What's the oldest rugby team in Southampton?

The city is also well provided for in amateur men's and women's rugby with a number of teams in and around the city, the oldest of which is Trojans RFC who were promoted to London South West 2 division in 2008/9. A notable former player is Anthony Allen, who played with Leicester Tigers as a centre. Tottonians are also in London South West division 2 and Southampton RFC are in Hampshire division 1 in 2009/10, alongside Millbrook RFC and Eastleigh RFC. Many of the sides run mini and midi teams from under sevens up to under sixteens for both boys and girls.


What division was Trojans RFC promoted to in 2008-9?


What famous player from Trojans RFC also played for the Leicester Tigers?


What position did Allen play for the Leicester Tigers?


What division do the Tottonians belong to?


What feature does Southampton have plenty of that provides for water sports and yachting?

The city provides for yachting and water sports, with a number of marinas. From 1977 to 2001 the Whitbread Around the World Yacht Race, which is now known as the Volvo Ocean Race was based in Southampton's Ocean Village marina.


What race named after a car company used to be hosted in Southampton?


What was the former name of the Volvo Ocean Race?


Which marina in Southampton hosted the yacht race from 1977 too 2001?


What facility is the center of Southampton's public sports and outdoor activities?

The city also has the Southampton Sports Centre which is the focal point for the public's sporting and outdoor activities and includes an Alpine Centre, theme park and athletics centre which is used by professional athletes. With the addition of 11 other additional leisure venures which are currently operate by the Council leisure executives. However these have been sold the operating rights to "Park Wood Leisure."


How many additional leisure venues are run by Council executives?


What company did the Council leisure executives sell operating rights to?


What magazine awarded Southampton "fittest city in the UK" in 2006?

Southampton was named "fittest city in the UK" in 2006 by Men's Fitness magazine. The results were based on the incidence of heart disease, the amount of junk food and alcohol consumed, and the level of gym membership. In 2007, it had slipped one place behind London, but was still ranked first when it came to the parks and green spaces available for exercise and the amount of television watched by Sotonians was the lowest in the country. Speedway racing took place at Banister Court Stadium in the pre-war era. It returned in the 1940s after WW2 and the Saints operated until the stadium closed down at the end of 1963. A training track operated in the 1950s in the Hamble area.


How many spots did Southampton lose in the "fittest city" rankings for 2007?


Who was the "fittest city in the UK" ahead of Southampton in 2007?


During the pre-war period, where was speedway racing held?


What year did Banister Court Stadium close its doors for good?


What College American Football team calls Southampton home?

Southampton is also home to one of the most successful College American Football teams in the UK, the Southampton Stags, who play at the Wide Lane Sports Facility in Eastleigh.


At what sports venue do the Southampton Stags play?


Where is the Wide Lane Sports Facility located?


Who is responsible for policing Southampton?

Southampton's police service is provided by Hampshire Constabulary. The main base of the Southampton operation is a new, eight storey purpose-built building which cost £30 million to construct. The building, located on Southern Road, opened in 2011 and is near to Southampton Central railway station. Previously, the central Southampton operation was located within the west wing of the Civic Centre, however the ageing facilities and the plans of constructing a new museum in the old police station and magistrates court necessitated the move. There are additional police stations at Portswood, Banister Park, Bitterne, and Shirley as well as a British Transport Police station at Southampton Central railway station.


How much did it cost to build the operations base of Southampton's police service?


On what street in Southampton is the police headquarters for the city?


What year did the brand new, eight-story police headquarters open?


What train station is close to the police force's building?


Southampton's fire cover is provided by Hampshire Fire and Rescue Service. There are three fire stations within the city boundaries at St Mary's, Hightown and Redbridge.


How many fire stations are there in Southampton city limits?


Along with Hightown and Redbridge, what's the third fire station in Southampton?


How many crimes overall are reported for each 1,000 people in Southampton?

According to Hampshire Constabulary figures, Southampton is currently safer than it has ever been before, with dramatic reductions in violent crime year on year for the last three years. Data from the Southampton Safer City Partnership shows there has been a reduction in all crimes in recent years and an increase in crime detection rates. According to government figures Southampton has a higher crime rate than the national average. There is some controversy regarding comparative crime statisitics due to inconsistencies between different police forces recording methodologies. For example, in Hampshire all reported incidents are recorded and all records then retained. However, in neighbouring Dorset crimes reports withdrawn or shown to be false are not recorded, reducing apparent crime figures. In the violence against the person category, the national average is 16.7 per 1000 population while Southampton is 42.4 per 1000 population. In the theft from a vehicle category, the national average is 7.6 per 1000 compared to Southampton's 28.4 per 1000. Overall, for every 1,000 people in the city, 202 crimes are recorded. Hampshire Constabulary's figures for 2009/10 show fewer incidents of recorded crime in Southampton than the previous year.


Did Hampshire Constabulary record fewer or more crime incidents in 2009/10 than the year before?


For how many consecutive years has violent crime in Southampton decreased?


Is Southampton's crime rate higher or lower than the national average?


Which statistics are debated because of the different ways various police forces record crime?


Is Southampton's higher education sector weak or strong?

The city has a strong higher education sector. The University of Southampton and Southampton Solent University together have a student population of over 40,000.


What's the combined student population of the two major universities in Southampton?


What's the name of the institution of higher learning with "Solent" in its name?


What year was the University of Southampton founded?

The University of Southampton, which was founded in 1862 and received its Royal Charter as a university in 1952, has over 22,000 students. The university is ranked in the top 100 research universities in the world in the Academic Ranking of World Universities 2010. In 2010, the THES - QS World University Rankings positioned the University of Southampton in the top 80 universities in the world. The university considers itself one of the top 5 research universities in the UK. The university has a global reputation for research into engineering sciences, oceanography, chemistry, cancer sciences, sound and vibration research, computer science and electronics, optoelectronics and textile conservation at the Textile Conservation Centre (which is due to close in October 2009.) It is also home to the National Oceanography Centre, Southampton (NOCS), the focus of Natural Environment Research Council-funded marine research.


When did the University of Southampton receive university designation by official Royal Charter?


The University of Southampton has more than what number of students attending?


What research centre at the University of Southampton is abbreviated NOCS?


What organization ranked the University of Southampton in the top 80 universities worldwide in 2010?


How many students attend Southampton Solent University?

Southampton Solent University has 17,000 students and its strengths are in the training, design, consultancy, research and other services undertaken for business and industry. It is also host to the Warsash Maritime Academy, which provides training and certification for the international shipping and off-shore oil industries.


What specialized academy does Southampton Solent University host?


In addition to international shipping, what other industry does the Warsash Maritime Academy prepare students for?


How many standalone sixth form colleges are there in Southampton?

In addition to school sixth forms at St Anne's and King Edward's there are two sixth form colleges: Itchen College and Richard Taunton Sixth Form College. A number of Southampton pupils will travel outside the city, for example to Barton Peveril College. Southampton City College is a further education college serving the city. The college offers a range of vocational courses for school leavers, as well as ESOL programmes and Access courses for adult learners.


What college of further education offers vocational courses and ESOL programs?


What courses does Southampton City College offer to adult students?


What college with the initials BPC is outside of the city but still popular with students from Southampton?


What's the sixth form college named after a person?


More than what percentage of the students surveyed said they'd been bullied?

Over 40 per cent of school pupils in the city that responded to a survey claimed to have been the victim of bullying. More than 2,000 took part and said that verbal bullying was the most common form, although physical bullying was a close second for boys.


About how many pupils took the bullying survey?


What specific form of bullying did the survey show was most common?


What was the second most common form of bullying experienced by boys who took the survey?


Which level of schools in Southampton are the worst behaved in the UK?

It has been revealed that Southampton has the worst behaved secondary schools within the UK. With suspension rates three times the national average, the suspension rate is approximately 1 in every 14 children, the highest in the country for physical or verbal assaults against staff.


How many times the national average are the suspension rates at Southampton's secondary schools?


Out of about every 14 students, how many will be suspended from school?


In addition to physical attacks, what other kind of assault do Southampton's students commit against staff more than anywhere else in the country?


Which motorway located north of Southampton links up England's south coast?

Southampton is a major UK port which has good transport links with the rest of the country. The M27 motorway, linking places along the south coast of England, runs just to the north of the city. The M3 motorway links the city to London and also, via a link to the A34 (part of the European route E05) at Winchester, with the Midlands and North. The M271 motorway is a spur of the M27, linking it with the Western Docks and city centre.


Which motorway connects Southampton to London?


What city is located on the A34 where the M3 connects to the North and Midlands?


What spur of the M27 connects it to Southampton's city centre and Western Docks?


Are Southampton's transport routes around the UK good or bad?


Southampton's railways provide freight services and what other important services?

Southampton is also served by the rail network, which is used both by freight services to and from the docks and passenger services as part of the national rail system. The main station in the city is Southampton Central. Rail routes run east towards Portsmouth, north to Winchester, the Midlands and London, and westwards to Bournemouth, Poole, Dorchester, Weymouth, Salisbury, Bristol and Cardiff. The route to London was opened in 1840 by what was to become the London and South Western Railway Company. Both this and its successor the Southern Railway (UK) played a significant role in the creation of the modern port following their purchase and development of the town's docks.


What's the name of the main train station in Southampton?


Heading east from Southampton, what city is connected by rail?


In which direction do trains run from Southampton to Winchester?


In what year did the rail route from Southampton to London open?


In addition to the southern and eastern sections of Southampton, what other section has local train service?

Local train services operate in the central, southern and eastern sections of the city and are operated by South West Trains, with stations at Swaythling, St Denys, Millbrook, Redbridge, Bitterne, Sholing and Woolston. Plans were announced by Hampshire County Council in July 2009 for the introduction of tram-train running from Hythe (on what is now a freight-only line to Fawley) via Totton to Southampton Central Station and on to Fareham via St. Denys, and Swanwick. The proposal follows a failed plan to bring light rail to the Portsmouth and Gosport areas in 2005.


What company operates Southampton's local train service?


What organization announced plans for rail expansion in Southampton in July of 2009?


In what year did a proposal to expand light rail service to Portsmouth and Gosport fail?


What's the current destination of the freight-only line the Hampshire County Council wants to use to expand passenger service?


What competing railway company tried to open a rail route in the 1880s?

The town was the subject of an attempt by a separate company, the Didcot, Newbury and Southampton Railway, to open another rail route to the North in the 1880s and some building work, including a surviving embankment, was undertaken in the Hill Lane area.


In which direction did the Didcot, Newbury and Southampton Railway want to expand?


What feature survives in the Hill Lane area as evidence of the Didcot, Newbury and Southampton Railway's work?


In what town is Southampton Airport located?

Southampton Airport is a regional airport located in the town of Eastleigh, just north of the city. It offers flights to UK and near European destinations, and is connected to the city by a frequent rail service from Southampton Airport (Parkway) railway station, and by bus services.


What direction would one travel from Southampton to get to the airport in Eastleigh?


If passengers don't want to take a train to the airport, what other transport is available?


To take a train to Southampton Airport, what railway station would you need to go through?


What cruise line has its headquarters in Southampton?

Many of the world's largest cruise ships can regularly be seen in Southampton water, including record-breaking vessels from Royal Caribbean and Carnival Corporation & plc. The latter has headquarters in Southampton, with its brands including Princess Cruises, P&O Cruises and Cunard Line.


Besides Carnival, what other major cruise line parks its record-breaking cruise ships in Southampton Water?


In addition to P&O Cruises and Cunard Line, what other brand does Carnival Corporation own?


What brand of cruise ships has a special importance to Southampton?

The city has a particular connection to Cunard Line and their fleet of ships. This was particularly evident on 11 November 2008 when the Cunard liner RMS Queen Elizabeth 2 departed the city for the final time amid a spectacular fireworks display after a full day of celebrations. Cunard ships are regularly launched in the city, for example Queen Victoria was named by HRH The Duchess of Cornwall in December 2007, and the Queen named Queen Elizabeth in the city during October 2011. The Duchess of Cambridge performed the naming ceremony of Royal Princess on 13 June 2013.


What was the name of the liner that left Southampton on its final journey on November 11, 2008?


Who christened the Cunard ship Queen Victoria in December 2007?


In what year did the Queen Elizabeth receive its name from the Queen?


What ship did the Duchess of Cambridge christen on June 13, 2013?


What does Southampton call the event when three ships named after queens all visit the city?

At certain times of the year, The Queen Mary 2, Queen Elizabeth and Queen Victoria may all visit Southampton at the same time, in an event commonly called 'Arrival of the Three Queens'.


Which of the "Three Queens" has a number in its name?


Along with the Queen Mary 2 and Queen Victoria, which third ship must be present for the 'Arrival of the Three Queens'?


What cruise line celebrated a landmark anniversary in Southampton in July of 2012?

The importance of Southampton to the cruise industry was indicated by P&O Cruises's 175th anniversary celebrations, which included all seven of the company's liners visiting Southampton in a single day. Adonia, Arcadia, Aurora, Azura, Oceana, Oriana and Ventura all left the city in a procession on 3 July 2012.


Which anniversary did P&O celebrate in Southampton?


How many P&O liners visited Southampton on the day of the 175th anniversary celebrations?


Which of the seven P&O cruise liners has a name that begins with "V"?


Along with the Oriana, what's the other P&O liner with a name that starts with the same letter?


How many internal ferry services does Southampton serve?

While Southampton is no longer the base for any cross-channel ferries, it is the terminus for three internal ferry services, all of which operate from terminals at Town Quay. Two of these, a car ferry service and a fast catamaran passenger ferry service, provide links to East Cowes and Cowes respectively on the Isle of Wight and are operated by Red Funnel. The third ferry is the Hythe Ferry, providing a passenger service to Hythe on the other side of Southampton Water.


What is the name of the quay where all three ferries have their terminals?


How many of the ferries connect to the Isle of Wight?


What company operates the ferries to East Cowes and Cowes?


What body of water does the Hythe Ferry cross to reach Hythe from Southampton?


In what decade was the ferry port built in Southampton to carry people to exotic destinations on the continent?

Southampton used to be home to a number of ferry services to the continent, with destinations such as San Sebastian, Lisbon, Tangier and Casablanca. A ferry port was built during the 1960s. However, a number of these relocated to Portsmouth and by 1996, there were no longer any car ferries operating from Southampton with the exception of services to the Isle of Wight. The land used for Southampton Ferry Port was sold off and a retail and housing development was built on the site. The Princess Alexandra Dock was converted into a marina. Reception areas for new cars now fill the Eastern Docks where passengers, dry docks and trains used to be.


By what year did car ferries finish operating from Southampton, other than the one to the Isle of Wight?


What was built on the site where the Southampton Ferry Port used to be?


What has the Princess Alexandra Dock become?


What location that was once filled with passengers, dry docks, and trains is now a holding area for new cars?


What form of public transport do most people in Southampton use now?

Buses now provide the majority of local public transport. The main bus operators are First Southampton and Bluestar. Other operators include Brijan Tours, Stagecoach and Xelabus. The other large service provider is the Uni-link bus service (running from early in the morning to midnight), which was commissioned by the University of Southampton to provide transport from the university to the town. Previously run by Enterprise, it is now run by Bluestar. Free buses are provided by City-link'. The City-link runs from the Red Funnel ferry terminal at Town Quay to Central station via WestQuay and is operated by Bluestar. There is also a door-to-door minibus service called Southampton Dial a Ride, for residents who cannot access public transport. This is funded by the council and operated by SCA Support Services.


Along with First Southampton, what is the other main bus operator in Southampton?


What bus service did the University of Southampton commission to carry people between the city and the university?


What time does Uni-link stop service to the university each night?


What operator ran Uni-link before Bluestar?


What road does First use stops around to leave a terminal available for other buses?

There are two main termini for bus services. As the biggest operator, First uses stops around Pound Tree Road. This leaves the other terminal of West Quay available for other operators. Uni-link passes West Quay in both directions, and Wilts & Dorset drop passengers off and pick them up there, terminating at a series of bus stands along the road. Certain Bluestar services also do this, while others stop at Bargate and some loop round West Quay, stopping at Hanover Buildings. There was a tram system from 1879 to 1949.


Which bus service passes West Quay going in both directions?


What operator drops off and picks up passengers at West Quay?


When did the tram system stop operating in Southampton?


Where do buses that loop around West Quay stop?


Who are the actors in international law?

A treaty is an agreement under international law entered into by actors in international law, namely sovereign states and international organizations. A treaty may also be known as an (international) agreement, protocol, covenant, convention, pact, or exchange of letters, among other terms. Regardless of terminology, all of these forms of agreements are, under international law, equally considered treaties and the rules are the same.


What is an agreement entered into by actors in international law?


How are different forms of agreements treated under international law compared to treaties?


How would you compare the rules of a treaty and a covenant under international law?


What must a party to a treaty do to prevent being held liable under international law?

Treaties can be loosely compared to contracts: both are means of willing parties assuming obligations among themselves, and a party to either that fails to live up to their obligations can be held liable under international law.


What is comparable in domestic law to a treaty in international law?


Under what will a party to a treaty be held liable for failing to uphold their obligations?


What must be the attitude of a party towards assuming the legal obligations of the treaty?


What do we call the willingly-assumed burdens placed upon parties to both treaties and contracts?


How are the agreements in a treaty expressed?

A treaty is an official, express written agreement that states use to legally bind themselves. A treaty is the official document which expresses that agreement in words; and it is also the objective outcome of a ceremonial occasion which acknowledges the parties and their defined relationships.


How are states that enter into a treaty bound?


What is an official document which expresses an agreement between two states?


What is an objective outcome of a ceremonial occasion which acknowledges the defined relationships of its parties?


Who is responsible for the legally-bound obligations of the parties to a treaty?


What is shared by most treaties since the late 19th century?

Since the late 19th century, most treaties have followed a fairly consistent format. A treaty typically begins with a preamble describing the contracting parties and their joint objectives in executing the treaty, as well as summarizing any underlying events (such as a war). Modern preambles are sometimes structured as a single very long sentence formatted into multiple paragraphs for readability, in which each of the paragraphs begins with a verb (desiring, recognizing, having, and so on).


What is the beginning of a typical treaty called?


Why are long sentences in a modern preamble formatted into multiple paragraphs?


Each paragraph of a modern preamble typically begins with which part of speech?


In addition to describing the parties and their joint objectives, what else does a modern preamble typically summarize?


What term describes a common clause in a treaty stating that the representatives of the parties have communicated their full powers?

The contracting parties' full names or sovereign titles are often included in the preamble, along with the full names and titles of their representatives, and a boilerplate clause about how their representatives have communicated (or exchanged) their full powers (i.e., the official documents appointing them to act on behalf of their respective states) and found them in good or proper form.


What are the official documents appointing a party's representative to act on their behalf?


In addition to their full names, what else is included in the preamble that identifies the parties to a treaty?


How must the full powers of a parties' representatives be found in order to enter into a treaty?


Who else besides the parties themselves is typically identified in the preamble to a treaty?


After the preamble comes numbered articles, which contain the substance of the parties' actual agreement. Each article heading usually encompasses a paragraph. A long treaty may further group articles under chapter headings.


What is contained in the numbered articles of a treaty?


What does each article heading usually encompass?


How might the articles in a long treaty be grouped?


The numbered articles of a treaty may be grouped by chapter heading in what kind of treaty?


What type of resolution to disputes is typically outlined in a treaty?

Modern treaties, regardless of subject matter, usually contain articles governing where the final authentic copies of the treaty will be deposited and how any subsequent disputes as to their interpretation will be peacefully resolved.


Which section of a treaty typically contains information about the whereabouts of the final authentic copies of a treaty?


Parties to a treaty might have disputes about what aspect of the articles of a treaty?


Which copies of a treaty have their locations outlined in most modern treaties?


Modern treaties typically outline the procedures for the peaceful resolution of what?


What is the formal name for the closing protocol of a treaty?

The end of a treaty, the eschatocol (or closing protocol), is often signaled by a clause like "in witness whereof" or "in faith whereof," the parties have affixed their signatures, followed by the words "DONE at," then the site(s) of the treaty's execution and the date(s) of its execution. The date is typically written in its most formal, longest possible form. For example, the Charter of the United Nations was "DONE at the city of San Francisco the twenty-sixth day of June, one thousand nine hundred and forty-five." If the treaty is executed in multiple copies in different languages, that fact is always noted, and is followed by a stipulation that the versions in different languages are equally authentic.


What typically follows the signatures in a treaty?


How is the date typically written in a treaty?


What is the nature of the different versions of a treaty executed in multiple languages?


A clause like "in witness whereof" or "in faith whereof" typically signals what in a treaty?


Whose signatures appear at the very end of a treaty?

The signatures of the parties' representatives follow at the very end. When the text of a treaty is later reprinted, such as in a collection of treaties currently in effect, an editor will often append the dates on which the respective parties ratified the treaty and on which it came into effect for each party.


Where might the text of a treaty be reprinted?


Who, upon reprinting, will often append the dates on which the treaty was ratified and came into effect?


Each party must have done what in order for the treaty to come into effect?


Even if signed and ratified on the same date, the treaty might have done what on different dates?


Bilateral treaties are concluded between how many states or entities?

Bilateral treaties are concluded between two states or entities. It is possible, however, for a bilateral treaty to have more than two parties; consider for instance the bilateral treaties between Switzerland and the European Union (EU) following the Swiss rejection of the European Economic Area agreement. Each of these treaties has seventeen parties. These however are still bilateral, not multilateral, treaties. The parties are divided into two groups, the Swiss ("on the one part") and the EU and its member states ("on the other part"). The treaty establishes rights and obligations between the Swiss and the EU and the member states severally—it does not establish any rights and obligations amongst the EU and its member states.[citation needed]


Is it possible for a bilateral treaty to have more than two parties?


The bilateral treaties between Switzerland and the European Union followed the Swiss rejection of what?


Does the bilateral treaty between Switzerland and the European Union establish rights or obligations amongst the EU and its member states?


The treaty between Switzerland and the European Union is an example of what kind of treaty?


What is a treaty concluded among several countries?

A multilateral treaty is concluded among several countries. The agreement establishes rights and obligations between each party and every other party. Multilateral treaties are often regional.[citation needed] Treaties of "mutual guarantee" are international compacts, e.g., the Treaty of Locarno which guarantees each signatory against attack from another.


Between which parties does a multilateral treaty establish rights and obligations?


The Treaty of Locarno guarantees each signatory against what from another signatory?


What type of treaty is a mutual guarantee?


Multilateral treaties are often entered into by countries that share the same what?


What are caveats to a state's acceptance of a treaty?

Reservations are essentially caveats to a state's acceptance of a treaty. Reservations are unilateral statements purporting to exclude or to modify the legal obligation and its effects on the reserving state. These must be included at the time of signing or ratification, i.e. "a party cannot add a reservation after it has already joined a treaty".


What are unilateral statements purporting to exclude or to modify the legal obligation and its effects on a state?


When must reservations be included in a treaty?


What are parties to a treaty forbidden to do after they have already joined a treaty?


A reserving party to a treaty may include a statement that attempts to do what to its legal obligations or their effects?


A more permissive rule regarding what emerged to encourage the largest number of states to join treaties?

Originally, international law was unaccepting of treaty reservations, rejecting them unless all parties to the treaty accepted the same reservations. However, in the interest of encouraging the largest number of states to join treaties, a more permissive rule regarding reservations has emerged. While some treaties still expressly forbid any reservations, they are now generally permitted to the extent that they are not inconsistent with the goals and purposes of the treaty.


Reservations are generally permitted so long as they are not what?


How did international law originally respond to treaty reservations?


Originally reservations were rejected under international law unless which parties of the treaty accepted them?


Because they are generally accepted under international law, a treaty must forbid reservations in what manner to prevent their adoption?


When a state adds reservations to a treaty, other parties to the treaty can respond to those reservations in what ways?

When a state limits its treaty obligations through reservations, other states party to that treaty have the option to accept those reservations, object to them, or object and oppose them. If the state accepts them (or fails to act at all), both the reserving state and the accepting state are relieved of the reserved legal obligation as concerns their legal obligations to each other (accepting the reservation does not change the accepting state's legal obligations as concerns other parties to the treaty). If the state opposes, the parts of the treaty affected by the reservation drop out completely and no longer create any legal obligations on the reserving and accepting state, again only as concerns each other. Finally, if the state objects and opposes, there are no legal obligations under that treaty between those two state parties whatsoever. The objecting and opposing state essentially refuses to acknowledge the reserving state is a party to the treaty at all.


Who remains unaffected when a party's reservation is accepted by a second party?


What happens to the parts of the treaty affected by a rejected reservation as they concern the reserving and rejecting parties?


What legal obligations exist between two state parties if one objects and opposes the other's reservations?


If a state party objects and opposes another state's reservations it essentially refuses to acknowledge what?


How many ways are there to amend an existing treaty?

There are three ways an existing treaty can be amended. First, formal amendment requires State parties to the treaty to go through the ratification process all over again. The re-negotiation of treaty provisions can be long and protracted, and often some parties to the original treaty will not become parties to the amended treaty. When determining the legal obligations of states, one party to the original treaty and one a party to the amended treaty, the states will only be bound by the terms they both agreed upon. Treaties can also be amended informally by the treaty executive council when the changes are only procedural, technical change in customary international law can also amend a treaty, where state behavior evinces a new interpretation of the legal obligations under the treaty. Minor corrections to a treaty may be adopted by a procès-verbal; but a procès-verbal is generally reserved for changes to rectify obvious errors in the text adopted, i.e. where the text adopted does not correctly reflect the intention of the parties adopting it.


What must state parties to a treaty repeat to adopt a formal amendment to the treaty?


What amendment process is generally reserved for changes that rectify obvious errors in the text?


Parties to an original treaty and an amended treaty are bound to what terms?


In addition to the often long and protracted nature of treaty renegotiation, what negative outcome might result from the process?


What is a treaty that supplements a previous treaty in international law?

In international law and international relations, a protocol is generally a treaty or international agreement that supplements a previous treaty or international agreement. A protocol can amend the previous treaty, or add additional provisions. Parties to the earlier agreement are not required to adopt the protocol. Sometimes this is made clearer by calling it an "optional protocol", especially where many parties to the first agreement do not support the protocol.


A protocol may either amend a previous treaty or do what?


Do parties to a treaty have an obligation to adopt a later protocol?


What do we sometimes call an agreement that supplements a treaty especially when few parties to the treaty support the protocol?


A protocol may add additional provisions to a treaty or else do what?


The Kyoto Protocol is associated with what treaty?

Some examples: the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) established a framework for the development of binding greenhouse gas emission limits, while the Kyoto Protocol contained the specific provisions and regulations later agreed upon.


The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change was supplemented by what protocol?


The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change established a framework for the development of what?


While the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change established a framework for developing greenhouse gas emission limits, the Kyoto Protocol contained what?


The agreement that contained specific provisions related to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change is an example of what agreement that supplements a treaty?


A treaty that puts all of its obligations in action simply by becoming a party to it is known as what?

Treaties may be seen as 'self-executing', in that merely becoming a party puts the treaty and all of its obligations in action. Other treaties may be non-self-executing and require 'implementing legislation'—a change in the domestic law of a state party that will direct or enable it to fulfill treaty obligations. An example of a treaty requiring such legislation would be one mandating local prosecution by a party for particular crimes.


What do non-self-executing treaties typically require from a party to enable it to fulfill its obligations?


What is "implementing legislation" that is required by a party to a treaty to enable it to fulfill its obligations under the treaty?


A treaty requiring local prosecution by a party for particular crimes is an example of which type of treaty?


Signing a self-executing treaty automatically does what for a party?


What type of treaty cannot be acted on without the proper change in domestic law?

The division between the two is often not clear and is often politicized in disagreements within a government over a treaty, since a non-self-executing treaty cannot be acted on without the proper change in domestic law. If a treaty requires implementing legislation, a state may be in default of its obligations by the failure of its legislature to pass the necessary domestic laws.


A state party may be in default of its obligations under a non-self-executing treaty if its legislature fails to do what?


What institution of a party to a treaty must act to fulfill the party's obligations under a non-self-executing treaty?


The often unclear division between a self-executing treaty and a non-self-executing treaty can lead to a treaty being what if disagreements exist within a party?


A treaty may be politicized due to disagreements within a party because the division between a self-executing treaty and a non-self-executing treaty can often be described as what?


What principle is often invoked by legal experts when interpreting the language of treaties?

The language of treaties, like that of any law or contract, must be interpreted when the wording does not seem clear or it is not immediately apparent how it should be applied in a perhaps unforeseen circumstance. The Vienna Convention states that treaties are to be interpreted "in good faith" according to the "ordinary meaning given to the terms of the treaty in their context and in the light of its object and purpose." International legal experts also often invoke the 'principle of maximum effectiveness,' which interprets treaty language as having the fullest force and effect possible to establish obligations between the parties.


The principle of maximum effectiveness interprets the language of treaties as having what effect to establish obligations between parties?


What states that treaties are to be interpreted "in good faith" according to the "ordinary meaning given to the terms of the treaty in their context and in light of its object and purpose?"


What property of treaties must often be interpreted when it's not clear?


Besides unclear language what might also arise that necessitates the interpretation of the language of a treaty?


No one party to a treaty can do what to the other parties?

No one party to a treaty can impose its particular interpretation of the treaty upon the other parties. Consent may be implied, however, if the other parties fail to explicitly disavow that initially unilateral interpretation, particularly if that state has acted upon its view of the treaty without complaint. Consent by all parties to the treaty to a particular interpretation has the legal effect of adding another clause to the treaty – this is commonly called an 'authentic interpretation'.


What may be implied of other parties fail to explicitly disavow a party's initially unilateral interpretation of a treaty?


Consent for a party's unilateral interpretation of a treaty may be implied if that state has acted upon its view of the treat without what from another party?


Consent by all parties to a treaty to a particular interpretation of the treaty has what legal effect?


The legal effect of adding another clause to a treaty that occurs when all parties to a treaty consent to a particular interpretation of the treaty is commonly known as what?


What are international tribunals and arbiters often called upon to resolve in regards to treaties?

International tribunals and arbiters are often called upon to resolve substantial disputes over treaty interpretations. To establish the meaning in context, these judicial bodies may review the preparatory work from the negotiation and drafting of the treaty as well as the final, signed treaty itself.


What judicial bodies might be called upon to resolve disputes pertaining to the interpretation of treaties?


In addition to the final, signed treaty what else might arbiters review to establish the meaning of a treaty in context?


For what purpose might an international tribunal review the preparatory work from the negotiation and drafting of a treaty?


In addition to the preparatory work from the drafting and negotiation of a treaty, what might arbiters review when resolving a dispute over the interpretation of a treaty?


What are agreements between states within the United States called?

One significant part of treaty making is that signing a treaty implies recognition that the other side is a sovereign state and that the agreement being considered is enforceable under international law. Hence, nations can be very careful about terming an agreement to be a treaty. For example, within the United States, agreements between states are compacts and agreements between states and the federal government or between agencies of the government are memoranda of understanding.


What are agreements between states and the federal government called within the United States?


In the United States, what are agreements between agencies of the federal government called?


Nations can be careful about terming an agreement a treaty because it has the effect of recognizing that the other side is a what?


Under what do all parties to a treaty recognize the provisions of the treaty are enforceable?


Parties to a treaty may disagree over a desire to create an obligation under what?

Another situation can occur when one party wishes to create an obligation under international law, but the other party does not. This factor has been at work with respect to discussions between North Korea and the United States over security guarantees and nuclear proliferation.


Discussions between what two countries have been influence by one party's desire to create an obligation under international law?


Discussion between North Korea and the United States have been influenced by one party's desire to create obligations under international law with respect to what two topics?


North Korea and the United States have been characterized by a disagreement over one parties desire to create what with respect to security guarantees and nuclear proliferation?


What is the Treaty of Waitangi internationally considered to be?

The terminology can also be confusing because a treaty may and usually is named something other than a treaty, such as a convention, protocol, or simply agreement. Conversely some legal documents such as the Treaty of Waitangi are internationally considered to be documents under domestic law.


What other terms might be used to refer to a treaty?


What common terminological problem can sometimes lead to confusion surrounding a treaty?


What's an example of a treaty that is considered internationally to be documents under domestic law?


Convention, protocol, and agreement are examples of examples of different kinds of what that can create confusion about a treaty?


Traditionally, what must a state do in order for an obligation to arise in international law?

Treaties are not necessarily permanently binding upon the signatory parties. As obligations in international law are traditionally viewed as arising only from the consent of states, many treaties expressly allow a state to withdraw as long as it follows certain procedures of notification. For example, the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs provides that the treaty will terminate if, as a result of denunciations, the number of parties falls below 40. Many treaties expressly forbid withdrawal. Article 56 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties provides that where a treaty is silent over whether or not it can be denounced there is a rebuttable presumption that it cannot be unilaterally denounced unless:


What is the only barrier to withdrawal contained in many treaties?


Are treaties permanently binding upon the signatory parties?


What treaty will terminate if the number of parties falls below 40 as a result of denunciations?


Which article of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties provides that there is a presumption that treaties cannot be unilaterally denounced?


What is an example of a treaty from which it is not possible to withdraw?

The possibility of withdrawal depends on the terms of the treaty and its travaux preparatoire. It has, for example, been held that it is not possible to withdraw from the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights. When North Korea declared its intention to do this the Secretary-General of the United Nations, acting as registrar, said that original signatories of the ICCPR had not overlooked the possibility of explicitly providing for withdrawal, but rather had deliberately intended not to provide for it. Consequently, withdrawal was not possible.


What state declared its intention to withdraw from the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights?


Who, acting as registrar, informed North Korea that withdrawal was deliberately precluded by the original signatories of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights?


What two factors determine whether it is possible to withdraw from a treaty?


The terms and travaux preparatoire of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights were both factors in determining what aspect of the treaty as it relates to North Korea's stated intentions?


What factor, in practice, allows a state to withdraw from any treaty at any time?

In practice, because of sovereignty, any state can withdraw from any treaty at any time. The question of whether this is permitted is really a question of how other states will react to the withdrawal; for instance, another state might impose sanctions or go to war over a treaty violation.


What really determines whether withdrawal from a treaty is permitted?


What might a state do in response to another state's withdrawal from a treaty?


Although withdrawal from a treaty may not be possible in theory, when might it be possible anyway?


Because of sovereignty when may a state withdrawal from a treaty?


What happens to a state's obligations under a treaty upon its withdrawal from the treaty?

If a state party's withdrawal is successful, its obligations under that treaty are considered terminated, and withdrawal by one party from a bilateral treaty of course terminates the treaty. When a state withdraws from a multi-lateral treaty, that treaty will still otherwise remain in force among the other parties, unless, of course, otherwise should or could be interpreted as agreed upon between the remaining states parties to the treaty.[citation needed]


What kind of treaty is terminated by the withdrawal of just one party?


What happens to a multilateral treaty's rights and obligations among the other parties when just one party withdraws?


After what action by a state are its obligations under a treaty considered terminated?


Under what conditions could a single state's withdrawal result in the termination of a multilateral treaty?


What may be invoked as grounds for permanently terminating a treaty?

If a party has materially violated or breached its treaty obligations, the other parties may invoke this breach as grounds for temporarily suspending their obligations to that party under the treaty. A material breach may also be invoked as grounds for permanently terminating the treaty itself.


In addition to terminating the treaty itself, what actions by the other parties might result from one party materially violating or beaching its obligations?


In addition to suspending their obligations under a treaty to the violating party, what may result from a material breach of treaty obligations?


Who may invoke a material breach committed by a party to a treaty to suspend their obligations to that party?


What temporary actions can parties of a treaty take in response to a material violation of a party's obligations?


What might a tribunal or an arbiter be asked to determine regarding a breach of a treaty?

A treaty breach does not automatically suspend or terminate treaty relations, however. It depends on how the other parties regard the breach and how they resolve to respond to it. Sometimes treaties will provide for the seriousness of a breach to be determined by a tribunal or other independent arbiter. An advantage of such an arbiter is that it prevents a party from prematurely and perhaps wrongfully suspending or terminating its own obligations due to another's alleged material breach.


Using what to determine the seriousness of a breach can prevent a party from prematurely suspending its obligations due to another party's alleged material breach?


Does a material breach necessarily suspend or terminate treaty relations?


What determines whether a breach automatically suspends or terminates treaty relations?


A treaty breach does not necessarily affect treaty relations depending on how serious the other parties view the breach and what other factor?


Some treaties contains provisions for what to happen if certain defined conditions are met?

Treaties sometimes include provisions for self-termination, meaning that the treaty is automatically terminated if certain defined conditions are met. Some treaties are intended by the parties to be only temporarily binding and are set to expire on a given date. Other treaties may self-terminate if the treaty is meant to exist only under certain conditions.[citation needed]


What provision might a treaty include if it's meant to be only temporarily binding?


In addition to passing an expiration date, what might cause a treaty to self-terminate?


What happens to a treaty that was designed to terminate under certain conditions when those conditions are actually met?


What may we assume the parties to a treaty intended the treaty's obligations to be if the treaty included an expiration date?


What might result in a party to a treaty claiming a treaty should be terminated even absent an express provision for its termination?

A party may claim that a treaty should be terminated, even absent an express provision, if there has been a fundamental change in circumstances. Such a change is sufficient if unforeseen, if it undermined the “essential basis” of consent by a party, if it radically transforms the extent of obligations between the parties, and if the obligations are still to be performed. A party cannot base this claim on change brought about by its own breach of the treaty. This claim also cannot be used to invalidate treaties that established or redrew political boundaries.[citation needed]


A party cannot base its claim of a fundamental change in circumstances if the change was brought about by what?


The claim of a fundamental change in circumstances cannot be used to invalidate treaties that established or redrew what?


The radical transformation of what aspect of the obligations between the parties is a necessary condition for a claim of a fundamental change in circumstances to terminate a treaty?


In order to be considered a fundamental change, a change in circumstances must have been what at the time of the adoption of the treaty?


The Islamic Prophet Muhammad carried out a siege against what tribe in February 624?

The Islamic Prophet Muhammad carried out a siege against the Banu Qaynuqa tribe known as the Invasion of Banu Qaynuqa in February 624 Muhammad ordered his followers to attack the Banu Qaynuqa Jews for allegedly breaking the treaty known as the Constitution of Medina by pinning the clothes of a Muslim woman, which led to her being stripped naked As a result, a Muslim killed a Jew in retaliation, and the Jews in turn killed the Muslim man. This escalated to a chain of revenge killings, and enmity grew between Muslims and the Banu Qaynuqa, leading to the siege of their fortress.:122 The tribe eventually surrendered to Muhammad, who initially wanted to kill the members of Banu Qaynuqa but ultimately yielded to Abdullah ibn Ubayy's insistence and agreed to expel the Qaynuqa.


Muhammad ordered his followers to attack the Banu Qaynuqa Jews for allegedly breaking what treaty?


Who's insistence led the Prophet Muhammad to expel the Banu Qaynuqa Jews instead of kill them?


Pinning the clothes of a Muslim woman, which led to her being what, was the action that allegedly violated the Constitution of Medina?


What chained actions resulted from the alleged violation of the Constitution of Medina by the Banu Qaynuqa Jews?


What angel, according to Muslim tradition, ordered Muhammad to order a siege on the Banu Qurayza?

Muhammad also ordered another siege on the Banu Qurayza during the Invasion of Banu Qurayza, because according to Muslim tradition he had been ordered to do so by the angel Gabriel. Al-Waqidi claims Muhammad had a treaty with the tribe which was torn apart. Stillman and Watt deny the authenticity of al-Waqidi. Al-Waqidi has been frequently criticized by Muslim writers, who claim that he is unreliable. 600-900 members of the Banu Qurayza were beheaded after they surrendered (according to Tabari and Ibn Hisham). Another source says all Males and 1 woman beheaded (according to Sunni Hadith). Two Muslims were killed


Who claims Muhammad had a treaty with the Banu Qurayza that was torn apart?


How many members of the Banu Qurayza were beheaded after surrendering to Muhammad and his followers according to Tabari and Ibn Hisham?


According to Sunni Hadith which members of the Banu Qurayza were beheaded after surrendering to Muhammad and his followers?


How many Muslims were killed during the invasion of Banu Qurayza?


When are most of the problems created that might result in an otherwise valid treaty being rejected as a binding international agreement?

There are several reasons an otherwise valid and agreed upon treaty may be rejected as a binding international agreement, most of which involve problems created at the formation of the treaty.[citation needed] For example, the serial Japan-Korea treaties of 1905, 1907 and 1910 were protested; and they were confirmed as "already null and void" in the 1965 Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the Republic of Korea.


What treaties between Japan and Korea are examples of treaties that were declared null and void?


In what treaty were the serial Japan-Korea treaties of 1905, 1907, and 1910 confirmed as "already null and void?"


Which two states signed a treaty that declared previous treaties between the two from 1905, 1907, and 1910 to be already void?


An otherwise valid and agreed upon treaty may be rejected as what for several reasons most of which involve problems created at the formation of a treaty?


A party's consent to a treaty is invalid if it had been given by an agent or body without power to do so under what?

A party's consent to a treaty is invalid if it had been given by an agent or body without power to do so under that state's domestic law. States are reluctant to inquire into the internal affairs and processes of other states, and so a "manifest violation" is required such that it would be "objectively evident to any State dealing with the matter". A strong presumption exists internationally that a head of state has acted within his proper authority. It seems that no treaty has ever actually been invalidated on this provision.[citation needed]


For what does a strong presumption exist internationally that a head of state has acted within in entering into a treaty?


What is required to invalidate a party's consent due to a reluctance to inquire into the internal affairs and processes of other states?


A manifest violation is required to invalidate a party's consent to a treaty due to a reluctance internationally to inquire into what aspects of other states?


What might a party's consent to a treaty be considered if it has been given by an agent without the power under the state's domestic law to do so?


If a state's representative ignored restrictions he is subject to by his sovereign, what might that state's consent to a treaty be considered to be?

Consent is also invalid if it is given by a representative who ignored restrictions he is subject to by his sovereign during the negotiations, if the other parties to the treaty were notified of those restrictions prior to his signing.[citation needed]


Who might place restrictions on a representative during negotiation of a treaty?


What must be true of the ignored restrictions placed on a representative by his sovereign in order for a state's consent to a treaty to be considered invalid?


Who must have been notified of the ignored restrictions placed by a sovereign on his representative prior to the signing of a treaty in order for a state's consent to be considered invalid?


The preamble of what states that treaties are a source of international law?

According to the preamble in The Law of Treaties, treaties are a source of international law. If an act or lack thereof is condemned under international law, the act will not assume international legality even if approved by internal law. This means that in case of a conflict with domestic law, international law will always prevail.


Which will prevail in a conflict between international and domestic law?


What are started to be a source of international law in the preamble in The Law of Treaties?


Approval under what law will not make an act or lack thereof legal if condemned under international law?


An act or lack thereof cannot be made legal under what law even if made legal under internal law?


Which articles of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties set out the ways that treaties can be invalidated?

Articles 46–53 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties set out the only ways that treaties can be invalidated—considered unenforceable and void under international law. A treaty will be invalidated due to either the circumstances by which a state party joined the treaty, or due to the content of the treaty itself. Invalidation is separate from withdrawal, suspension, or termination (addressed above), which all involve an alteration in the consent of the parties of a previously valid treaty rather than the invalidation of that consent in the first place.


In addition to the circumstances by which a state party joined a treaty, why might a treaty be invalidated?


In addition to the content of the treaty itself, why might a treated by invalidated?


A treaty might be considered what if it's considered unenforceable and void under international law?


Which processes simply alter the consent given by parties to a previously valid treaty rather than invalidating the consent completely?


What on behalf of a state cannot invalidate that state's consent to a treaty?

A state's consent may be invalidated if there was an erroneous understanding of a fact or situation at the time of conclusion, which formed the "essential basis" of the state's consent. Consent will not be invalidated if the misunderstanding was due to the state's own conduct, or if the truth should have been evident.


Consent to a treaty will not be invalidated if what should have been evident?


What may be invalidated if there was an erroneous understanding of a fact or situation at the time of conclusion of a treaty?


An erroneous understanding of a fact or situation may only invalidate a state's consent to a treaty if what is also true about the erroneous understanding?


What, if it formed the "essential basis" of a state's consent to a treaty, may invalidate that consent?


What type of conduct of a party to a treaty can invalidate the consent of another party?

Consent will also be invalidated if it was induced by the fraudulent conduct of another party, or by the direct or indirect "corruption" of its representative by another party to the treaty. Coercion of either a representative, or the state itself through the threat or use of force, if used to obtain the consent of that state to a treaty, will invalidate that consent.


What type of action, either direct or indirect, of a state's representative by another type of party to a treaty can invalidate a state's consent?


Coercion of a representative or a state itself will result in what happening to its consent to a treaty?


Coercion of a state or its what through the threat or use of force, if used to obtain the consent of that state to a treaty, will invalidate that consent?


What must be true of coercion through the threat or use of force of a party to treaty for it to invalidate the state's consent to a treaty?


What will a treaty be if it is in violation of a peremptory norm?

A treaty is null and void if it is in violation of a peremptory norm. These norms, unlike other principles of customary law, are recognized as permitting no violations and so cannot be altered through treaty obligations. These are limited to such universally accepted prohibitions as those against the aggressive use of force, genocide and other crimes against humanity, piracy, hostilities directed at civilian population, racial discrimination and apartheid, slavery and torture, meaning that no state can legally assume an obligation to commit or permit such acts.


What type of norm is recognized as permitting no violations and so cannot be altered through treaty obligations?


What is true of acts such as genocide and piracy in regard to treaty law?


What distinguishes peremptory norms from other principles of customary law?


What is an example of a type of universally prohibited action that no state can legally assume an obligation to commit or permit through a treaty?


What is the judiciary organ of the United Nations?

The United Nations Charter states that treaties must be registered with the UN to be invoked before it or enforced in its judiciary organ, the International Court of Justice. This was done to prevent the proliferation of secret treaties that occurred in the 19th and 20th century. Section 103 of the Charter also states that its members' obligations under it outweigh any competing obligations under other treaties.


What document states that treaties must be registered with the United Nations to be invoked before it or enforced in the International Court of Justice?


Why does the United Nations Charter state that treaties must be registered with the United Nations?


In which centuries did a proliferation of secret treaties occur that led the United Nations Charter to include an obligation to register treaties to be invoked before it?


What section of the United Nations Charter states that its members' obligation under the charter outweigh any competing obligations under other treaties?


Treaties and their amendments must follow the official legal procedures of what body after their adoption?

After their adoption, treaties as well as their amendments have to follow the official legal procedures of the United Nations, as applied by the Office of Legal Affairs, including signature, ratification and entry into force.


Which office of the United Nations is in charge of applying its official legal procedures?


When must all treaties and their amendments follow the official legal procedures of the United Nations?


In addition to signature and ratification, what legal procedure of the United Nations must all treaties follow after their adoption?


What are three official legal procedures of the United Nations that all treaties must follow after their adoption?


The United Nations has been compared to what government in function and effectiveness?

In function and effectiveness, the UN has been compared to the pre-Constitutional United States Federal government by some[citation needed], giving a comparison between modern treaty law and the historical Articles of Confederation.


In which aspects has the United Nations been compared to the pre-Constitutional United States Federal government?


The comparison of the United Nations to the pre-Constitutional United States Federal government gives us a comparison between what modern and historical legal topics of interest?


Modern treaty law can be compared in function and effectiveness to the historical Articles of Confederation by comparing the pre-Constitutional United States Federal government with what modern institution?


What legal document formed the basis of the pre-Constitutional Federal government of the United States?


What part of the Brazilian federal consitution states that the power to enter into treaties is vested in the president and that such treaties must be approved by Congress?

The Brazilian federal constitution states that the power to enter into treaties is vested in the president and that such treaties must be approved by Congress (articles 84, clause VIII, and 49, clause I). In practice, this has been interpreted as meaning that the executive branch is free to negotiate and sign a treaty, but its ratification by the president is contingent upon the prior approval of Congress. Additionally, the Federal Supreme Court has ruled that, following ratification and entry into force, a treaty must be incorporated into domestic law by means of a presidential decree published in the federal register in order to be valid in Brazil and applicable by the Brazilian authorities.


In practice the Brazilian president must get the prior approval of what body in order to negotiate and sign a treaty?


What Brazilian institution has ruled that a treaty must be incorporated into domestic law by means of a presidential decree?


In order for a treaty to be valid in Brazil, a presidential decree incorporating the treaty into domestic law must be published where in order to be valid?


In what office is the power to enter into treaties vested according to the Brazilian federal constitution?


The Brazilian Federal Supreme Court has ruled that treaties enjoy what position relative to ordinary legislation?

The Federal Supreme Court has established that treaties are subject to constitutional review and enjoy the same hierarchical position as ordinary legislation (leis ordinárias, or "ordinary laws", in Portuguese). A more recent ruling by the Supreme Court in 2008 has altered that scheme somewhat, by stating that treaties containing human rights provisions enjoy a status above that of ordinary legislation, though they remain beneath the constitution itself. Additionally, as per the 45th amendment to the constitution, human rights treaties which are approved by Congress by means of a special procedure enjoy the same hierarchical position as a constitutional amendment. The hierarchical position of treaties in relation to domestic legislation is of relevance to the discussion on whether (and how) the latter can abrogate the former and vice versa.


In what year did the Brazilian Supreme Court rule that treaties containing human rights provisions enjoy a status above ordinary legislation?


What amendment to the Brazilian constitution states that human rights treaties approved by means of a special procedure by Congress enjoy the same position as a constitutional amendment?


The hierarchical position of treaties relative to domestic legislation in Brazil determines whether the latter can do what to the former and vice versa?


What is the Portuguese term for ordinary laws?


What kind of clause does the United States constitution have that the Brazilian constitution does not have with the same effects?

The Brazilian federal constitution does not have a supremacy clause with the same effects as the one on the U.S. constitution, a fact that is of interest to the discussion on the relation between treaties and state legislation.


A supremacy clause in a federal constitution is relevant to the discussion on the relation between treaties and what other type of legislation?


What clause of the United States Constitution is relevant to the discussion of the relation between treaties and U.S. legislation?


The Brazilian constitution does not have a supremacy clause that would be of interest to the relation between state legislation and what other legal agreements?


Treaties, executive agreements, congressional-executive agreements, and sole executive agreements are the same under international law but different with respect to what?

In the United States, the term "treaty" has a different, more restricted legal sense than exists in international law. United States law distinguishes what it calls treaties from executive agreement, congressional-executive agreements, and sole executive agreements. All four classes are equally treaties under international law; they are distinct only from the perspective of internal American law. The distinctions are primarily concerning their method of approval. Whereas treaties require advice and consent by two-thirds of the Senators present, sole executive agreements may be executed by the President acting alone. Some treaties grant the President the authority to fill in the gaps with executive agreements, rather than additional treaties or protocols. And finally, congressional-executive agreements require majority approval by both the House and the Senate, either before or after the treaty is signed by the President.


Under US law, what primarily distinguishes treaties, executive agreements, congressional-executive agreements, and sole executive agreements?


What percentage of United States Senators must give advice and consent in order for the US to enter a treaty?


What type of agreement may a US president enter by acting alone?


What type of agreement requires majority approval by both the House and the Senate before or after a treaty is signed by the United States president?


In the United States, what is the ratio of executive agreements to treaties?

Currently, international agreements are executed by executive agreement rather than treaties at a rate of 10:1. Despite the relative ease of executive agreements, the President still often chooses to pursue the formal treaty process over an executive agreement in order to gain congressional support on matters that require the Congress to pass implementing legislation or appropriate funds, and those agreements that impose long-term, complex legal obligations on the United States. For example, the deal by the United States, Iran and other countries is not a Treaty.


What is it about the approval process of executive agreements might lead a US president to prefer them over treaties?


The president of the United States might prefer the formal treaty process on matters that require Congress to do what?


The president of the United States might prefer the formal treaty process for agreements that impose what type of legal obligations on the US?


The international deal between the US, other countries, and what controversial nation is not a treaty?


In what cases did the US Supreme Court rule that treaties do not have a privileged position over Acts of Congress?

The Supreme Court ruled in the Head Money Cases that "treaties" do not have a privileged position over Acts of Congress and can be repealed or modified (for the purposes of U.S. law) by any subsequent Act of Congress, just like with any other regular law. The Supreme Court also ruled in Reid v. Covert that any treaty provision that conflicts with the Constitution are null and void under U.S. law.


The US Supreme Court ruled that treaties can be repealed or modified by what for the purposes of US law?


What Supreme Court case ruled that a treaty provision that conflicts with the US Constitution is null and void under US law?


The US Supreme Court ruled that treaties can be repealed or modified for the purposes of US law just like what by any subsequent Act of Congress?


Any treaty provision that conflicts with the US Constitution is considered what under US law?


Into what 3 lists are legislation subjects divided in India?

In India, the legislation subjects are divided into 3 lists -Union List, State List and Concurrent List . In the normal legislation process, the subjects in Union list can only be legislated upon by central legislative body called Parliament of India, for subjects in state list only respective state legislature can legislate. While for Concurrent subjects, both center and state can make laws. But to implement international treaties, Parliament can legislate on any subject overriding the general division of subject lists.


What type of legislative subjects can both the central legislative body and state legislatures make laws?


What is the central legislative body in India?


In order to implement international treaties, for what subjects can the Parliament of India legislate to override the general division of subject lists?


What subjects can only be legislated by the central legislative body in India?


What formed an important part of European colonization?

Treaties formed an important part of European colonization and, in many parts of the world, Europeans attempted to legitimize their sovereignty by signing treaties with indigenous peoples. In most cases these treaties were in extremely disadvantageous terms to the native people, who often did not appreciate the implications of what they were signing.


With whom did Europeans attempt to sign treaties in order to legitimize their sovereignty during colonization?


What terms in relation to Europeans did most indigenous people enjoy under treaties?


What aspect of the treaties that indigenous people signed with Europeans did the indigenous people typically not understand?


What did Europeans try to legitimize all over the world by signing treaties with indigenous people?


In what two rare cases were local governments able to mitigate the impact of of European colonization through treaties?

In some rare cases, such as with Ethiopia and Qing Dynasty China, the local governments were able to use the treaties to at least mitigate the impact of European colonization. This involved learning the intricacies of European diplomatic customs and then using the treaties to prevent a power from overstepping their agreement or by playing different powers against each other.


What did Ethiopians learn in order to use treaties to prevent a European power from overstepping their agreement?


Both Ethiopia and Qing Dynasty China learned the intricacies of European diplomatic customs to mitigate what through treaties?


In addition to preventing a power from overstepping their agreement, how was Ethiopia able to mitigate the impact of European colonization?


Ethiopia and Qing Dynasty China were both able to prevent European powers from doing what to their agreements?


What were native peoples able to maintain a minimum amount of through treaties?

In other cases, such as New Zealand and Canada, treaties allowed native peoples to maintain a minimum amount of autonomy. In the case of indigenous Australians, unlike with the Māori of New Zealand, no treaty was ever entered into with the indigenous peoples entitling the Europeans to land ownership, under the doctrine of terra nullius (later overturned by Mabo v Queensland, establishing the concept of native title well after colonization was already a fait accompli). Such treaties between colonizers and indigenous peoples are an important part of political discourse in the late 20th and early 21st century, the treaties being discussed have international standing as has been stated in a treaty study by the UN.


What indigenous people of New Zealand entered into a treaty entitling Europeans to land ownership?


What doctrine was overturned by Mabo v Queensland establishing the concept of native title?


The concept of native title was established by what court case?


Treaties between indigenous peoples and what other groups formed an important part of political discourse in the late 20th and early 21st century?


What legislative act provided that no Indian nation shall be acknowledged as an independent nation with whom the United States may contract by treaty?

Prior to 1871, the government of the United States regularly entered into treaties with Native Americans but the Indian Appropriations Act of March 3, 1871 (ch. 120, 16 Stat. 563) had a rider (25 U.S.C. § 71) attached that effectively ended the President’s treaty making by providing that no Indian nation or tribe shall be acknowledged as an independent nation, tribe, or power with whom the United States may contract by treaty. The federal government continued to provide similar contractual relations with the Indian tribes after 1871 by agreements, statutes, and executive orders.


By what did the US federal government provide contractual relations with Indian tribes following the Indian Appropriations Act of March 3, 1871?


Prior to what year did the United States regularly enter into treaties with Native Americans?


A rider to the Indian Appropriations Act of 1871 provided that no Indian nation shall be acknowledged as what?


A rider to the Indian Appropriations Act of 1871 provided that the US government could not do what with an Indian nation?


Josip Broz Tito (Cyrillic: Јосип Броз Тито, pronounced [jǒsip brôːz tîto]; born Josip Broz; 7 May 1892[nb 1] – 4 May 1980) was a Yugoslav revolutionary and statesman, serving in various roles from 1943 until his death in 1980. During World War II he was the leader of the Partisans, often regarded as the most effective resistance movement in occupied Europe. While his presidency has been criticized as authoritarian, and concerns about the repression of political opponents have been raised, Tito was "seen by most as a benevolent dictator" due to his economic and diplomatic policies. He was a popular public figure both in Yugoslavia and abroad. Viewed as a unifying symbol, his internal policies maintained the peaceful coexistence of the nations of the Yugoslav federation. He gained further international attention as the chief leader of the Non-Aligned Movement, working with Jawaharlal Nehru of India, Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt and Sukarno of Indonesia.


During World War II what resistance movement did he lead?


For what country is Tito viewed as unifying figure?


In the Non-Aligned Movement, which Egyptian leader did Tito work with?


In the Non-Aligned Movement, which Indonesian leader did Tito work with?


What position in the League of Communists of Yugoslavia was Tito?

He was General Secretary (later Chairman of the Presidium) of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia (1939–80), and went on to lead the World War II Yugoslav guerrilla movement, the Partisans (1941–45). After the war, he was the Prime Minister (1944–63), President (later President for Life) (1953–80) of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY). From 1943 to his death in 1980, he held the rank of Marshal of Yugoslavia, serving as the supreme commander of the Yugoslav military, the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA). With a highly favourable reputation abroad in both Cold War blocs, Josip Broz Tito received some 98 foreign decorations, including the Legion of Honour and the Order of the Bath.


What position in Yugoslavia's government did Tito hold from 1944-63?


How many foreign decorations did he receive?


What foreign decorations did Tito recieve?


During what years did Tito lead the Partisans?


Josip Broz was born to a Croat father and Slovene mother in the village of Kumrovec, Croatia. Drafted into military service, he distinguished himself, becoming the youngest Sergeant Major in the Austro-Hungarian Army of that time. After being seriously wounded and captured by the Imperial Russians during World War I, Josip was sent to a work camp in the Ural Mountains. He participated in the October Revolution, and later joined a Red Guard unit in Omsk. Upon his return home, Broz found himself in the newly established Kingdom of Yugoslavia, where he joined the Communist Party of Yugoslavia (KPJ).


Tito was the chief architect of the second Yugoslavia, a socialist federation that lasted from 1943 to 1991–92. Despite being one of the founders of Cominform, soon he became the first Cominform member to defy Soviet hegemony and the only one to manage to leave Cominform and begin with its own socialist program. Tito was a backer of independent roads to socialism (sometimes referred to as "national communism"). In 1951 he implemented a self-management system that differentiated Yugoslavia from other socialist countries. A turn towards a model of market socialism brought economic expansion in the 1950s and 1960s and a decline during the 1970s. His internal policies included the suppression of nationalist sentiment and the promotion of the "brotherhood and unity" of the six Yugoslav nations. After Tito's death in 1980, tensions between the Yugoslav republics emerged and in 1991 the country disintegrated and went into a series of wars and unrest that lasted the rest of the decade, and which continue to impact most of the former Yugoslav republics. He remains a very controversial figure in the Balkans.


When did Tito implement a self-management system that differentiated Yugoslavia from other socialist coutnries?


Josip Broz was born on 7 May 1892 in Kumrovec, in the northern Croatian region of Hrvatsko Zagorje in Austria-Hungary.[nb 1] He was the seventh child of Franjo and Marija Broz. His father, Franjo Broz (26 November 1860 – 16 December 1936), was a Croat, while his mother Marija (25 March 1864 – 14 January 1918), was a Slovene. His parents were married on 21 January 1891. After spending part of his childhood years with his maternal grandfather Martin Javeršek in the Slovenian village of Podsreda, he entered primary school in 1900 at Kumrovec, he failed the 2nd grade and graduated in 1905. In 1907 he moved out of the rural environment and started working as a machinist's apprentice in Sisak. There, he became aware of the labour movement and celebrated 1 May – Labour Day for the first time. In 1910, he joined the union of metallurgy workers and at the same time the Social-Democratic Party of Croatia and Slavonia. Between 1911 and 1913, Broz worked for shorter periods in Kamnik (1911–1912, factory "Titan"), Cenkov, Munich and Mannheim, where he worked for the Benz car factory; then he went to Wiener Neustadt, Austria, and worked as a test driver for Daimler.


In the autumn of 1913, he was conscripted into the Austro-Hungarian Army. He was sent to a school for non-commissioned officers and became a sergeant, serving in the 25th Croatian Regiment based in Zagreb. In May 1914, Broz won a silver medal at an army fencing competition in Budapest. At the outbreak of World War I in 1914, he was sent to Ruma, where he was arrested for anti-war propaganda and imprisoned in the Petrovaradin fortress. In January 1915, he was sent to the Eastern Front in Galicia to fight against Russia. He distinguished himself as a capable soldier, becoming the youngest Sergeant Major in the Austro-Hungarian Army. For his bravery in the face of the enemy, he was recommended for the Silver Bravery Medal but was taken prisoner of war before it could be formally presented. On 25 March 1915, while in Bukovina, he was seriously wounded and captured by the Russians.


What position in the army did he become after office school?


What competition did he win a silver medal in?


Where was Tito serioiusly wounded and captured by the Russians at?


After 13 months at the hospital, Broz was sent to a work camp in the Ural Mountains where prisoners selected him for their camp leader. In February 1917, revolting workers broke into the prison and freed the prisoners. Broz subsequently joined a Bolshevik group. In April 1917, he was arrested again but managed to escape and participate in the July Days demonstrations in Petrograd (St. Petersburg) on 16–17 July 1917. On his way to Finland, Broz was caught and imprisoned in the Peter and Paul Fortress for three weeks. He was again sent to Kungur, but escaped from the train. He hid with a Russian family in Omsk, Siberia where he met his future wife Pelagija Belousova. After the October Revolution, he joined a Red Guard unit in Omsk. Following a White counteroffensive, he fled to Kirgiziya and subsequently returned to Omsk, where he married Belousova. In the spring of 1918, he joined the Yugoslav section of the Russian Communist Party. By June of the same year, Broz left Omsk to find work and support his family, and was employed as a mechanic near Omsk for a year.


What position was he selected for at work camp?


Where did Broz flee to after a White counteroffensive?


How many seats did the Communists win in 1920 Yugoslavia?

In January 1920, Tito and his wife made a long and difficult journey home to Yugoslavia where he arrived in September. Upon his return, Broz joined the Communist Party of Yugoslavia. The CPY's influence on the political life of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was growing rapidly. In the 1920 elections the Communists won 59 seats in the parliament and became the third strongest party. Winning numerous local elections, they gained a stronghold in the second largest city of Zagreb, electing Svetozar Delić for mayor. After the assassination of Milorad Drašković, the Yugoslav Minister of the Interior, by a young communist on 2 August 1921, the CPY was declared illegal under the Yugoslav State Security Act of 1921. During 1920 and 1921 all Communist-won mandates were nullified. Broz continued his work underground despite pressure on Communists from the government. As 1921 began he moved to Veliko Trojstvo near Bjelovar and found work as a machinist. In 1925, Broz moved to Kraljevica where he started working at a shipyard. He was elected as a union leader and a year later he led a shipyard strike. He was fired and moved to Belgrade, where he worked in a train coach factory in Smederevska Palanka. He was elected as Workers' Commissary but was fired as soon as his CPY membership was revealed. Broz then moved to Zagreb, where he was appointed secretary of Metal Workers' Union of Croatia. In 1928, he became the Zagreb Branch Secretary of the CPY. In the same year he was arrested, tried in court for his illegal communist activities, and sent to jail. During his five years at Lepoglava prison he met Moša Pijade, who became his ideological mentor. After his release, he lived incognito and assumed numerous noms de guerre, among them "Walter" and "Tito".


Who was elected mayor of Zagreb after the Communists won 59 parliamentary seats?


How long was he in prison at Lepoglava for?


Who became his ideological mentor in prison?


In 1934 the Zagreb Provincial Committee sent Tito to Vienna where all the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia had sought refuge. He was appointed to the Committee and started to appoint allies to him, among them Edvard Kardelj, Milovan Đilas, Aleksandar Ranković and Boris Kidrič. In 1935, Tito travelled to the Soviet Union, working for a year in the Balkans section of Comintern. He was a member of the Soviet Communist Party and the Soviet secret police (NKVD). Tito was also involved in recruiting for the Dimitrov Battalion, a group of volunteers serving in the Spanish Civil War. In 1936, the Comintern sent "Comrade Walter" (i.e. Tito) back to Yugoslavia to purge the Communist Party there. In 1937, Stalin had the Secretary-General of the CPY, Milan Gorkić, murdered in Moscow. Subsequently Tito was appointed Secretary-General of the still-outlawed CPY.


Where was the Secretary-General of the CPY murdered?


Who became Secretary-General of the CPY after the prior one was murdered?


When did German forces launch an invasion of Yugoslavia?

On 6 April 1941, German forces, with Hungarian and Italian assistance, launched an invasion of Yugoslavia. On 10 April 1941, Slavko Kvaternik proclaimed the Independent State of Croatia, and Tito responded by forming a Military Committee within the Central Committee of the Yugoslav Communist Party. Attacked from all sides, the armed forces of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia quickly crumbled. On 17 April 1941, after King Peter II and other members of the government fled the country, the remaining representatives of the government and military met with the German officials in Belgrade. They quickly agreed to end military resistance. On 1 May 1941, Tito issued a pamphlet calling on the people to unite in a battle against the occupation. On 27 June 1941, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia appointed Tito Commander in Chief of all project national liberation military forces. On 1 July 1941, the Comintern sent precise instructions calling for immediate action.


What did Tito use to get the people to unit in a battle against the occupation in 1941?


What position was Tito appointed to in 1941 by the Central Committee?


In 1941, where did representatives of the government and military meet with German officials?


Who succeeded in liberating territory despite conflicts?

Despite conflicts with the rival monarchic Chetnik movement, Tito's Partisans succeeded in liberating territory, notably the "Republic of Užice". During this period, Tito held talks with Chetnik leader Draža Mihailović on 19 September and 27 October 1941. It is said that Tito ordered his forces to assist escaping Jews, and that more than 2,000 Jews fought directly for Tito.


Who did the Partisans have conflicts with?


Which Chetnik leader did Tito hold talks with?


Which group did Tito order his forces to assist?


2000 of what group fought directly for Tito?


When did the Partisans create the First Proletarian Brigade?

On 21 December 1941, the Partisans created the First Proletarian Brigade (commanded by Koča Popović) and on 1 March 1942, Tito created the Second Proletarian Brigade. In liberated territories, the Partisans organised People's Committees to act as civilian government. The Anti-Fascist Council of National Liberation of Yugoslavia (AVNOJ) convened in Bihać on 26–27 November 1942 and in Jajce on 29 November 1943. In the two sessions, the resistance representatives established the basis for post-war organisation of the country, deciding on a federation of the Yugoslav nations. In Jajce, a 67-member "presidency" was elected and established a nine-member National Committee of Liberation (five communist members) as a de facto provisional government. Tito was named President of the National Committee of Liberation.


When did Tito create the Second Proletarian Brigade?


What position was Tito named to for the National Committee of LIberation?


Where was the 67-member "presidency" located?


How many members were in the "presidency" in Jajce?


Who diverted resources to the destruction of the Partisans?

With the growing possibility of an Allied invasion in the Balkans, the Axis began to divert more resources to the destruction of the Partisans main force and its high command. This meant, among other things, a concerted German effort to capture Josip Broz Tito personally. On 25 May 1944, he managed to evade the Germans after the Raid on Drvar (Operation Rösselsprung), an airborne assault outside his Drvar headquarters in Bosnia.


Which group of people wanted to capture Tito personally?


In 1944 where did Tito manage to avoid the Germans?


What type of assault was there in Bosnia?


Who was attacking the Partisans in 1943?

After the Partisans managed to endure and avoid these intense Axis attacks between January and June 1943, and the extent of Chetnik collaboration became evident, Allied leaders switched their support from Draža Mihailović to Tito. King Peter II, American President Franklin Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill joined Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin in officially recognising Tito and the Partisans at the Tehran Conference. This resulted in Allied aid being parachuted behind Axis lines to assist the Partisans. On 17 June 1944 on the Dalmatian island of Vis, the Treaty of Vis (Viški sporazum) was signed in an attempt to merge Tito's government (the AVNOJ) with the government in exile of King Peter II. The Balkan Air Force was formed in June 1944 to control operations that were mainly aimed at aiding his forces.


From whom did Allied leaders switch their support from to Tito?


Who was the Soviet Premier who recognized Tito?


At what event was Tito recognized by Stalin?


In the first post war years Tito was widely considered a communist leader very loyal to Moscow, indeed, he was often viewed as second only to Stalin in the Eastern Bloc. In fact, Stalin and Tito had an uneasy alliance from the start, with Stalin considering Tito too independent.


Who was Tito considered second to in the Eastern bloc?


With whom did Tito have an uneasy alliance form the start?


In 1944 who called on all Yuboslavs to come together under Tito's leadership?

On 12 September 1944, King Peter II called on all Yugoslavs to come together under Tito's leadership and stated that those who did not were "traitors", by which time Tito was recognized by all Allied authorities (including the government-in-exile) as the Prime Minister of Yugoslavia, in addition to commander-in-chief of the Yugoslav forces. On 28 September 1944, the Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union (TASS) reported that Tito signed an agreement with the Soviet Union allowing "temporary entry" of Soviet troops into Yugoslav territory which allowed the Red Army to assist in operations in the northeastern areas of Yugoslavia. With their strategic right flank secured by the Allied advance, the Partisans prepared and executed a massive general offensive which succeeded in breaking through German lines and forcing a retreat beyond Yugoslav borders. After the Partisan victory and the end of hostilities in Europe, all external forces were ordered off Yugoslav territory.


With whom did Tito sign an agreement on September 28 1944?


Who were allowed "temporary entry" into Yugoslav territory?


Who assisted in operations in ortheastern areas of Yugoslavia?


Who executed a massive offensive and succeeded in breaking through German lines?


Who offered amnesty to the retreatig column?

In the final days of World War II in Yugoslavia, units of the Partisans were responsible for atrocities after the repatriations of Bleiburg, and accusations of culpability were later raised at the Yugoslav leadership under Tito. At the time, Josip Broz Tito repeatedly issued calls for surrender to the retreating column, offering amnesty and attempting to avoid a disorderly surrender. On 14 May he dispatched a telegram to the supreme headquarters Slovene Partisan Army prohibiting "in the sternest language" the execution of prisoners of war and commanding the transfer of the possible suspects to a military court.


Who dispatched a telegram to the supreme headquarters prohibiting the execution of prisoners of war?


In the final days of WWII in Yugoslavia, who were responsible for atrocities?


What did Tito offer to the retreating column?


Where were possible suspects transferred to?


Where was the provisional government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia assembled?

On 7 March 1945, the provisional government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia (Demokratska Federativna Jugoslavija, DFY) was assembled in Belgrade by Josip Broz Tito, while the provisional name allowed for either a republic or monarchy. This government was headed by Tito as provisional Yugoslav Prime Minister and included representatives from the royalist government-in-exile, among others Ivan Šubašić. In accordance with the agreement between resistance leaders and the government-in-exile, post-war elections were held to determine the form of government. In November 1945, Tito's pro-republican People's Front, led by the Communist Party of Yugoslavia, won the elections with an overwhelming majority, the vote having been boycotted by monarchists. During the period, Tito evidently enjoyed massive popular support due to being generally viewed by the populace as the liberator of Yugoslavia. The Yugoslav administration in the immediate post-war period managed to unite a country that had been severely affected by ultra-nationalist upheavals and war devastation, while successfully suppressing the nationalist sentiments of the various nations in favor of tolerance, and the common Yugoslav goal. After the overwhelming electoral victory, Tito was confirmed as the Prime Minister and the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the DFY. The country was soon renamed the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia (FPRY) (later finally renamed into Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, SFRY). On 29 November 1945, King Peter II was formally deposed by the Yugoslav Constituent Assembly. The Assembly drafted a new republican constitution soon afterwards.


When was the provisional government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia assembled?


Who Where assembled the provisional government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia?


Who was seen as the liberator of Yugoslavia?


Who was formally deposed by the Yugoslav Constitutent Assembly on November 29, 1945?


What was formed as the new secret police?

Yugoslavia organized the Yugoslav People's Army (Jugoslavenska narodna armija, or JNA) from the Partisan movement and became the fourth strongest army in Europe at the time. The State Security Administration (Uprava državne bezbednosti/sigurnosti/varnosti, UDBA) was also formed as the new secret police, along with a security agency, the Department of People's Security (Organ Zaštite Naroda (Armije), OZNA). Yugoslav intelligence was charged with imprisoning and bringing to trial large numbers of Nazi collaborators; controversially, this included Catholic clergymen due to the widespread involvement of Croatian Catholic clergy with the Ustaša regime. Draža Mihailović was found guilty of collaboration, high treason and war crimes and was subsequently executed by firing squad in July 1946.


Who was charged with brining to trial large numbers of Nazi collaborators?


Who were controversial among those brought to trial for Nazi collaboration?


Who was found guilty of collaboration, high treason?