses in fields such as information technology, engineering subjects and other vocational fields, like psychology and nursing. There are 5 polytechnics in Singapore. They are namely:


How many years of study would it take to obtain a degree from a polytechnic in Singapore?


The world's first institution of technology or technical university with tertiary technical education is the Banská Akadémia in Banská Štiavnica, Slovakia, founded in 1735, Academy since December 13, 1762 established by queen Maria Theresa in order to train specialists of silver and gold mining and metallurgy in neighbourhood. Teaching started in 1764. Later the department of Mathematics, Mechanics and Hydraulics and department of Forestry were settled. University buildings are still at their place today and are used for teaching. University has launched the first book of electrotechnics in the world.


What year was the Banská Akadémia founded?


The Banská Akadémia was originally intended for training workers in what two precious metals?


What year did teaching start at the Banská Akadémia?


What are the university buildings still standing at the Banská Akadémia used for now?


What are polytechnics called in South Africa?

South Africa has completed a process of transforming its "higher education landscape". Historically a division has existed in South Africa between Universities and Technikons (polytechnics) as well between institutions servicing particular racial and language groupings. In 1993 Technikons were afforded the power to award certain technology degrees.


What year did Technikons gain the ability to give out technology degrees?


When did Technikons start being integrated with traditional South African universities?

Beginning in 2004 former Technikons have either been merged with traditional Universities to form Comprehensive Universities or have become Universities of Technology, however the Universities of Technology have not to date acquired all of the traditional rights and privileges of a University (such as the ability to confer a wide range of degrees).


Most institutes of technology in Thailand were born out of what other type of institutions?

Most of Thailand's institutes of technology were developed from technical colleges, in the past could not grant bachelor's degrees; today, however, they are university level institutions, some of which can grant degrees to the doctoral level. Examples are Pathumwan Institute of Technology (developed from Pathumwan Technical School), King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang (Nondhaburi Telecommunications Training Centre), and King Mongkut's Institute of Technology North Bangkok (Thai-German Technical School).


What type of degree were Thailand's technical colleges historically not allowed to confer?


What's the new name of Pathumwan Technical School?


What did the Thonburi Technology Institute become after its name change?

There are two former institutes of technology, which already changed their name to "University of Technology": Rajamangala University of Technology (formerly Institute of Technology and Vocational Education) and King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi (Thonburi Technology Institute).


What was the previous name of Rajamangala University of Technology?


What is the name of Thammasat University's engineering school?

Institutes of technology with different origins are Asian Institute of Technology, which developed from SEATO Graduate School of Engineering, and Sirindhorn International Institute of Technology, an engineering school of Thammasat University. Suranaree University of Technology is the only government-owned technological university in Thailand that was established (1989) as such; while Mahanakorn University of Technology is the most well known private technological institute. Technology/Technical colleges in Thailand is associated with bitter rivalries which erupts into frequent off-campus brawls and assassinations of students in public locations that has been going on for nearly a decade, with innocent bystanders also commonly among the injured and the military under martial law still unable to stop them from occurring.


What is Thailand's only government-established and owned institute of technology?


What year was Suranaree University of Technology founded?


What is the name of the best-known private institute of technology in Thailand?


What institute of technology opened in Bursa in 2010?

In Turkey and the Ottoman Empire, the oldest technical university is Istanbul Technical University. Its graduates contributed to a wide variety of activities in scientific research and development. In 1950s, 2 technical universities were opened in Ankara and Trabzon. In recent years, Yildiz University is reorganized as Yildiz Technical University and 2 institutes of technology were founded in Kocaeli and Izmir. In 2010, another technical university named Bursa Technical University was founded in Bursa. Moreover, a sixth technical university is about to be opened in Konya named Konya Technical University.


When Konya Technical University opens, how many total institutes of technology will there be in Turkey and the Ottoman Empire?


What two cities in Turkey acquired institutes of technology in the 1950s?


What year did UK polytechnics start functioning in a binary education system?

Polytechnics were tertiary education teaching institutions in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. Since 1970 UK Polytechnics operated under the binary system of education along with universities. Polytechnics offered diplomas and degrees (bachelor's, master's, PhD) validated at the national level by the UK Council for National Academic Awards CNAA. They particularly excelled in engineering and applied science degree courses similar to technological universities in the USA and continental Europe. The comparable institutions in Scotland were collectively referred to as Central Institutions. Britain's first Polytechnic, the Royal Polytechnic Institution later known as the Polytechnic of Central London (now the University of Westminster) was established in 1838 at Regent Street in London and its goal was to educate and popularize engineering and scientific knowledge and inventions in Victorian Britain "at little expense." The London Polytechnic led a mass movement to create numerous Polytechnic institutes across the UK in the late 19th Century. Most Polytechnic institutes were established at the centre of major metropolitan cities and their focus was on engineering, applied science and technology education.


What organization validates degrees received from polytechnic schools?


What two-word term does Scotland use to describe their technological universities?


What was the first polytechnic in Britain originally named?


How many Institutes of Science and Technology were affiliated with the University of Wales?

In 1956, some colleges of technology received the designation College of Advanced Technology. They became universities in the 1960s meaning they could award their own degrees. The designation "Institute of Technology" was occasionally used by polytechnics (Bolton), Central Institutions (Dundee, Robert Gordon's), and postgraduate universities, (Cranfield and Wessex), most of which later adopted the designation University, and there were two "Institutes of Science and Technology": UMIST and UWIST, part of the University of Wales. Loughborough University was called Loughborough University of Technology from 1966 to 1996, the only institution in the UK to have had such a designation.


What was the name Loughborough University was known by from 1966 to 1996?


In what decade did colleges of technology gain the University designation?


What act allowed polytechnic schools to become universities?

Polytechnics were granted university status under the Further and Higher Education Act 1992. This meant that Polytechnics could confer degrees without the oversight of the national CNAA organization. These institutions are sometimes referred to as post-1992 universities.


The Further and Higher Education Act 1992 allows polytechnics to award degrees without what organization's approval?


If a technical institute is affiliated with a local university, what does its designation become?

Schools called "technical institute" or "technical school" that were formed in the early 20th century provided further education between high school and University or Polytechnic. Most technical institutes have been merged into regional colleges and some have been designated university colleges if they are associated with a local university.


What century brought the advent of technical schools or technical institutes?


A student would attend a technical institute before a university or polytechnic but after what?


In what year was Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute founded?

Polytechnic Institutes are technological universities, many dating back to the mid-19th century. A handful of world-renowned Elite American universities include the phrases "Institute of Technology", "Polytechnic Institute", "Polytechnic University", or similar phrasing in their names; these are generally research-intensive universities with a focus on engineering, science and technology. The earliest and most famous of these institutions are, respectively, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI, 1824), New York University Tandon School of Engineering (1854) and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT, 1861). Conversely, schools dubbed "technical colleges" or "technical institutes" generally provide post-secondary training in technical and mechanical fields, focusing on training vocational skills primarily at a community college level—parallel and sometimes equivalent to the first two years at a bachelor's degree-granting institution.


Which of the three earliest technological universities was founded most recently, in 1861?


What type of economy was technical education in Venezuela intended to support?

Institutes of technology in Venezuela were developed in the 1950s as an option for post-secondary education in technical and scientific courses, after the polytechnic French concepts. At that time, technical education was considered essential for the development of a sound middle class economy.


When did Venezuela begin to create institutes of technology?


What city in Venezuela had the first IUT?

Most of these institutes award diplomas after three or three and a half years of education. The Institute of technology implementation (IUT from Instituto universitario de tecnologia on Spanish) began with the creation of the first IUT at Caracas, capital city of Venezuela, called IUT. Dr. Federico Rivero Palacio adopted the French "Institut Universitaire de Technologie"s system, using French personnel and study system based on three-year periods, with research and engineering facilities at the same level as the main national universities to obtain French equivalent degrees. This IUT is the first and only one in Venezuela having French equivalent degrees accepted, implementing this system and observing the high-level degrees some other IUT's were created in Venezuela, regardless of this the term IUT was not used appropriately resulting in some institutions with mediocre quality and no equivalent degree in France. Later, some private institutions sprang up using IUT in their names, but they are not regulated by the original French system and award lower quality degrees.


Who pioneered using the French system of technological education?


Where does the information stored on the Wayback Machine come from?

The Wayback Machine is a digital archive of the World Wide Web and other information on the Internet created by the Internet Archive, a nonprofit organization, based in San Francisco, California, United States. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet. The service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a "three dimensional index."


Where is Internet Archive headquartered?


What individuals founded Internet Archive?


What is the term used by Internet Archive to describe the Wayback Machine?


What operating system is used on Wayback Machine's servers?

Since 1996, they have been archiving cached pages of web sites onto their large cluster of Linux nodes. They revisit sites every few weeks or months and archive a new version if the content has changed. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who are offered a link to do so. The intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. Their grand vision is to archive the entire Internet.


When does Wayback Machine save a copy of a website?


What is the ultimate aim of the Wayback Machine?


What TV show served as inspiration for the Wayback Machine's name?

The name Wayback Machine was chosen as a droll reference to a plot device in an animated cartoon series, The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show. In one of the animated cartoon's component segments, Peabody's Improbable History, lead characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman routinely used a time machine called the "WABAC machine" (pronounced way-back) to witness, participate in, and, more often than not, alter famous events in history.


Which characters on The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show used a device that allowed them to travel through time?


What was the machine used by Mr. Peabody and Sherman named?


When was the program necessary to crawl and archive the web created?

In 1996 Brewster Kahle, with Bruce Gilliat, developed software to crawl and download all publicly accessible World Wide Web pages, the Gopher hierarchy, the Netnews (Usenet) bulletin board system, and downloadable software. The information collected by these "crawlers" does not include all the information available on the Internet, since much of the data is restricted by the publisher or stored in databases that are not accessible. These "crawlers" also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached. To overcome inconsistencies in partially cached web sites, Archive-It.org was developed in 2005 by the Internet Archive as a means of allowing institutions and content creators to voluntarily harvest and preserve collections of digital content, and create digital archives.


What is a term used for programs that automatically visit websites and record the data they find?


What rule do crawlers abide by when determining which sites to record?


What site was created to mitigate issues with incomplete copies of websites?


What medium was originally used to keep Internet Archive's data?

Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers and scientists to tap into the clunky database. When the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley.


Who were sometimes permitted to use the Archive's database?


At what milestone was the archive made public?


Where was the event launching the publicly-available archive held?


What are the saved versions of a site called?

Snapshots usually become available more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later; it can take twenty-four months or longer. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked web site updates are recorded. Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots.


What is the minimum amount of time that elapses before most snapshots are released for viewing?


What term characterizes the rate at which snapshots are made of websites?


When did it become a requirement for websites to appear on Open Directory for inclusion in the Archive?

After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. According to Jeff Kaplan of the Internet Archive in November 2010, other sites were still being archived, but more recent captures would become visible only after the next major indexing, an infrequent operation.


Who stated that sites not on Open Directory were still being saved but would not be released until the Archive was reindexed?


When did Kaplan make comments about the status of non-Open Directory sites?


In 2009, what size did the data saved by Wayback Machine reach?

As of 2009[update], the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month; the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month. The data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies.


As of 2003, what was the rate of increase in the amount of data recorded by the Wayback Machine?


Where does Wayback Machine keep its information stored?


When did Internet Archive chance its platform for data storage?

In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, and hosts a new data center in a Sun Modular Datacenter on Sun Microsystems' California campus.


Which platform did Internet Archive adopt in 2009?


Where does Internet archive run a datacenter?


When was an upgrade of the Wayback Machine released for testing?

In 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing.


When were details of the test version of the updated Wayback Machine released?

In March 2011, it was said on the Wayback Machine forum that "The Beta of the new Wayback Machine has a more complete and up-to-date index of all crawled materials into 2010, and will continue to be updated regularly. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a little bit of material past 2008, and no further index updates are planned, as it will be phased out this year".


The older version of Wayback Machine did not have much new data past what year?


The newer version of the Wayback Machine included date up to and including what year?


What was the functionality called that gave users the ability to save a snapshot of a site?

In October 2013, the company announced the "Save a Page" feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries.


What 2009 court battle involved the Wayback Machine?

In a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc., defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots.txt file on its web site that was causing the Wayback Machine to retroactively remove access to previous versions of pages it had archived from Nebula's site, pages that Chordiant believed would support its case.


Which company thought that Wayback Machine data was important for its argument?


What did Chordiant request that the court deactivate on Netbula's website?


Who did Netbula believe was the entity that should be responsible for the availability of its snapshots?

Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbula's web site and that they should have subpoenaed Internet Archive for the pages directly. An employee of Internet Archive filed a sworn statement supporting Chordiant's motion, however, stating that it could not produce the web pages by any other means "without considerable burden, expense and disruption to its operations."


Which party did Internet Archive side with?


Which judge presided over the Netbula v. Chordiant case?

Magistrate Judge Howard Lloyd in the Northern District of California, San Jose Division, rejected Netbula's arguments and ordered them to disable the robots.txt blockage temporarily in order to allow Chordiant to retrieve the archived pages that they sought.


In what jurisdiction was the Netbula v. Chordiant case tried?


Which party won its argument regarding Netbula's robots.txt file?


In an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No. 02 C 3293, 65 Fed. R. Evid. Serv. 673 (N.D. Ill. Oct. 15, 2004), a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, perhaps for the first time. Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network. Prior to the trial proceedings, EchoStar indicated that it intended to offer Wayback Machine snapshots as proof of the past content of Telewizja Polska's web site. Telewizja Polska brought a motion in limine to suppress the snapshots on the grounds of hearsay and unauthenticated source, but Magistrate Judge Arlander Keys rejected Telewizja Polska's assertion of hearsay and denied TVP's motion in limine to exclude the evidence at trial. At the trial, however, district Court Judge Ronald Guzman, the trial judge, overruled Magistrate Keys' findings,[citation needed] and held that neither the affidavit of the Internet Archive employee nor the underlying pages (i.e., the Telewizja Polska website) were admissible as evidence. Judge Guzman reasoned that the employee's affidavit contained both hearsay and inconclusive supporting statements, and the purported web page printouts were not self-authenticating.[citation needed]


Which judge denied Telewizja Polska's attempt to block the use of Internet Archive contents as evidence?


When are Internet Archive timestamps useful for patent offices?

Provided some additional requirements are met (e.g. providing an authoritative statement of the archivist), the United States patent office and the European Patent Office will accept date stamps from the Internet Archive as evidence of when a given Web page was accessible to the public. These dates are used to determine if a Web page is available as prior art for instance in examining a patent application.


What is an example of a condition that must be met for the Internet Archive data to be considered acceptable for submission to patent offices in the US and Europe?


What kind of limitations exist in keeping copies of a website?

There are technical limitations to archiving a web site, and as a consequence, it is possible for opposing parties in litigation to misuse the results provided by web site archives. This problem can be exacerbated by the practice of submitting screen shots of web pages in complaints, answers, or expert witness reports, when the underlying links are not exposed and therefore, can contain errors. For example, archives such as the Wayback Machine do not fill out forms and therefore, do not include the contents of non-RESTful e-commerce databases in their archives.


The omission of what element in screenshots can make them unreliable as evidence?


What elements of webpages are not used by Wayback Machine?


What kind of sites contain information that the Wayback Machine does not record?


What kinds of laws could the Wayback Machine be viewed as breaking in Europe?

In Europe the Wayback Machine could be interpreted as violating copyright laws. Only the content creator can decide where their content is published or duplicated, so the Archive would have to delete pages from its system upon request of the creator. The exclusion policies for the Wayback Machine may be found in the FAQ section of the site. The Wayback Machine also retroactively respects robots.txt files, i.e., pages that currently are blocked to robots on the live web temporarily will be made unavailable from the archives as well.


What would the Internet Archive have to do if requested by someone whose content is available on Wayback Machine?


In what part of the website are Wayback Machine's rules regarding removing content?


Web pages that contained content critical of what religous movement were taken off of the Internet Archive in 2002?

In late 2002, the Internet Archive removed various sites that were critical of Scientology from the Wayback Machine. An error message stated that this was in response to a "request by the site owner." Later, it was clarified that lawyers from the Church of Scientology had demanded the removal and that the site owners did not want their material removed.


Who was mistakenly credited for having the sites with criticism of Scientology removed from the Internet Archive?


Who was the actual party that requested the critical sites be taken down?


Which law firm leveraged Wayback Machine to protect their client in 2003?

In 2003, Harding Earley Follmer & Frailey defended a client from a trademark dispute using the Archive's Wayback Machine. The attorneys were able to demonstrate that the claims made by the plaintiff were invalid, based on the content of their web site from several years prior. The plaintiff, Healthcare Advocates, then amended their complaint to include the Internet Archive, accusing the organization of copyright infringement as well as violations of the DMCA and the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act. Healthcare Advocates claimed that, since they had installed a robots.txt file on their web site, even if after the initial lawsuit was filed, the Archive should have removed all previous copies of the plaintiff web site from the Wayback Machine. The lawsuit was settled out of court.


Which company filed suit against Harding, Earley, Follmer & Frailey's client?


Who did Healthcare advocates change their case to include as a defendant?


What laws did Healthcare Advocates accuse Internet Archive of having broken?


What kind of protocol is the Robots Exclusion Standard?

Robots.txt is used as part of the Robots Exclusion Standard, a voluntary protocol the Internet Archive respects that disallows bots from indexing certain pages delineated by its creator as off-limits. As a result, the Internet Archive has rendered unavailable a number of web sites that now are inaccessible through the Wayback Machine. Currently, the Internet Archive applies robots.txt rules retroactively; if a site blocks the Internet Archive, such as Healthcare Advocates, any previously archived pages from the domain are rendered unavailable as well. In cases of blocked sites, only the robots.txt file is archived.


What file is utilized to exercise the rights promoted by the Robots Exclusion Standard?


If a site prevents Internet Archive from recording it, what file is still saved?


Who asserts that they will respond to direct contacts requesting material be removed from the archive?

The Internet Archive states, however, "Sometimes a website owner will contact us directly and ask us to stop crawling or archiving a site. We comply with these requests." In addition, the web site says: "The Internet Archive is not interested in preserving or offering access to Web sites or other Internet documents of persons who do not want their materials in the collection."


In December 2005, activist Suzanne Shell filed suit demanding Internet Archive pay her US $100,000 for archiving her web site profane-justice.org between 1999 and 2004. Internet Archive filed a declaratory judgment action in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California on January 20, 2006, seeking a judicial determination that Internet Archive did not violate Shell's copyright. Shell responded and brought a countersuit against Internet Archive for archiving her site, which she alleges is in violation of her terms of service. On February 13, 2007, a judge for the United States District Court for the District of Colorado dismissed all counterclaims except breach of contract. The Internet Archive did not move to dismiss copyright infringement claims Shell asserted arising out of its copying activities, which would also go forward.


What was the URL owned by Suzanne Shell?


In what jurisdiction were Internet Archive's counterclaims filed?


In what jurisdiction where counterclaims nullified by the court?


When did Suzanne Shell's suit against Internet Archive come to an end?

On April 25, 2007, Internet Archive and Suzanne Shell jointly announced the settlement of their lawsuit. The Internet Archive said it "...has no interest in including materials in the Wayback Machine of persons who do not wish to have their Web content archived. We recognize that Ms. Shell has a valid and enforceable copyright in her Web site and we regret that the inclusion of her Web site in the Wayback Machine resulted in this litigation." Shell said, "I respect the historical value of Internet Archive's goal. I never intended to interfere with that goal nor cause it any harm."


Who stated that they had no wish to violate individuals' copyrights?


Who stated that they did not want to cause damage to the Internet Archive?


What was the first method used by the actor in trying to get his images taken down?

In 2013–14 a pornographic actor was trying to remove archived images of himself, first by sending multiple DMCA requests to the Archive and then in the Federal Court of Canada.


What legal system did the actor use after filing DMCA petitions?


What are some other names the Dutch Republic is known by?

The Dutch Republic, also known as the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands (Republiek der Zeven Verenigde Nederlanden), Republic of the United Netherlands or Republic of the Seven United Provinces (Republiek der Zeven Verenigde Provinciën), was a republic in Europe existing from 1581, when part of the Netherlands separated from Spanish rule, until 1795. It preceded the Batavian Republic, the Kingdom of Holland, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands, and ultimately the modern Kingdom of the Netherlands. Alternative names include the United Provinces (Verenigde Provinciën), Federated Dutch Provinces (Foederatae Belgii Provinciae), and Dutch Federation (Belgica Foederata).


The Dutch Republic was a republic of Europe during what time?


What republics did the Dutch Republic come before?


The Low Countries were made up of which present day countries?

Until the 16th century, the Low Countries – corresponding roughly to the present-day Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg – consisted of a number of duchies, counties, and Prince-bishoprics, almost all of which were under the supremacy of the Holy Roman Empire, with the exception of the county of Flanders, which was under the Kingdom of France.


Which counties in the Low Countries were not ruled by the Holy Roman Empire?


The majority of the Low Countries were ruled by which houses?

Most of the Low Countries had come under the rule of the House of Burgundy and subsequently the House of Habsburg. In 1549 Holy Roman Emperor Charles V issued the Pragmatic Sanction, which further unified the Seventeen Provinces under his rule. Charles was succeeded by his son, King Philip II of Spain. In 1568 the Netherlands, led by William I of Orange, revolted against Philip II because of high taxes, persecution of Protestants by the government, and Philip's efforts to modernize and centralize the devolved-medieval government structures of the provinces. This was the start of the Eighty Years' War.


In what year did the Netherlands rise up against Philip II?


Why did the people of the Netherlands rise up against Philip II?


In what year was the Union of Utrecht signed?

In 1579 a number of the northern provinces of the Low Countries signed the Union of Utrecht, in which they promised to support each other in their defence against the Spanish army. This was followed in 1581 by the Act of Abjuration, the declaration of independence of the provinces from Philip II.


What was the declaration of independence of the provinces from Philip II called?


In what year was the Act of Abjuration signed?


What was the purpose of the Union of Utrecht?


In what year did the United Provinces invite Francis, Duke of Anjou to lead them?

In 1582 the United Provinces invited Francis, Duke of Anjou to lead them; but after a failed attempt to take Antwerp in 1583, the duke left the Netherlands again. After the assassination of William of Orange (10 July 1584), both Henry III of France and Elizabeth I of England declined the offer of sovereignty. However, the latter agreed to turn the United Provinces into a protectorate of England (Treaty of Nonsuch, 1585), and sent the Earl of Leicester as governor-general. This was unsuccessful and in 1588 the provinces became a confederacy. The Union of Utrecht is regarded as the foundation of the Republic of the Seven United Provinces, which was not recognized by the Spanish Empire until the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.


In what year did Francis, Duke of Anjou leave the Netherlands?


When was William of Orange assassinated?


Who agreed to turn the United Provinces into a protectorate of England?


In what year did the United Provinces become a confederacy?


What events created the Batavian Republic?

The Republic of the United Provinces lasted until a series of republican revolutions in 1783–1795 created the Batavian Republic. During this period, republican forces took several major cities of the Netherlands. After initially fleeing, the monarchist forces came back with British, Austrian, and Prussian troops and retook the Netherlands. The republican forces fled to France, but then successfully re-invaded alongside the army of the French republic. After the French Republic became the French Empire under Napoleon, the Batavian Republic was replaced by the Napoleonic Kingdom of Holland.


The republican forces fled to which country?


The Napoleonic Kingdom of Holland replaced which republic?


In what year did the Netherlands gain independence from France?

The Netherlands regained independence from France in 1813. In the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814 the names "United Provinces of the Netherlands" and "United Netherlands" were used. In 1815 it was rejoined with the Austrian Netherlands, Luxembourg and Liège (the "Southern provinces") to become the Kingdom of the Netherlands, informally known as the Kingdom of the United Netherlands, to create a strong buffer state north of France. After Belgium and Luxembourg became independent, the state became unequivocally known as the Kingdom of the Netherlands, as it remains today.


What names were used in the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814?


The Kingdom of the Netherlands was formed by which countries?


The Dutch Republic dominated world trade during what time?

During the Dutch Golden Age in the late 16th century onward, the Dutch Republic dominated world trade in the 17th century, conquering a vast colonial empire and operating the largest fleet of merchantmen of any nation. The County of Holland was the wealthiest and most urbanized region in the world.


What was the wealthiest and most urbanized region in the world during the 17th century?


When was the stock exchange founded in the Netherlands?

The free trade spirit of the time received a strong augmentation through the development of a modern, effective stock market in the Low Countries. The Netherlands has the oldest stock exchange in the world, founded in 1602 by the Dutch East India Company. While Rotterdam has the oldest bourse in the Netherlands, the world's first stock exchange – that of the Dutch East-India Company – went public in six different cities. Later, a court ruled that the company had to reside legally in a single city, so Amsterdam is recognized as the oldest such institution based on modern trading principles. While the banking system evolved in the Low Countries, it was quickly incorporated by the well-connected English, stimulating English economic output.


Which city in the Netherlands has the oldest stock exchange?


The Dutch East-India Company inhabited how many cities?


Which city did the Dutch East-India Company decide to reside in after a court decided they could legally only operate in one city?


The Dutch had one of the strongest and fastest navies in the world during what time?

Between 1590–1712 the Dutch also possessed one of the strongest and fastest navies in the world, allowing for their varied conquests including breaking the Portuguese sphere of influence on the Indian Ocean and in the Orient, as well as a lucrative slave trade from Africa and the Pacific.


The Dutch operated a slave trade from which locations?


What was one of the conquests of the Dutch Navy?


The Dutch Republic consisted of how many provinces?

The republic was a confederation of seven provinces, which had their own governments and were very independent, and a number of so-called Generality Lands. The latter were governed directly by the States General (Staten-Generaal in Dutch), the federal government. The States General were seated in The Hague and consisted of representatives of each of the seven provinces. The provinces of the republic were, in official feudal order:


Who were the Generality Lands governed by?


What was the 8th province of the Dutch Republic?

In fact, there was an eighth province, the County of Drenthe, but this area was so poor it was exempt from paying federal taxes and as a consequence was denied representation in the States General. Each province was governed by the Provincial States, the main executive official (though not the official head of state) was a raadspensionaris. In times of war, the stadtholder, who commanded the army, would have more power than the raadspensionaris.


Why was the County of Drenthe denied representation by the States General?


The main executive official of the Provincial States was called what?


Who had more power during times of war than the raadspensionaris?


In theory, the stadtholders were freely appointed by and subordinate to the states of each province. However, in practice the princes of Orange of the House of Orange-Nassau, beginning with William the Silent, were always chosen as stadtholders of most of the provinces. Zeeland and usually Utrecht had the same stadtholder as Holland.


Who were always chosen as stadtholders of most of the provinces?


Which states had the same stadtholder as Holland?


What group of people supported the stadtholders, particularly the princes of Orange?

There was a constant power struggle between the Orangists, who supported the stadtholders and specifically the princes of Orange, and the Republicans, who supported the States General and hoped to replace the semi-hereditary nature of the stadtholdership with a true republican structure.


Who wanted to replace the stadtholders with a republican structure?


Several border territories were designated to the United Provinces after what?

After the Peace of Westphalia, several border territories were assigned to the United Provinces. They were federally-governed Generality Lands (Generaliteitslanden). They were Staats-Brabant (present North Brabant), Staats-Vlaanderen (present Zeeuws-Vlaanderen), Staats-Limburg (around Maastricht) and Staats-Oppergelre (around Venlo, after 1715).


The border territories assigned to the United Provinces were known as what?


What were the names of the border territories assigned to the United Provinces?


Who was in control of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and the Dutch West India Company (WIC)?

The States General of the United Provinces were in control of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and the Dutch West India Company (WIC), but some shipping expeditions were initiated by some of the provinces, mostly Holland and/or Zeeland.


Some shipping expeditions were mostly initiated by which provinces?


Who was influenced by the Constitution of the Republic of the United Provinces?

The framers of the US Constitution were influenced by the Constitution of the Republic of the United Provinces, as Federalist No. 20, by James Madison, shows. Such influence appears, however, to have been of a negative nature, as Madison describes the Dutch confederacy as exhibiting "Imbecility in the government; discord among the provinces; foreign influence and indignities; a precarious existence in peace, and peculiar calamities from war." Apart from this, the American Declaration of Independence is similar to the Act of Abjuration, essentially the declaration of independence of the United Provinces, but concrete evidence that the former directly influenced the latter is absent.


Who described the Dutch confederacy as exhibiting "Imbecility in the government; discord among the provinces; foreign influence and indignities; a precarious existence in peace, and peculiar calamities from war."


The American Declaration of Independence is similar to what?


What granted Holland and Zeeland the right to accept only one religion?

In the Union of Utrecht of 20 January 1579, Holland and Zeeland were granted the right to accept only one religion (in practice, Calvinism). Every other province had the freedom to regulate the religious question as it wished, although the Union stated every person should be free in the choice of personal religion and that no person should be prosecuted based on religious choice. William of Orange had been a strong supporter of public and personal freedom of religion and hoped to unite Protestants and Catholics in the new union, and, for him, the Union was a defeat. In practice, Catholic services in all provinces were quickly forbidden, and the Reformed Church became the "public" or "privileged" church in the Republic.


What did the Union state that every person should be free to choose?


Who was a strong supporter of freedom of religion and wanted to unite Protestants and Catholics in the new union?


What did any person who wanted to hold public office need to conform to during the Republic?

During the Republic, any person who wished to hold public office had to conform to the Reformed Church and take an oath to this effect. The extent to which different religions or denominations were persecuted depended much on the time period and regional or city leaders. In the beginning, this was especially focused on Roman Catholics, being the religion of the enemy. In 17th-century Leiden, for instance, people opening their homes to services could be fined 200 guilders (a year's wage for a skilled tradesman) and banned from the city. Throughout this, however, personal freedom of religion existed and was one factor – along with economic reasons – in causing large immigration of religious refugees from other parts of Europe.


The degree to which different religions were persecuted depended on what?


What was the punishment for people who opened their homes to Catholic services during 17th-century Leiden?


What was one reason for the large amounts of immigration of religious refugees from other parts of Europe?


What was the main subject of controversy that arose within the Reformed Church during the beginning of the Republic?

In the first years of the Republic, controversy arose within the Reformed Church, mainly around the subject of predestination. This has become known as the struggle between Arminianism and Gomarism, or between Remonstrants and Contra-Remonstrants. In 1618 the Synod of Dort tackled this issue, which led to the banning of the Remonstrant faith.


The controversy surrounding the subject of predestination is known as what?


What led to the banning of the Remonstrant faith in 1618?


When did the active persecution of religious services become more of a restricted tolerance?

Beginning in the 18th century, the situation changed from more or less active persecution of religious services to a state of restricted toleration of other religions, as long as their services took place secretly in private churches.


Religious services for other religions were tolerated as long as they adhered to what rule?


What language does the word "symbiosis" come from?

Symbiosis (from Greek σύν "together" and βίωσις "living") is close and often long-term interaction between two different biological species. In 1877 Albert Bernhard Frank used the word symbiosis (which previously had been used to depict people living together in community) to describe the mutualistic relationship in lichens. In 1879, the German mycologist Heinrich Anton de Bary defined it as "the living together of unlike organisms."


What type of organism did Frank apply the term "symbiosis" to?


What nationality was Heinrich Anton de Bary?


How long did it take for scientists to stop using the narrow definition of symbiosis?

The definition of symbiosis has varied among scientists. Some believe symbiosis should only refer to persistent mutualisms, while others believe it should apply to any type of persistent biological interaction (in other words mutualistic, commensalistic, or parasitic). After 130 years of debate, current biology and ecology textbooks now use the latter "de Bary" definition or an even broader definition (where symbiosis means all species interactions), with the restrictive definition no longer used (in other words, symbiosis means mutualism).


What is the type of symbiotic relationship where two organisms can't survive without each other?

Some symbiotic relationships are obligate, meaning that both symbionts entirely depend on each other for survival. For example, many lichens consist of fungal and photosynthetic symbionts that cannot live on their own. Others are facultative (optional): they can, but do not have to live with the other organism.


What is the type of symbiotic relationship where the symbionts can live together but can also survive alone?


What is an example of an obligate relationship?


Symbiotic relationships include those associations in which one organism lives on another (ectosymbiosis, such as mistletoe), or where one partner lives inside the other (endosymbiosis, such as lactobacilli and other bacteria in humans or Symbiodinium in corals). Symbiosis is also classified by physical attachment of the organisms; symbiosis in which the organisms have bodily union is called conjunctive symbiosis, and symbiosis in which they are not in union is called disjunctive symbiosis.


What is it called when the organisms are not physically joined?


What is it called when one symbiont lives within its partner?


What do bacterial endosymbionts give necessary nutrition to?

Endosymbiosis is any symbiotic relationship in which one symbiont lives within the tissues of the other, either within the cells or extracellularly. Examples include diverse microbiomes, rhizobia, nitrogen-fixing bacteria that live in root nodules on legume roots; actinomycete nitrogen-fixing bacteria called Frankia, which live in alder tree root nodules; single-celled algae inside reef-building corals; and bacterial endosymbionts that provide essential nutrients to about 10%–15% of insects.


What is the name of a bacteria inside of tree roots?