What is the process called whereby the individual PCBs are separated?

The panel is eventually broken apart into individual PCBs; this is called depaneling. Separating the individual PCBs is frequently aided by drilling or routing perforations along the boundaries of the individual circuits, much like a sheet of postage stamps. Another method, which takes less space, is to cut V-shaped grooves across the full dimension of the panel. The individual PCBs can then be broken apart along this line of weakness. Today depaneling is often done by lasers which cut the board with no contact. Laser panelization reduces stress on the fragile circuits.


What boundaries would you follow to separate PCBs on a panel?


What technology has made depaneling possible without needing to physically interact with the board?


What does the V-shaped groove method save?


What delicate component is less likely to be damaged if laser depanelization is used?


Do additive or subtractive methods use less raw materials?

Subtractive methods remove copper from an entirely copper-coated board to leave only the desired copper pattern. In additive methods the pattern is electroplated onto a bare substrate using a complex process. The advantage of the additive method is that less material is needed and less waste is produced. In the full additive process the bare laminate is covered with a photosensitive film which is imaged (exposed to light through a mask and then developed which removes the unexposed film). The exposed areas are sensitized in a chemical bath, usually containing palladium and similar to that used for through hole plating which makes the exposed area capable of bonding metal ions. The laminate is then plated with copper in the sensitized areas. When the mask is stripped, the PCB is finished.


What object is used to expose selected parts of the photosensitive film to light?


What chemical element is often present in the bath used to sensitive exposed film after it's been imaged?


In subtractive methods, what metal covers the board and is then partially removed?


In the additive method, which parts of the laminate are plated with copper?


In the semi-additive process, what do the areas exposed by the mask become at the end?

Semi-additive is the most common process: The unpatterned board has a thin layer of copper already on it. A reverse mask is then applied. (Unlike a subtractive process mask, this mask exposes those parts of the substrate that will eventually become the traces.) Additional copper is then plated onto the board in the unmasked areas; copper may be plated to any desired weight. Tin-lead or other surface platings are then applied. The mask is stripped away and a brief etching step removes the now-exposed bare original copper laminate from the board, isolating the individual traces. Some single-sided boards which have plated-through holes are made in this way. General Electric made consumer radio sets in the late 1960s using additive boards.


What metal is used to plate the unmasked parts of the board in the semi-additive method?


After the mask comes off of the board, what step takes off the original plating?


What company used to make radios with additive boards in the mid-20th century?


What weight of plating is possible with copper?


What non-professionals might use immersion etching, since it's the easiest way to make a PCB?

The simplest method, used for small-scale production and often by hobbyists, is immersion etching, in which the board is submerged in etching solution such as ferric chloride. Compared with methods used for mass production, the etching time is long. Heat and agitation can be applied to the bath to speed the etching rate. In bubble etching, air is passed through the etchant bath to agitate the solution and speed up etching. Splash etching uses a motor-driven paddle to splash boards with etchant; the process has become commercially obsolete since it is not as fast as spray etching. In spray etching, the etchant solution is distributed over the boards by nozzles, and recirculated by pumps. Adjustment of the nozzle pattern, flow rate, temperature, and etchant composition gives predictable control of etching rates and high production rates.


If you wanted to speed up the etching process, you could agitate the bath up or add what to it?


Is the immersion etching process long or short compared to other production methods?


What funny name is used for the etching process where air is blown through the etching solution to get it moving around?


What's the fastest and most easily controlled process for etching?


If you started with a two-sided laminate etched on either side, laminated to the top and bottom, and processed it again to get traces on the outside layers, how many layers would your final PCB have?

Multi-layer printed circuit boards have trace layers inside the board. This is achieved by laminating a stack of materials in a press by applying pressure and heat for a period of time. This results in an inseparable one piece product. For example, a four-layer PCB can be fabricated by starting from a two-sided copper-clad laminate, etch the circuitry on both sides, then laminate to the top and bottom pre-preg and copper foil. It is then drilled, plated, and etched again to get traces on top and bottom layers.


What makes up the inside of a multi-layer PCB?


Pressure is one thing you need to apply to make a multi-layer PCB; what's the other thing?


What tool is used to push the trace layers in a multi-layer PCB together?


What kind of material sometimes used for drilling will lose sharpness quickly if used for PCBs?

Holes through a PCB are typically drilled with small-diameter drill bits made of solid coated tungsten carbide. Coated tungsten carbide is recommended since many board materials are very abrasive and drilling must be high RPM and high feed to be cost effective. Drill bits must also remain sharp so as not to mar or tear the traces. Drilling with high-speed-steel is simply not feasible since the drill bits will dull quickly and thus tear the copper and ruin the boards. The drilling is performed by automated drilling machines with placement controlled by a drill tape or drill file. These computer-generated files are also called numerically controlled drill (NCD) files or "Excellon files". The drill file describes the location and size of each drilled hole.


What property do PCBs have that makes them tough to drill through?


What kind of drill bit do you need to drill holes in a PCB?


What's another name for NCD files that has an "x" in it?


What does the "NCD" in "NCD files" mean?


What do the hole walls in two-layer PCBs have to be before they can be electroplated?

The hole walls for boards with two or more layers can be made conductive and then electroplated with copper to form plated-through holes. These holes electrically connect the conducting layers of the PCB. For multi-layer boards, those with three layers or more, drilling typically produces a smear of the high temperature decomposition products of bonding agent in the laminate system. Before the holes can be plated through, this smear must be removed by a chemical de-smear process, or by plasma-etch. The de-smear process ensures that a good connection is made to the copper layers when the hole is plated through. On high reliability boards a process called etch-back is performed chemically with a potassium permanganate based etchant or plasma. The etch-back removes resin and the glass fibers so that the copper layers extend into the hole and as the hole is plated become integral with the deposited copper.


What's the minimum number of layers a PCB can have to be considered "multi-layer"?


What process does a multi-layer PCB usually undergo before plating to make sure the layers have good connectivity with each other?


What type of boards undergo the etch-back process?


Etch-back removes glass fibers and what other material?


What happens to untreated copper that makes it difficult to solder?

Matte solder is usually fused to provide a better bonding surface or stripped to bare copper. Treatments, such as benzimidazolethiol, prevent surface oxidation of bare copper. The places to which components will be mounted are typically plated, because untreated bare copper oxidizes quickly, and therefore is not readily solderable. Traditionally, any exposed copper was coated with solder by hot air solder levelling (HASL). The HASL finish prevents oxidation from the underlying copper, thereby guaranteeing a solderable surface. This solder was a tin-lead alloy, however new solder compounds are now used to achieve compliance with the RoHS directive in the EU and US, which restricts the use of lead. One of these lead-free compounds is SN100CL, made up of 99.3% tin, 0.7% copper, 0.05% nickel, and a nominal of 60ppm germanium.


What chemical treatment will prevent bare copper from oxidizing?


What's the process by which bare copper gets covered in solder?


What does hot air solder leveling ensure the coated copper will have?


What alloy can no longer be used in HASL because of restrictions on the use of one of its metal components?


Other platings used are OSP (organic surface protectant), immersion silver (IAg), immersion tin, electroless nickel with immersion gold coating (ENIG), electroless nickel electroless palladium immersion gold (ENEPIG) and direct gold plating (over nickel). Edge connectors, placed along one edge of some boards, are often nickel plated then gold plated. Another coating consideration is rapid diffusion of coating metal into Tin solder. Tin forms intermetallics such as Cu5Sn6 and Ag3Cu that dissolve into the Tin liquidus or solidus(@50C), stripping surface coating or leaving voids.


What metal is often under the gold plating on edge connectors?


What's the abbreviation for immersion silver plating?


Ag3Cu is one intermetallic that tin forms; what's the other one?


What might the rapid diffusion of coating metal into tin solder leave in the surface coating?


What's the process whereby metal filaments are grown on or in a PCB via DC voltage?

Electrochemical migration (ECM) is the growth of conductive metal filaments on or in a printed circuit board (PCB) under the influence of a DC voltage bias. Silver, zinc, and aluminum are known to grow whiskers under the influence of an electric field. Silver also grows conducting surface paths in the presence of halide and other ions, making it a poor choice for electronics use. Tin will grow "whiskers" due to tension in the plated surface. Tin-Lead or solder plating also grows whiskers, only reduced by the percentage Tin replaced. Reflow to melt solder or tin plate to relieve surface stress lowers whisker incidence. Another coating issue is tin pest, the transformation of tin to a powdery allotrope at low temperature.


Along with silver and aluminum, what metal grows metal filaments when exposed to an electric field?


In addition to "whiskers," what does silver sprout around ions like halide?


What do scientist call the function whereby tin changes when it's very cold?


What's present in plated surfaces that causes tin to grow metal filaments?


If part of a PCB isn't solderable, what can be used instead?

Areas that should not be soldered may be covered with solder resist (solder mask). One of the most common solder resists used today is called "LPI" (liquid photoimageable solder mask). A photo-sensitive coating is applied to the surface of the PWB, then exposed to light through the solder mask image film, and finally developed where the unexposed areas are washed away. Dry film solder mask is similar to the dry film used to image the PWB for plating or etching. After being laminated to the PWB surface it is imaged and develop as LPI. Once common but no longer commonly used because of its low accuracy and resolution is to screen print epoxy ink. Solder resist also provides protection from the environment.


What's another term used for "solder resist"?


What solder resist with a four-word name is a popular choice in the industry?


What kind of coating gets applied to the PWB before light exposure?


What solder resist is so inaccurate that few choose it anymore?


What are bare-board tests looking for besides "opens"?

Unpopulated boards are usually bare-board tested for "shorts" and "opens". A short is a connection between two points that should not be connected. An open is a missing connection between points that should be connected. For high-volume production a fixture or a rigid needle adapter is used to make contact with copper lands on the board. Building the adapter is a significant fixed cost and is only economical for high-volume or high-value production. For small or medium volume production flying probe testers are used where test probes are moved over the board by an XY drive to make contact with the copper lands. The CAM system instructs the electrical tester to apply a voltage to each contact point as required and to check that this voltage appears on the appropriate contact points and only on these.


What conductive metal are the lands on a circuit board made out of?


What's an absent connection that needs to be linked up on an unpopulated board called?


What does a flying probe tester deliver to the contact points during testing?


What system tells the flying probe where to go and what to do?


Surface-mount is one type of construction used in PCB assembly; what's the other one?

Often, through-hole and surface-mount construction must be combined in a single assembly because some required components are available only in surface-mount packages, while others are available only in through-hole packages. Another reason to use both methods is that through-hole mounting can provide needed strength for components likely to endure physical stress, while components that are expected to go untouched will take up less space using surface-mount techniques. For further comparison, see the SMT page.


Which type of construction makes components that use more space?


Which of the two kinds of construction is weaker under strain?


If you're building a circuit board that has a lot of components that won't be used, which construction would be better?


What's the most frequently used test configuration procedure for ICs?

In boundary scan testing, test circuits integrated into various ICs on the board form temporary connections between the PCB traces to test that the ICs are mounted correctly. Boundary scan testing requires that all the ICs to be tested use a standard test configuration procedure, the most common one being the Joint Test Action Group (JTAG) standard. The JTAG test architecture provides a means to test interconnects between integrated circuits on a board without using physical test probes. JTAG tool vendors provide various types of stimulus and sophisticated algorithms, not only to detect the failing nets, but also to isolate the faults to specific nets, devices, and pins.


Do test circuits create permanent or temporary connections between traces?


What component of the printed circuit board is appraised with boundary scan testing?


To whom would you go to acquire the algorithms you'd use for the Joint Test Action Group procedures?


What would you avoid by using the Joint Test Action Group standard?


If a PCB is intended for use in an setting with extreme conditions, what would probably be applied?

PCBs intended for extreme environments often have a conformal coating, which is applied by dipping or spraying after the components have been soldered. The coat prevents corrosion and leakage currents or shorting due to condensation. The earliest conformal coats were wax; modern conformal coats are usually dips of dilute solutions of silicone rubber, polyurethane, acrylic, or epoxy. Another technique for applying a conformal coating is for plastic to be sputtered onto the PCB in a vacuum chamber. The chief disadvantage of conformal coatings is that servicing of the board is rendered extremely difficult.


The conformal coating can prevent leaking, shorts, and what other type of moisture damage?


A conformal coating can be applied by spraying the PCB or by doing what else to it?


What material was first used for conformal coating?


What action is made much more difficult for boards that have a conformal coating?


What special protection are most PCBs shipped in?

Many assembled PCBs are static sensitive, and therefore must be placed in antistatic bags during transport. When handling these boards, the user must be grounded (earthed). Improper handling techniques might transmit an accumulated static charge through the board, damaging or destroying components. Even bare boards are sometimes static sensitive. Traces have become so fine that it's quite possible to blow an etch off the board (or change its characteristics) with a static charge. This is especially true on non-traditional PCBs such as MCMs and microwave PCBs.


What force can easily change or even completely destroy an etch on a PCB?


What's another term for "grounded" in the context of PCBs?


Non-traditional PCBs include microwave PCBs and what other type of board?


What class of PCBs are even more susceptible to static than standard ones?


If a lead wasn't soldered manually, what device was used?

The first PCBs used through-hole technology, mounting electronic components by leads inserted through holes on one side of the board and soldered onto copper traces on the other side. Boards may be single-sided, with an unplated component side, or more compact double-sided boards, with components soldered on both sides. Horizontal installation of through-hole parts with two axial leads (such as resistors, capacitors, and diodes) is done by bending the leads 90 degrees in the same direction, inserting the part in the board (often bending leads located on the back of the board in opposite directions to improve the part's mechanical strength), soldering the leads, and trimming off the ends. Leads may be soldered either manually or by a wave soldering machine.


Which type of PCB construction technique was used first?


In through-hole construction, what are the leads on the front attached to on the back?


For boards with two sides, to what angle are leads bent to in order to install them horizontally?


What is improved by bending leads in opposite directions on the back of double-sided PCBs?


Which type of construction is more expensive?

Through-hole manufacture adds to board cost by requiring many holes to be drilled accurately, and limits the available routing area for signal traces on layers immediately below the top layer on multi-layer boards since the holes must pass through all layers to the opposite side. Once surface-mounting came into use, small-sized SMD components were used where possible, with through-hole mounting only of components unsuitably large for surface-mounting due to power requirements or mechanical limitations, or subject to mechanical stress which might damage the PCB.


What type of boards end up with limited routing space in through-hole manufacture?


What force might damage a PCB if large components are surface mounted?


What components can be surface mounted to save space?


A component might not be able to be made any smaller because of its mechanical limitations or what other need?


When did surface-mount become a commonly used manufacturing process?

Surface-mount technology emerged in the 1960s, gained momentum in the early 1980s and became widely used by the mid-1990s. Components were mechanically redesigned to have small metal tabs or end caps that could be soldered directly onto the PCB surface, instead of wire leads to pass through holes. Components became much smaller and component placement on both sides of the board became more common than with through-hole mounting, allowing much smaller PCB assemblies with much higher circuit densities. Surface mounting lends itself well to a high degree of automation, reducing labor costs and greatly increasing production rates. Components can be supplied mounted on carrier tapes. Surface mount components can be about one-quarter to one-tenth of the size and weight of through-hole components, and passive components much cheaper; prices of semiconductor surface mount devices (SMDs) are determined more by the chip itself than the package, with little price advantage over larger packages. Some wire-ended components, such as 1N4148 small-signal switch diodes, are actually significantly cheaper than SMD equivalents.


What did the new components with end tabs replace?


What improvement is possible with surface-mounting that enables higher production and lower labor costs?


Is it the chip or the package that influences the price of an SMD more?


Each trace consists of a flat, narrow part of the copper foil that remains after etching. The resistance, determined by width and thickness, of the traces must be sufficiently low for the current the conductor will carry. Power and ground traces may need to be wider than signal traces. In a multi-layer board one entire layer may be mostly solid copper to act as a ground plane for shielding and power return. For microwave circuits, transmission lines can be laid out in the form of stripline and microstrip with carefully controlled dimensions to assure a consistent impedance. In radio-frequency and fast switching circuits the inductance and capacitance of the printed circuit board conductors become significant circuit elements, usually undesired; but they can be used as a deliberate part of the circuit design, obviating the need for additional discrete components.


Along with thickness, what determines the resistance of a trace?


What type of trace is often narrower than a ground trace?


In a multi-layer board, what metal would a ground plane be mostly made out of?


What type of circuits use a stripline and microstrip format?


What element of a laminate is designated by the cloth to resin ratio, among other things?

The cloth or fiber material used, resin material, and the cloth to resin ratio determine the laminate's type designation (FR-4, CEM-1, G-10, etc.) and therefore the characteristics of the laminate produced. Important characteristics are the level to which the laminate is fire retardant, the dielectric constant (er), the loss factor (tδ), the tensile strength, the shear strength, the glass transition temperature (Tg), and the Z-axis expansion coefficient (how much the thickness changes with temperature).


What's the name for the measurement of a laminate's change in thickness as its temperature changes?


What's the abbreviation for the glass transition temperature of a laminate?


What's the common name of polytetrafluoroethylene?

There are quite a few different dielectrics that can be chosen to provide different insulating values depending on the requirements of the circuit. Some of these dielectrics are polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon), FR-4, FR-1, CEM-1 or CEM-3. Well known pre-preg materials used in the PCB industry are FR-2 (phenolic cotton paper), FR-3 (cotton paper and epoxy), FR-4 (woven glass and epoxy), FR-5 (woven glass and epoxy), FR-6 (matte glass and polyester), G-10 (woven glass and epoxy), CEM-1 (cotton paper and epoxy), CEM-2 (cotton paper and epoxy), CEM-3 (non-woven glass and epoxy), CEM-4 (woven glass and epoxy), CEM-5 (woven glass and polyester). Thermal expansion is an important consideration especially with ball grid array (BGA) and naked die technologies, and glass fiber offers the best dimensional stability.


What pre-preg material is designated by "FR-2"?


To what type of packaging is thermal expansion particularly critical?


What material delivers optimum dimensional stability?


What dielectric is matte glass and polyester?


Along with the non-woven class, what makes up the reinforcement type materials?

The reinforcement type defines two major classes of materials - woven and non-woven. Woven reinforcements are cheaper, but the high dielectric constant of glass may not be favorable for many higher-frequency applications. The spatially nonhomogeneous structure also introduces local variations in electrical parameters, due to different resin/glass ratio at different areas of the weave pattern. Nonwoven reinforcements, or materials with low or no reinforcement, are more expensive but more suitable for some RF/analog applications.


Which is the more expensive reinforcement type?


What type of structure do woven reinforcements have that cause them to have variation in their electrical parameters?


Which ratio varies because of the structure of woven reinforcements?


For what kind of applications are non-woven reinforcement materials better than woven ones?


What's the temperature at which resin softens and expands called?

At the glass transition temperature the resin in the composite softens and significantly increases thermal expansion; exceeding Tg then exerts mechanical overload on the board components - e.g. the joints and the vias. Below Tg the thermal expansion of the resin roughly matches copper and glass, above it gets significantly higher. As the reinforcement and copper confine the board along the plane, virtually all volume expansion projects to the thickness and stresses the plated-through holes. Repeated soldering or other exposition to higher temperatures can cause failure of the plating, especially with thicker boards; thick boards therefore require high Tg matrix.


Along with vias, what makes up the components of a board?


What will happen to the components when the temperature of resin goes above that of glass transition?


What do thick boards require to resist plating failure?


When resin stays below Tg, its thermal expansion is similar to that of copper and what other material?


What will happen to the materials when a board gets wet or is in a humid area?

Moisture absorption occurs when the material is exposed to high humidity or water. Both the resin and the reinforcement may absorb water; water may be also soaked by capillary forces through voids in the materials and along the reinforcement. Epoxies of the FR-4 materials aren't too susceptible, with absorption of only 0.15%. Teflon has very low absorption of 0.01%. Polyimides and cyanate esters, on the other side, suffer from high water absorption. Absorbed water can lead to significant degradation of key parameters; it impairs tracking resistance, breakdown voltage, and dielectric parameters. Relative dielectric constant of water is about 73, compared to about 4 for common circuitboard materials. Absorbed moisture can also vaporize on heating and cause cracking and delamination, the same effect responsible for "popcorning" damage on wet packaging of electronic parts. Careful baking of the substrates may be required.


If materials absorb moisture and then are heated enough to vaporize the water, the board might show delamination or what other type of damage?


What percentage absorption do F-4 epoxies have?


What's the approximate relative dielectric constant of most materials in circuit boards?


What material has an absorption rate of only 0.01%?


What's the minimum amount of copper a layer in a PCB can have to be considered "heavy copper"?

The printed circuit board industry defines heavy copper as layers exceeding three ounces of copper, or approximately 0.0042 inches (4.2 mils, 105 μm) thick. PCB designers and fabricators often use heavy copper when design and manufacturing circuit boards in order to increase current-carrying capacity as well as resistance to thermal strains. Heavy copper plated vias transfer heat to external heat sinks. IPC 2152 is a standard for determining current-carrying capacity of printed circuit board traces.


About how thick would a PCB layer be if it contained three oz. of copper?


What will a circuit board with heavy copper carry very well?


What would a PCB designer use heavy copper to make their circuit board resist?


Where does the heat go when it leaves heavy copper-plated vias?


What arduous aspect of the process can designers skip in Multiwire?

Since it was quite easy to stack interconnections (wires) inside the embedding matrix, the approach allowed designers to forget completely about the routing of wires (usually a time-consuming operation of PCB design): Anywhere the designer needs a connection, the machine will draw a wire in straight line from one location/pin to another. This led to very short design times (no complex algorithms to use even for high density designs) as well as reduced crosstalk (which is worse when wires run parallel to each other—which almost never happens in Multiwire), though the cost is too high to compete with cheaper PCB technologies when large quantities are needed.


What does the machine create by drawing a straight line between two points on the board?


Along with quick design times, what problem does Multiwire cut down on?


What makes Multiwire impractical to use when large quantities of a board are needed?


In simple language, what are the interconnections in an embedding matrix?


What type of construction is best for applications that need to portion space carefully?

Cordwood construction can save significant space and was often used with wire-ended components in applications where space was at a premium (such as missile guidance and telemetry systems) and in high-speed computers, where short traces were important. In cordwood construction, axial-leaded components were mounted between two parallel planes. The components were either soldered together with jumper wire, or they were connected to other components by thin nickel ribbon welded at right angles onto the component leads. To avoid shorting together different interconnection layers, thin insulating cards were placed between them. Perforations or holes in the cards allowed component leads to project through to the next interconnection layer. One disadvantage of this system was that special nickel-leaded components had to be used to allow the interconnecting welds to be made. Differential thermal expansion of the component could put pressure on the leads of the components and the PCB traces and cause physical damage (as was seen in several modules on the Apollo program). Additionally, components located in the interior are difficult to replace. Some versions of cordwood construction used soldered single-sided PCBs as the interconnection method (as pictured), allowing the use of normal-leaded components.


What gets mounted in the middle of two parallel planes in a cordwood construction?


What type of component has to be used in cordwood construction to its detriment?


What do insulating cards prevent between interconnection layers?


What force caused the physical damage to components that affected the Apollo program?


Who was the German inventor who wrote in 1903 about conductors being laminated in layers to a board?

Development of the methods used in modern printed circuit boards started early in the 20th century. In 1903, a German inventor, Albert Hanson, described flat foil conductors laminated to an insulating board, in multiple layers. Thomas Edison experimented with chemical methods of plating conductors onto linen paper in 1904. Arthur Berry in 1913 patented a print-and-etch method in Britain, and in the United States Max Schoop obtained a patent to flame-spray metal onto a board through a patterned mask. Charles Ducas in 1927 patented a method of electroplating circuit patterns.


What material did Thomas Edison experiment with by trying to chemically attach conductors to it?


What year did Arthur Berry patent his print-and-etch method?


In Max Schoop's method, what was used to create the flame-sprayed pattern on the board?


Who obtained a patent in 1927 for his method of electroplating circuit patterns?


What was Paul Eisler making when he came up with the printed circuit?

The Austrian engineer Paul Eisler invented the printed circuit as part of a radio set while working in England around 1936. Around 1943 the USA began to use the technology on a large scale to make proximity fuses for use in World War II. After the war, in 1948, the USA released the invention for commercial use. Printed circuits did not become commonplace in consumer electronics until the mid-1950s, after the Auto-Sembly process was developed by the United States Army. At around the same time in Britain work along similar lines was carried out by Geoffrey Dummer, then at the RRDE.


What event prompted the United States to adopt the printed circuit to make proximity fuses?


When was the printed circuit released for commercial use in the U.S.?


Who was working on the same type of large-scale application of printed circuits as the U.S. in Britain in the mid-1950s?


What process was created by the U.S. Army that led to innovation in consumer electronics?


What company developed the first electronic circuit that could be mass produced and was durable enough to be fired from a gun?

During World War II, the development of the anti-aircraft proximity fuse required an electronic circuit that could withstand being fired from a gun, and could be produced in quantity. The Centralab Division of Globe Union submitted a proposal which met the requirements: a ceramic plate would be screenprinted with metallic paint for conductors and carbon material for resistors, with ceramic disc capacitors and subminiature vacuum tubes soldered in place. The technique proved viable, and the resulting patent on the process, which was classified by the U.S. Army, was assigned to Globe Union. It was not until 1984 that the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) awarded Mr. Harry W. Rubinstein, the former head of Globe Union's Centralab Division, its coveted Cledo Brunetti Award for early key contributions to the development of printed components and conductors on a common insulating substrate. As well, Mr. Rubinstein was honored in 1984 by his alma mater, the University of Wisconsin-Madison, for his innovations in the technology of printed electronic circuits and the fabrication of capacitors.


Who was in charge of the Centralab Division of Globe Union when the PCB used in anti-aircraft fuses was invented?


Where did Harry Rubinstein attend college?


What was the plate used for anti-aircraft proximity fuses in World War II made out of?


What award did Rubinstein win in 1984 for his contributions?


What type of construction was originally used for all electronic components?

Originally, every electronic component had wire leads, and the PCB had holes drilled for each wire of each component. The components' leads were then passed through the holes and soldered to the PCB trace. This method of assembly is called through-hole construction. In 1949, Moe Abramson and Stanislaus F. Danko of the United States Army Signal Corps developed the Auto-Sembly process in which component leads were inserted into a copper foil interconnection pattern and dip soldered. The patent they obtained in 1956 was assigned to the U.S. Army. With the development of board lamination and etching techniques, this concept evolved into the standard printed circuit board fabrication process in use today. Soldering could be done automatically by passing the board over a ripple, or wave, of molten solder in a wave-soldering machine. However, the wires and holes are wasteful since drilling holes is expensive and the protruding wires are merely cut off.


In what year was the Auto-Sembly process created?


What year was the patent for the Auto-Sembly process granted?


Although two men developed the Auto-Sembly process, to whom was the patent officially granted?


Which part of the Auto-Sembly manufacturing process is the most costly?


The Premier League is a corporation in which the 20 member clubs act as shareholders. Seasons run from August to May. Teams play 38 matches each (playing each team in the league twice, home and away), totalling 380 matches in the season. Most games are played on Saturday and Sunday afternoons; others during weekday evenings. It is currently sponsored by Barclays Bank and thus officially known as the Barclays Premier League and is colloquially known as the Premiership. Outside the UK it is commonly referred to as the English Premier League (EPL).


What name is the Premier League known as outside of the United Kingdom?


How many member clubs are shareholders in the Premier League?


When do Premier League seasons run from?


What is the Premier League commonly referred to outside the UK?


What date was the Premier League formed?

The competition formed as the FA Premier League on 20 February 1992 following the decision of clubs in the Football League First Division to break away from the Football League, which was originally founded in 1888, and take advantage of a lucrative television rights deal. The deal was worth £1 billion a year domestically as of 2013–14, with BSkyB and BT Group securing the domestic rights to broadcast 116 and 38 games respectively. The league generates €2.2 billion per year in domestic and international television rights. In 2014/15, teams were apportioned revenues of £1.6 billion.


Who secured the domestic rights to broadcast games 116 and 38 respectively?


How much revenue does the league generate in domestic and international television rights?


In 2014/15, how much were the teams apportioned in revenues?


When was the Premier League originally formed?


When was the Football League originally founded?


How many games were secured to broadcast by BSkyB?


How many games were secured to broadcast by BT Group?


How much income does the Premier League generate per year in worldwide television rights?


Is the Premier League the most watched football league in the world?

The Premier League is the most-watched football league in the world, broadcast in 212 territories to 643 million homes and a potential TV audience of 4.7 billion people. In the 2014–15 season, the average Premier League match attendance exceeded 36,000, second highest of any professional football league behind the Bundesliga's 43,500. Most stadium occupancies are near capacity. The Premier League rank second in the UEFA coefficients of leagues based on performances in European competitions over the past five seasons.


How many territories is the Premier League broadcast to?


What is the potential television audience of the Premier League?


What is the Premier League's UEFA co-efficients of leagues rank?


What is the average game attendance for the league?


To how many homes is the Premier League broadcast to?


What average attendance number was exceeded by the Premier League in the 2014-15 season?


Which league has the highest average attendance in professional football?


To how many territories is the Premier League broadcast to?


When was the low point for English football?

Despite significant European success during the 1970s and early 1980s, the late '80s had marked a low point for English football. Stadiums were crumbling, supporters endured poor facilities, hooliganism was rife, and English clubs were banned from European competition for five years following the Heysel Stadium disaster in 1985. The Football League First Division, which had been the top level of English football since 1888, was well behind leagues such as Italy's Serie A and Spain's La Liga in attendances and revenues, and several top English players had moved abroad.


Why was there a low point for English football?


Why were the English clubs banned from European competition in the 1980's?


Had the Football League First Division ever been in the top level?


In which year were English football clubs banned from competition in Europe?


What did English players do after the ban?


When attendance dropped to the Football League First Division, what else decreased?


When did the downward trend of the English Football start to turn around?

However, by the turn of the 1990s the downward trend was starting to reverse; England had been successful in the 1990 FIFA World Cup, reaching the semi-finals. UEFA, European football's governing body, lifted the five-year ban on English clubs playing in European competitions in 1990 (resulting in Manchester United lifting the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup in 1991) and the Taylor Report on stadium safety standards, which proposed expensive upgrades to create all-seater stadiums in the aftermath of the Hillsborough disaster, was published in January of that year.


Was England successful in the 1990 FIFA World Cup?


Did the UEFA remove the 5 year ban on English clubs playing in European competitions in 1990?


What did the removal of the ban result in?


Did the Taylor Report on stadiums safety standards propose expensive upgrades to stadiums?


In which year did English football's downward trend stop thanks to England making it to the FIFA World Cup semi-finals?


In which year was the English club ban lifted by UEFA?


In which year shortly thereafter did Manchester United win the UEFA Winners' Cup?


In which month was the Taylor Report published?


In which year was the Taylor Report published?


How much money did the Football League receive in revenues from television money for a two year agreement in 1986?

Television money had also become much more important; the Football League received £6.3 million for a two-year agreement in 1986, but when that deal was renewed in 1988, the price rose to £44 million over four years. The 1988 negotiations were the first signs of a breakaway league; ten clubs threatened to leave and form a "super league", but were eventually persuaded to stay. As stadiums improved and match attendance and revenues rose, the country's top teams again considered leaving the Football League in order to capitalise on the growing influx of money being pumped into the sport.


In 1998, the deal was renewed for what amount over four years?


In 1988, how many clubs threateded to leave and form another league?


Why did some of the top teams consider leaving the Football league?


What did the Football League's television agreement price rise to in 1988?


When was the first year that clubs threatened to leave the Football League?


What price was set for Football League television rights in 1986?


For how many years was the 1986 television rights contract?


For how many years was the 1988 television rights contract?


In 1991, was a proposal for a new league postponed?

At the close of the 1991 season, a proposal was tabled for the establishment of a new league that would bring more money into the game overall. The Founder Members Agreement, signed on 17 July 1991 by the game's top-flight clubs, established the basic principles for setting up the FA Premier League. The newly formed top division would have commercial independence from The Football Association and the Football League, giving the FA Premier League licence to negotiate its own broadcast and sponsorship agreements. The argument given at the time was that the extra income would allow English clubs to compete with teams across Europe.


When was the Founder Members Agreement signed?


Would the new top division have commerical independence from the Football Association as well as the Football League?


Would the FA Premier League be able to negotiate their broadcasting and sponsorship agreements?


On which day was the Founder Members Agreement signed?


What was the argument made for the splitting off of the FA Premier League which would lead to being able to compete across Europe?


In which year was the proposal for a new league tabled?


Why did Greg Dyke of London Weekend Television meet with representatives of the biggest five English football clubs in 1990?

The managing director of London Weekend Television (LWT), Greg Dyke, met with the representatives of the "big five" football clubs in England in 1990. The meeting was to pave the way for a break away from The Football League. Dyke believed that it would be more lucrative for LWT if only the larger clubs in the country were featured on national television and wanted to establish whether the clubs would be interested in a larger share of television rights money. The five clubs decided it was a good idea and decided to press ahead with it; however, the league would have no credibility without the backing of The Football Association and so David Dein of Arsenal held talks to see whether the FA were receptive to the idea. The FA did not enjoy an amicable relationship with the Football League at the time and considered it as a way to weaken the Football League's position.


Why did Dyke only want the larger clubs featured on national television?


Did the five clubs think this was a good idea?


Were talks held with the Football Association to see if they were okay with this plan?


Who was the London Weekend Television's managing director?


In which year did the managing director meet with the representatives of the "big five" football clubs?


In which country did the managing director meet with the representatives of the "big five" football clubs?


Which Arsenal representative held talks with the Football Association about getting their backing for the new league?


What did the Football Association want to do through building a relationship with the new league?


When did the First Division clubs resign from the Football League?

In 1992, the First Division clubs resigned from the Football League en masse and on 27 May 1992 the FA Premier League was formed as a limited company working out of an office at the Football Association's then headquarters in Lancaster Gate. This meant a break-up of the 104-year-old Football League that had operated until then with four divisions; the Premier League would operate with a single division and the Football League with three. There was no change in competition format; the same number of teams competed in the top flight, and promotion and relegation between the Premier League and the new First Division remained the same as the old First and Second Divisions with three teams relegated from the league and three promoted.


When was the FA Premier League formed as a limited company?


How many divisions did the Premier League start out with at this time?


How many divisions did the Football League after the the Premier League was founded?


Was there a change in the competition format after the Premier League was formed?


On which date was the FA Premier League formed legally?


Out of which organization's headquarters did the original FA Premier League staff operate out of?


How old was the Football League when the break-up happened?


How many divisions were left in the Football League after the split?


How many divisions did the Premier League start with after the split?


When did the Premier League hold its first season?

The league held its first season in 1992–93 and was originally composed of 22 clubs. The first ever Premier League goal was scored by Brian Deane of Sheffield United in a 2–1 win against Manchester United. The 22 inaugural members of the new Premier League were Arsenal, Aston Villa, Blackburn Rovers, Chelsea, Coventry City, Crystal Palace, Everton, Ipswich Town, Leeds United, Liverpool, Manchester City, Manchester United, Middlesbrough, Norwich City, Nottingham Forest, Oldham Athletic, Queens Park Rangers, Sheffield United, Sheffield Wednesday, Southampton, Tottenham Hotspur, and Wimbledon. Luton Town, Notts County and West Ham United were the three teams relegated from the old first division at the end of the 1991–92 season, and did not take part in the inaugural Premier League season.


Originally, how many clubs did the Premier League have?


Who scored the first ever goal for the Premier League


Which blubs were relegated from the old first division at the end of the 1991-1992 season and didn't take part in the first Premier League season?


How many clubs originally made up the league?


Who scored the first goal in the Premier League?


For which team was the first goal scored?


Against which team was the first goal scored?


What was an important feature of the Premier League in the mid-2000s?

One significant feature of the Premier League in the mid-2000s was the dominance of the so-called "Big Four" clubs: Arsenal, Chelsea, Liverpool and Manchester United. During this decade, and particularly from 2002 to 2009, they dominated the top four spots, which came with UEFA Champions League qualification, taking all top four places in 5 out of 6 seasons from 2003–04 to 2008–09 inclusive, with Arsenal going as far as winning the league without losing a single game in 2003–04, the only time it has ever happened in the Premier League. In May 2008 Kevin Keegan stated that "Big Four" dominance threatened the division, "This league is in danger of becoming one of the most boring but great leagues in the world." Premier League chief executive Richard Scudamore said in defence: "There are a lot of different tussles that go on in the Premier League depending on whether you're at the top, in the middle or at the bottom that make it interesting."


Which team had no losses in 2003-2004 and ended up winning the league?


Why was Kevin Keegan concerned about the league in May of 2008?


Since 2003-04, has any club won all of its games like Arsenal did?


In how many season from 2003 to 2009 did the "Big Four" take all four top places in the UEFA Champions League?


Which of the "Big Four" teams did not lose a single game in the 2003-04 season?


Who stated that "Big Four" dominance was a threat to the division?


Who said that all of the tussles in the Premier League made it interesting, even if only four teams dominated?


Which team finished fourth in the 2009-10 season?

The years following 2009 marked a shift in the structure of the "Big Four" with Tottenham Hotspur and Manchester City both breaking into the top four. In the 2009–10 season, Tottenham finished fourth and became the first team to break the top four since Everton in 2005. Criticism of the gap between an elite group of "super clubs" and the majority of the Premier League has continued, nevertheless, due to their increasing ability to spend more than the other Premier League clubs. Manchester City won the title in the 2011–12 season, becoming the first club outside the "Big Four" to win since 1994–95. That season also saw two of the Big Four (Chelsea and Liverpool) finish outside the top four places for the first time since 1994–95.


Why was there critcism of the elite clubs?


Which two "Big Four" clubs did not finish in the top four in the 2011-12 season?


Since 1994-95, who was the first club out side of the "Big Four" to win the title


In the 2009-10 season, which team was the first to break into the "Big Four" since 2005?


In which position did Tottenham finish in the 2009-10 season?


In 2011-12, which club was the first non-"Big Four" team to win since 1994-95?


In 2011-12, how many "Big Four" clubs finished outside the top four places in the league?


In 2005, which was the only non-"Big Four" team to break the top four?


What was the number of clubs reduced to in 1995.

Due to insistence by the International Federation of Association Football (FIFA), the international governing body of football, that domestic leagues reduce the number of games clubs played, the number of clubs was reduced to 20 in 1995 when four teams were relegated from the league and only two teams promoted. On 8 June 2006, FIFA requested that all major European leagues, including Italy's Serie A and Spain's La Liga be reduced to 18 teams by the start of the 2007–08 season. The Premier League responded by announcing their intention to resist such a reduction. Ultimately, the 2007–08 season kicked off again with 20 teams.


In 1995, who requested that domestic leagues lower the amount of games played.


Who insisted that the number of games played in each domestic league must be reduced?


In 1995, what was the number of clubs in the league reduced to?


On which date did FIFA request that all European leagues reduce the number of teams within themselves to 18?


In the 2007-08 season, how many teams was the Premier League left with?


How many teams were relegated from the Premier League in 1995?


How many votes does each Football Association Premier League Ltd (FAPL) club have on issues?

The Football Association Premier League Ltd (FAPL) is operated as a corporation and is owned by the 20 member clubs. Each club is a shareholder, with one vote each on issues such as rule changes and contracts. The clubs elect a chairman, chief executive, and board of directors to oversee the daily operations of the league. The current chairman is Sir Dave Richards, who was appointed in April 1999, and the chief executive is Richard Scudamore, appointed in November 1999. The former chairman and chief executive, John Quinton and Peter Leaver, were forced to resign in March 1999 after awarding consultancy contracts to former Sky executives Sam Chisholm and David Chance. The Football Association is not directly involved in the day-to-day operations of the Premier League, but has veto power as a special shareholder during the election of the chairman and chief executive and when new rules are adopted by the league.


Who is the chairman of the FAPL and when was he appointed?


Why did John Quinton and Peter Leaver resign as chairman and chief excutive?


Does the Football Association say about the management of the Premier League?


Who owns the Football Association Premier League?


How many votes do the member clubs of the Premier League have each?


What do the people each club elect oversee?


Who is the current chairman of the Premier League?


Who is the current CEO of the Premier League?


Who decides on how many Premeir League representatives there are for the European Club Association?

The Premier League sends representatives to UEFA's European Club Association, the number of clubs and the clubs themselves chosen according to UEFA coefficients. For the 2012–13 season the Premier League has 10 representatives in the Association: Arsenal, Aston Villa, Chelsea, Everton, Fulham, Liverpool, Manchester City, Manchester United, Newcastle United and Tottenham Hotspur. The European Club Association is responsible for electing three members to UEFA's Club Competitions Committee, which is involved in the operations of UEFA competitions such as the Champions League and UEFA Europa League.


How many representatives does the Premier League have for the European Club Association for 2012-13?


How many members does the European Club Association elect for the UEFA's Club Competitions Committee?


Which competitions does the Club Competitions Committee have a say in?


According to what are the number of and which clubs chosen to attend the European Club Association?


How many representatives did the Premier League have in the European Club Association during the 2012-13 season?


How many members is the European Club Association responsible for electing to the UEFA Club Competitions Committee?


When does the Premier League have its playing season?

There are 20 clubs in the Premier League. During the course of a season (from August to May) each club plays the others twice (a double round-robin system), once at their home stadium and once at that of their opponents, for a total of 38 games. Teams receive three points for a win and one point for a draw. No points are awarded for a loss. Teams are ranked by total points, then goal difference, and then goals scored. If still equal, teams are deemed to occupy the same position. If there is a tie for the championship, for relegation, or for qualification to other competitions, a play-off match at a neutral venue decides rank. The three lowest placed teams are relegated into the Football League Championship, and the top two teams from the Championship, together with the winner of play-offs involving the third to sixth placed Championship clubs, are promoted in their place.


How many games does each club play each season?


How many points does each club receive for each win?


Which criteria is used to rank the clubs?


How is a tie for the championship handled?


How many clubs are currently in the Premier League?


Which month marks the start of a Premier League season?


How many times does each club play every other club?


How many total games does each club in the Premier League play per season?


What will a fifth place Premier League team qualify for?

The team placed fifth in the Premier League automatically qualifies for the UEFA Europa League, and the sixth and seventh-placed teams can also qualify, depending on the winners of the two domestic cup competitions i.e. the FA Cup and the Capital One Cup (League Cup). Two Europa League places are reserved for the winners of each tournament; if the winner of either the FA Cup or League Cup qualifies for the Champions League, then that place will go to the next-best placed finisher in the Premier League. A further place in the UEFA Europa League is also available via the Fair Play initiative. If the Premier League has one of the three highest Fair Play rankings in Europe, the highest ranked team in the Premier League Fair Play standings which has not already qualified for Europe will automatically qualify for the UEFA Europa League first qualifying round.


What places are reserved for the FA Cup and the League Cup winners?


Why is it important to have a high Fair Play ranking?


If a team already qualifies for the Champions League and they winner the FA Cup or the League Cup will another team get to qualify for the Champions League?


How many Europa League places are reserved for domestic tournament winners?


To which league is the fifth place Premier League team automatically qualified for?


The team which has the highest ranking in the Fair Play standings is guaranteed qualification for which qualifying round in the Europa League?


Which team did not qualifty for Champions League in 2005 but was able to particpate?

An exception to the usual European qualification system happened in 2005, after Liverpool won the Champions League the year before, but did not finish in a Champions League qualification place in the Premier League that season. UEFA gave special dispensation for Liverpool to enter the Champions League, giving England five qualifiers. UEFA subsequently ruled that the defending champions qualify for the competition the following year regardless of their domestic league placing. However, for those leagues with four entrants in the Champions League, this meant that if the Champions League winner finished outside the top four in its domestic league, it would qualify at the expense of the fourth-placed team in the league. No association can have more than four entrants in the Champions League. This occurred in 2012, when Chelsea – who had won the Champions League the previous year, but finished sixth in the league – qualified for the Champions League in place of Tottenham Hotspur, who went into the Europa League.


Did the Liverpool Club place in the Champions League in 2005?


How many qualifiers did England have for the Champions League in 2005?


Do defending champtions get to play in the following year's Champions League if they don't have enough wins to qualify


How many winning teams from an association can participate in the Champions League?


Which team received special dispensation from the UEFA in 2005 so they could enter the Champions League?


Who did UEFA rule should automatically qualify for the Champions League?


At which team's expense does the previous champion's automatic entry into the Champions League without placing in the top four come?


In 2012, which team was automatically qualified for the champion's league even though they did not place in the top four?


Which team was denied entry into the Champions League in 2012 due to being bumped out of the running by the defending champion?


How many times have Premier League teams have won the Champions League since 1992-2013?

Between the 1992–93 season and the 2012–13 season, Premier League clubs had won the UEFA Champions League four times (as well as supplying five of the runners-up), behind Spain's La Liga with six wins, and Italy's Serie A with five wins, and ahead of, among others, Germany's Bundesliga with three wins (see table here). The FIFA Club World Cup (or the FIFA Club World Championship, as it was originally called) has been won by Premier league clubs once (Manchester United in 2008), and they have also been runners-up twice, behind Brazil's Brasileirão with four wins, and Spain's La Liga and Italy's Serie A with two wins each (see table here).


How many times has the Premier League won the World Cup (FIFA Club) during that same time period?


How many times have Premier League teams been runners up in the World Cup?


How many times did Premier League clubs win the Champions League between 1992 and 2013?


How many runners up in the Champions League were from the Premier League between 1992 and 2013?


Which league had the most Champions League wins between 1992 and 2013?


Which league had the second most Champions League wins between 1992 and 2013?


Which league had only three Champions League wins between 1992 and 2013?


What were some of the reasons for the increased revenues in 2013-14?

The Premier League has the highest revenue of any football league in the world, with total club revenues of €2.48 billion in 2009–10. In 2013–14, due to improved television revenues and cost controls, the Premier League had net profits in excess of £78 million, exceeding all other football leagues. In 2010 the Premier League was awarded the Queen's Award for Enterprise in the International Trade category for its outstanding contribution to international trade and the value it brings to English football and the United Kingdom's broadcasting industry.


What are the Premier League's revenues for 2009-10?


Which award did the Premier League win in 2010?


What were the Premier League's net profits in 2013-14?


Which league has the highest revenue in the world?


What were the total revenues of the Premier League in the 2009-10 season?


What were the net profits of the Premier League in 2013-14?


In which year was the Premier League awarded an International Trade award?


Did Swansea qualify for the Europa Leaque in 2012-13?

In 2011, a Welsh club participated in the Premier League for the first time after Swansea City gained promotion. The first Premier League match to be played outside England was Swansea City's home match at the Liberty Stadium against Wigan Athletic on 20 August 2011. In 2012–13, Swansea qualified for the Europa League by winning the League Cup. The number of Welsh clubs in the Premier League increased to two for the first time in 2013–14, as Cardiff City gained promotion, but Cardiff City was relegated after its maiden season.


When was Swansea City's home match played against Wigan Athletic?


In 2013-14, how much did the Premier League's Welsh clubs increase by?


How did Swansea qualify for the Europa League?


Which team gained promotion then but was relegated after its first season?


In which year did a Welsh club participate in the Premier League for the first time?


Which team was promoted to the Premier League in 2011?


In which stadium was the first Premier League match played outside of England?


On which date did Swansea City play its first Premier League game?


Against which team did Swansea City play its first Premier League game?


Which team received permission to move to Dublin, Ireland in 1998?

Participation in the Premier League by some Scottish or Irish clubs has sometimes been discussed, but without result. The idea came closest to reality in 1998, when Wimbledon received Premier League approval to relocate to Dublin, Ireland, but the move was blocked by the Football Association of Ireland. Additionally, the media occasionally discusses the idea that Scotland's two biggest teams, Celtic and Rangers, should or will take part in the Premier League, but nothing has come of these discussions.


Are there any clubs Scotland or Ireland in the Premier League?


Which team received Premier League approval to relocate to Dublin?


In which year did a Premier League team consider relocating to Ireland?


Who occasionally discusses a Scottish team joining the Premier League?


Who received broadcasting rights to the Premier League in 1992?

Television has played a major role in the history of the Premier League. The League's decision to assign broadcasting rights to BSkyB in 1992 was at the time a radical decision, but one that has paid off. At the time pay television was an almost untested proposition in the UK market, as was charging fans to watch live televised football. However, a combination of Sky's strategy, the quality of Premier League football and the public's appetite for the game has seen the value of the Premier League's TV rights soar.


What happened to the Premier League's televsion rights after this decision?


In which year did the Premier League decide to give BSkyB broadcasting rights?


What sort of television was BSkyB that made it such a radical broadcaster to choose for the Premier League?


Do European Leagues sell their television rights per a collective level?

The Premier League sells its television rights on a collective basis. This is in contrast to some other European Leagues, including La Liga, in which each club sells its rights individually, leading to a much higher share of the total income going to the top few clubs. The money is divided into three parts: half is divided equally between the clubs; one quarter is awarded on a merit basis based on final league position, the top club getting twenty times as much as the bottom club, and equal steps all the way down the table; the final quarter is paid out as facilities fees for games that are shown on television, with the top clubs generally receiving the largest shares of this. The income from overseas rights is divided equally between the twenty clubs.


What happens when European Leagues sell their televsion rights individually?


How is the teleivsion revenue distributed in the Premier League?


How is the final quarter of the money distributed?


On what sort of basis does the Premier League sell its television rights?


How does La Liga sell its broadcasting rights?


Which clubs get the greatest share of broadcasting income when rights are sold individually?


What percentage of broadcasting revenue is divided equally by all La Liga clubs?


What percentage of broadcasting revenue is awarded on a merit basis according to ranking at the end of the season?


How much was the amount of first five seasons of the Sky television rights?

The first Sky television rights agreement was worth £304 million over five seasons. The next contract, negotiated to start from the 1997–98 season, rose to £670 million over four seasons. The third contract was a £1.024 billion deal with BSkyB for the three seasons from 2001–02 to 2003–04. The league brought in £320 million from the sale of its international rights for the three-year period from 2004–05 to 2006–07. It sold the rights itself on a territory-by-territory basis. Sky's monopoly was broken from August 2006 when Setanta Sports was awarded rights to show two out of the six packages of matches available. This occurred following an insistence by the European Commission that exclusive rights should not be sold to one television company. Sky and Setanta paid a total of £1.7 billion, a two-thirds increase which took many commentators by surprise as it had been widely assumed that the value of the rights had levelled off following many years of rapid growth. Setanta also hold rights to a live 3 pm match solely for Irish viewers. The BBC has retained the rights to show highlights for the same three seasons (on Match of the Day) for £171.6 million, a 63 per cent increase on the £105 million it paid for the previous three-year period. Sky and BT have agreed to jointly pay £84.3 million for delayed television rights to 242 games (that is the right to broadcast them in full on television and over the internet) in most cases for a period of 50 hours after 10 pm on matchday. Overseas television rights fetched £625 million, nearly double the previous contract. The total raised from these deals is more than £2.7 billion, giving Premier League clubs an average media income from league games of around £40 million-a-year from 2007 to 2010.


How much many did the Premier League make from selling its internation rights during 2004-07?


What happened to Sky's agreement in 2006.


What was the average income from media from 2007-2010 for the Premier League?


How many seasons did the first television rights contract award to Sky?


How much was the first television rights contract awarded to Sky worth?


How much was the second television rights contract awarded to Sky worth?


How much was the third television rights contract awarded to Sky worth?


By being awarded television rights, which other network broke Sky's monopoly on Premier League coverage?


Why has there been a several court cases against Sky and Premier League?

The TV rights agreement between the Premier League and Sky has faced accusations of being a cartel, and a number of court cases have arisen as a result. An investigation by the Office of Fair Trading in 2002 found BSkyB to be dominant within the pay TV sports market, but concluded that there were insufficient grounds for the claim that BSkyB had abused its dominant position. In July 1999 the Premier League's method of selling rights collectively for all member clubs was investigated by the UK Restrictive Practices Court, who concluded that the agreement was not contrary to the public interest.


What did the Office of Fair Trading decide regarding the claim that Sky abuses their position in 2002.


Who investigated the Premier League's collective selling rights in 1999?


What did they decide about the collective selling issue?


What has the agreement between the Premier League and Sky been accused of being?


Who investigated the agreement between the Premier League and Sky in 2002?


Who investigated how the Premier League sold television rights in 1999?


How much money did Premier League earn regarding television rights in 2010-13?

The BBC's highlights package on Saturday and Sunday nights, as well as other evenings when fixtures justify, will run until 2016. Television rights alone for the period 2010 to 2013 have been purchased for £1.782 billion. On 22 June 2009, due to troubles encountered by Setanta Sports after it failed to meet a final deadline over a £30 million payment to the Premier League, ESPN was awarded two packages of UK rights containing a total of 46 matches that were available for the 2009–10 season as well as a package of 23 matches per season from 2010–11 to 2012–13. On 13 June 2012, the Premier League announced that BT had been awarded 38 games a season for the 2013–14 through 2015–16 seasons at £246 million-a-year. The remaining 116 games were retained by Sky who paid £760 million-a-year. The total domestic rights have raised £3.018 billion, an increase of 70.2% over the 2010–11 to 2012–13 rights. The value of the licensing deal rose by another 70.2% in 2015, when Sky and BT paid a total of £5.136 billion to renew their contracts with the Premier League for another three years up to the 2018–19 season.


Who will show 116 games for that same time period?


How much have the domestic televsion rights increased from 2010-12 to 2012-13?


How much did BT and Sky pay for their rights up to the 2018-19 season?


When will the BBC's weekend highlights package run out?


How much were Premier League television rights from 2010 to 2013 purchased for?


When did Setanta Sports fail to meet their payments deadline?


When Setanta Sports could not pay their bill to the league, which network took over broadcast rights from them?


On which date was it announced that BT was awarded a broadcasting contract?


What country is the Premier League the most distributed televised sports broadcast?

The Premier League is particularly popular in Asia, where it is the most widely distributed sports programme. In Australia, Fox Sports broadcasts almost all of the season's 380 matches live, and Foxtel gives subscribers the option of selecting which Saturday 3pm match to watch. In India, the matches are broadcast live on STAR Sports. In China, the broadcast rights were awarded to Super Sports in a six-year agreement that began in the 2013–14 season. As of the 2013–14 season, Canadian broadcast rights to the Premier League are jointly owned by Sportsnet and TSN, with both rival networks holding rights to 190 matches per season.


Who broadcasts the Premier League's games in India?


Who broadcasts the Premier League's games in China?


Who broadcasts the Premier League's games in Canada?


How many games does each of them broadcast?


On which continent other than Europe is the Premier League especially popular?


Which network is the main live broadcaster of Premier League in Australia?


Which network in Australia offers viewers the choice of which Saturday afternoon match they watch?


Which network broadcasts Premier League live in India?


Which Chinese broadcaster has Premier League rights?


Who broadcasts the Premier League's games in the United States?

The Premier League is broadcast in the United States through NBC Sports. Premier League viewership has increased rapidly, with NBC and NBCSN averaging a record 479,000 viewers in the 2014–15 season, up 118% from 2012–13 when coverage still aired on Fox Soccer and ESPN/ESPN2 (220,000 viewers), and NBC Sports has been widely praised for its coverage. NBC Sports reached a six-year extension with the Premier League in 2015 to broadcast the league through the 2021–22 season in a deal valued at $1 billion (£640 million).


What was the average viewership in the United States during the 2014-15 season?


How many years did NBC Sports receive an extension for with the Premier League in 2015?


Which American broadcaster shows the Premier League currently?


By what percentage has viewership in the US risen from 2012 to 2015?


How many viewers on average watched the Premier League 2014-15 season in the US?


In which year did NBC Sports secure an extension of six years with the Premier League?


How much was the NBC broadcasting deal with the Premier League worth in 2015?


Why has their been distance between the Premier League and the Football League?

There has been an increasing gulf between the Premier League and the Football League. Since its split with the Football League, many established clubs in the Premier League have managed to distance themselves from their counterparts in lower leagues. Owing in large part to the disparity in revenue from television rights between the leagues, many newly promoted teams have found it difficult to avoid relegation in their first season in the Premier League. In every season except 2001–02 and 2011–12, at least one Premier League newcomer has been relegated back to the Football League. In 1997–98 all three promoted clubs were relegated at the end of the season.


Did many new teams in the Premier League have any difficulties in their initial season?


Was it unusual for a new team to go back to the Football League after their first season in the Premier League?


In the 1997-98 season how many new teams had to go back to the Football League?


Due to the disparity in television rights revenue between leagues, who struggles to avoid relegation in their Premier League first season?


In every season but 2001-02 and 2011-12, at least how many Premier League teams have been relegated?


How many newly promoted clubs were relegated from the Premier League in 1997-98?


If a team is relegated in the Premier League what type of tv payment do they receive?

The Premier League distributes a portion of its television revenue to clubs that are relegated from the league in the form of "parachute payments". Starting with the 2013–14 season, these payments are in excess of £60 million over four seasons. Though designed to help teams adjust to the loss of television revenues (the average Premier League team receives £55 million while the average Football League Championship club receives £2 million), critics maintain that the payments actually widen the gap between teams that have reached the Premier League and those that have not, leading to the common occurrence of teams "bouncing back" soon after their relegation. For some clubs who have failed to win immediate promotion back to the Premier League, financial problems, including in some cases administration or even liquidation have followed. Further relegations down the footballing ladder have ensued for several clubs unable to cope with the gap.


What do critics have to say about this payment?


What has happened to some of the clubs who weren't able to get back into the Premier League right away?


How much does a Football League club receive on average for their television revenues?


How does this compare an average Premier League team?


To which type of team are parachute payments distributed to in the Premier League?


Starting in the 2013-14 season, parachute payments are in excess of what amount of revenue?


What is said to widen between clubs who reach the Premier League and those who do not thanks to parachute payments?


What was the result of their recommendation?

As of the 2015–16 season, Premier League football has been played in 53 stadiums since the formation of the Premier League in 1992. The Hillsborough disaster in 1989 and the subsequent Taylor Report saw a recommendation that standing terraces should be abolished; as a result all stadiums in the Premier League are all-seater. Since the formation of the Premier League, football grounds in England have seen constant improvements to capacity and facilities, with some clubs moving to new-build stadiums. Nine stadiums that have seen Premier League football have now been demolished. The stadiums for the 2010–11 season show a large disparity in capacity: Old Trafford, the home of Manchester United has a capacity of 75,957 with Bloomfield Road, the home of Blackpool, having a capacity of 16,220. The combined total capacity of the Premier League in the 2010–11 season is 770,477 with an average capacity of 38,523.


What did the Taylor Report recommend at the the Hillsborough disaster in 1989?


How many stadiums have been closed down since Premier League started?


What was the total seating capacity of stadiums in the Premier League in the 2010-11 season.


In how many stadiums had Premier League been played as of the 2015-16 season?


What did the Taylor Report recommend to abolish from all stadiums?


How many stadiums in which the Premier League has been played have been demolished as of 2016?


What is the capacity of Bloomfield Road stadium?


What is the combined total capacity of all stadiums in the Premier League as of 2011?


Are attendance remittances that important to the Premier League?

Stadium attendances are a significant source of regular income for Premier League clubs. For the 2009–10 season, average attendances across the league clubs were 34,215 for Premier League matches with a total aggregate attendance figure of 13,001,616. This represents an increase of 13,089 from the average attendance of 21,126 recorded in the league's first season (1992–93). However, during the 1992–93 season the capacities of most stadiums were reduced as clubs replaced terraces with seats in order to meet the Taylor Report's 1994–95 deadline for all-seater stadiums. The Premier League's record average attendance of 36,144 was set during the 2007–08 season. This record was then beaten in the 2013–14 season recording an average attendance of 36,695 with a total attendance of just under 14 million, the highest average in England's top flight since 1950.


What was the Premier Leagues standard attendance in the 2007-08 season?


What was the league's first year attendance average?


Attendance for the 2013-14 season set a new record of how much?


What was the average attendance for all Premier League clubs during the 2009-10 season?


What was the total attendance of all Premier League games during the 2009-10 season?


By how many attendees did the average Premier League attendance increase between 1992 and 2009?


For when did the Taylor Report set the deadline for replacing terraces with seats in stadiums?


During which season did the Premier League set a record average attendance of over 36,000 people?


What are some of the every day tasks that a manager of a team has to deal with?

Managers in the Premier League are involved in the day-to-day running of the team, including the training, team selection, and player acquisition. Their influence varies from club-to-club and is related to the ownership of the club and the relationship of the manager with fans. Managers are required to have a UEFA Pro Licence which is the final coaching qualification available, and follows the completion of the UEFA 'B' and 'A' Licences. The UEFA Pro Licence is required by every person who wishes to manage a club in the Premier League on a permanent basis (i.e. more than 12 weeks – the amount of time an unqualified caretaker manager is allowed to take control). Caretaker appointments are managers that fill the gap between a managerial departure and a new appointment. Several caretaker managers have gone on to secure a permanent managerial post after performing well as a caretaker; examples include Paul Hart at Portsmouth and David Pleat at Tottenham Hotspur.


What type of licence does a manager need?


Is this licence required on a permanent basis?


Give an example of someone who was a caretaker manager?


What license are managers in the Premier League required to hold?


Which licence follows completion of both the UEFA B and A licences?


For how long at most is an unlicenced caretaker manager allowed to control a Premier League team for?


Which caretaker manager was later promoted to permanent manager at Portsmouth?


Which caretaker manager was later promoted to permanent manager at Tottenham Hotspur?


Which team in 1999 had a line-up for starting that was consisted of all foreign players?

At the inception of the Premier League in 1992–93, just eleven players named in the starting line-ups for the first round of matches hailed from outside of the United Kingdom or Ireland. By 2000–01, the number of foreign players participating in the Premier League was 36 per cent of the total. In the 2004–05 season the figure had increased to 45 per cent. On 26 December 1999, Chelsea became the first Premier League side to field an entirely foreign starting line-up, and on 14 February 2005 Arsenal were the first to name a completely foreign 16-man squad for a match. By 2009, under 40% of the players in the Premier League were English.


At the beginning of the Premier League how many foreign players were there for the first round of games?


By the 2000-1 season what was the percentage of foreign players?


Which team in 2005 had all-foreign team players?


In 2009, what percent of the players were English in the Premier League?


How many of the original Premier League players in the 1992-93 season hailed from outside the UK or Ireland?


By 2000-01, what percentage of players in the Premier League were from outside the UK and Ireland?


By 2004-05, what percentage of players in the Premier League were from outside the UK and Ireland?


On which date did Chelsea host an entirely foreign starting line-up and therefore become the first team to do so?


On which date did Arsenal name a fully foreign 16-man squad for a match?


Why did the Home Office change it rules regardin work permits in 1999?

In response to concerns that clubs were increasingly passing over young English players in favour of foreign players, in 1999, the Home Office tightened its rules for granting work permits to players from countries outside of the European Union. A non-EU player applying for the permit must have played for his country in at least 75 per cent of its competitive 'A' team matches for which he was available for selection during the previous two years, and his country must have averaged at least 70th place in the official FIFA world rankings over the previous two years. If a player does not meet those criteria, the club wishing to sign him may appeal.


What was another requirement of foreign players?


In which year did the Home Office tighten rules on granting work permits to foreign football players?


For what percent must a player play of the competitive A team matches for which he was available for selection in the previous two years to get a work permit from the Home OFfice?


Over the last two years, what rank must a player's team average at least in order for them to receive a work permit from the Home Office?


What can a club do if a player they wish to sign does not meet the Home Office's work permit requirements?


Players may only be transferred during transfer windows that are set by the Football Association. The two transfer windows run from the last day of the season to 31 August and from 31 December to 31 January. Player registrations cannot be exchanged outside these windows except under specific licence from the FA, usually on an emergency basis. As of the 2010–11 season, the Premier League introduced new rules mandating that each club must register a maximum 25-man squad of players aged over 21, with the squad list only allowed to be changed in transfer windows or in exceptional circumstances. This was to enable the 'home grown' rule to be enacted, whereby the League would also from 2010 require at least 8 of the named 25 man squad to be made up of 'home-grown players'.


Can players be transferred under an emergency outside the transfer windows?


What new rule was put into practice during the 2010-11 season?


During which time can a player be transferred from one European football league to another?


How many transfer windows are available each year from the Football Association?


On which basis are transfers outside of transfer windows licenced?


What is the maximum number of players able to be registered to a Premier League team?


How many of a 25-member Premier League squad must be from the UK or Ireland?


Have transfer fees been increasing over the past years?

The record transfer fee for a Premier League player has risen steadily over the lifetime of the competition. Prior to the start of the first Premier League season Alan Shearer became the first British player to command a transfer fee of more than £3 million. The record rose steadily in the Premier League's first few seasons, until Alan Shearer made a record breaking £15 million move to Newcastle United in 1996. The three highest transfer in the sport's history had a Premier League club on the selling end, with Tottenham Hotspur selling Gareth Bale to Real Madrid for £85 million in 2013, Manchester United's sale of Cristiano Ronaldo to Real Madrid for £80 million in 2009, and Liverpool selling Luis Suárez to Barcelona for £75 million in 2014.


What was the record breaking transfer fee in 1996?


In 2009, what was the transfer fee for Cristiano Ronaldo?


What was the transfer fee for Gareth Bale in 2013.


What was Luis Suarez's transfer fee in 2014?


Who was the first British player in the Premier League to receive a transfer fee greater than £3 million?


Who was the first British player in the Premier League to receive a transfer fee greater than £15 million?


Who paid £15 million to transfer Alan Shearer to their club?


In which year did Newcastle United pay £15 million to transfer Alan Shearer to their club?


For how much did Tottenham Hotspur sell Gareth Bale to Real Madrid for in 2013?


Who is the Golden Boot award given to each season?

The Golden Boot is awarded to the top Premier League scorer at the end of each season. Former Blackburn Rovers and Newcastle United striker Alan Shearer holds the record for most Premier League goals with 260. Twenty-four players have reached the 100-goal mark. Since the first Premier League season in 1992–93, 14 different players from 10 different clubs have won or shared the top scorers title. Thierry Henry won his fourth overall scoring title by scoring 27 goals in the 2005–06 season. Andrew Cole and Alan Shearer hold the record for most goals in a season (34) – for Newcastle and Blackburn respectively. Ryan Giggs of Manchester United holds the record for scoring goals in consecutive seasons, having scored in the first 21 seasons of the league.


Who has the record for most goals in the Premier League?


How many players have achieved 100 goals?


How many different players have won the top scorer title?


Who has the record for scoring the most goals in single season?


To whom is the Golden Boot award given to?


Who holds the record for the most goals in the Premier League?


How many players have 100 goals or more in the Premier League?


How many different players have won or shared the top scorer title in the Premier League?


Who had scored four overall scoring titles as of the 2006 season?


What is the Premier League Championship trophy based on?

Its main body is solid sterling silver and silver gilt, while its plinth is made of malachite, a semi-precious stone. The plinth has a silver band around its circumference, upon which the names of the title-winning clubs are listed. Malachite's green colour is also representative of the green field of play. The design of the trophy is based on the heraldry of Three Lions that is associated with English football. Two of the lions are found above the handles on either side of the trophy – the third is symbolised by the captain of the title winning team as he raises the trophy, and its gold crown, above his head at the end of the season. The ribbons that drape the handles are presented in the team colours of the league champions that year.


Where on the trophy can two of the lions be seen?


The Golden Boot is made of sterling silver, silver gilt and which semi-precious stone?


On what type of metal band are the title-winning clubs listed on the Golden Boot?


What does the green colour of Malachite on the Golden Boot represent?


How many lions are found on the Golden Boot?


Who symbolizes the third lion not found on the Golden Boot trophy?


The Roman Republic (Latin: Res publica Romana; Classical Latin: [ˈreːs ˈpuːb.lɪ.ka roːˈmaː.na]) was the period of ancient Roman civilization beginning with the overthrow of the Roman Kingdom, traditionally dated to 509 BC, and ending in 27 BC with the establishment of the Roman Empire. It was during this period that Rome's control expanded from the city's immediate surroundings to hegemony over the entire Mediterranean world. During the first two centuries of its existence, the Roman Republic expanded through a combination of conquest and alliance, from central Italy to the entire Italian peninsula. By the following century, it included North Africa, Spain, and what is now southern France. Two centuries after that, towards the end of the 1st century BC, it included the rest of modern France, Greece, and much of the eastern Mediterranean. By this time, internal tensions led to a series of civil wars, culminating with the assassination of Julius Caesar, which led to the transition from republic to empire. The exact date of transition can be a matter of interpretation. Historians have variously proposed Julius Caesar's crossing of the Rubicon River in 49 BC, Caesar's appointment as dictator for life in 44 BC, and the defeat of Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. However, most use the same date as did the ancient Romans themselves, the Roman Senate's grant of extraordinary powers to Octavian and his adopting the title Augustus in 27 BC, as the defining event ending the Republic.


What marked the beginning of the Roman Republic?


When was Cleopatra defeated at the Battle of Actium?


What do most consider to be the event that ended the Roman Republic?


Who elected consuls in the Roman government?

Roman government was headed by two consuls, elected annually by the citizens and advised by a senate composed of appointed magistrates. As Roman society was very hierarchical by modern standards, the evolution of the Roman government was heavily influenced by the struggle between the patricians, Rome's land-holding aristocracy, who traced their ancestry to the founding of Rome, and the plebeians, the far more numerous citizen-commoners. Over time, the laws that gave patricians exclusive rights to Rome's highest offices were repealed or weakened, and leading plebeian families became full members of the aristocracy. The leaders of the Republic developed a strong tradition and morality requiring public service and patronage in peace and war, making military and political success inextricably linked. Many of Rome's legal and legislative structures (later codified into the Justinian Code, and again into the Napoleonic Code) can still be observed throughout Europe and much of the world in modern nation states and international organizations.


Who eventually became full members of the aristocracy?


What were Rome's legislative structures eventually turned into?


What was the senate that advised consuls in the Roman government comprised of?


What went hand and hand with military success?


What factor is considered by some to be the main driving force behind the expansion of Rome?

The exact causes and motivations for Rome's military conflicts and expansions during the republic are subject to wide debate. While they can be seen as motivated by outright aggression and imperialism, historians typically take a much more nuanced view. They argue that Rome's expansion was driven by short-term defensive and inter-state factors (that is, relations with city-states and kingdoms outside Rome's hegemony), and the new contingencies that these decisions created. In its early history, as Rome successfully defended itself against foreign threats in central and then northern Italy, neighboring city-states sought the protection a Roman alliance would bring. As such, early republican Rome was not an "empire" or "state" in the modern sense, but an alliance of independent city-states (similar to the Greek hegemonies of the same period) with varying degrees of genuine independence (which itself changed over time) engaged in an alliance of mutual self-protection, but led by Rome. With some important exceptions, successful wars in early republican Rome generally led not to annexation or military occupation, but to the restoration of the way things were. But the defeated city would be weakened (sometimes with outright land concessions) and thus less able to resist Romanizing influences, such as Roman settlers seeking land or trade with the growing Roman confederacy. It was also less able to defend itself against its non-Roman enemies, which made attack by these enemies more likely. It was, therefore, more likely to seek an alliance of protection with Rome.


What type of policy is considered by some to be responsible for Rome's many military conflicts?


What was a common conclusion to wars in the early days of republican Rome?


What type of alliance was created between the various Roman city-states?


What did Roman settlers commonly seek out?


After what war did the alliances start to solidify?

This growing coalition expanded the potential enemies that Rome might face, and moved Rome closer to confrontation with major powers. The result was more alliance-seeking, on the part of both the Roman confederacy and city-states seeking membership (and protection) within that confederacy. While there were exceptions to this (such as military rule of Sicily after the First Punic War), it was not until after the Second Punic War that these alliances started to harden into something more like an empire, at least in certain locations. This shift mainly took place in parts of the west, such as the southern Italian towns that sided with Hannibal.


What helped Rome move closer to a confrontation with several other major powers in the area?


What did city-states hope to gain from the Roman confederacy?


What effect did the weakening of Ptolemaic Egypt have on nearby areas?

In contrast, Roman expansion into Spain and Gaul occurred as a mix of alliance-seeking and military occupation. In the 2nd century BC, Roman involvement in the Greek east remained a matter of alliance-seeking, but this time in the face of major powers that could rival Rome. According to Polybius, who sought to trace how Rome came to dominate the Greek east in less than a century, this was mainly a matter of several Greek city-states seeking Roman protection against the Macedonian kingdom and Seleucid Empire in the face of destabilisation created by the weakening of Ptolemaic Egypt. In contrast to the west, the Greek east had been dominated by major empires for centuries, and Roman influence and alliance-seeking led to wars with these empires that further weakened them and therefore created an unstable power vacuum that only Rome could fill. This had some important similarities to (and important differences from) the events in Italy centuries earlier, but this time on a global scale.


Who attempted to find out how Rome dominated the Greek east?


Why was Rome involved in matters in the Greek east?


Which countries citie-states attempted to gain the protection of Rome?


What was seen as the behind the Roman influence in the east?

Historians see the growing Roman influence over the east, as with the west, as not a matter of intentional empire-building, but constant crisis management narrowly focused on short-term goals within a highly unstable, unpredictable, and inter-dependent network of alliances and dependencies. With some major exceptions of outright military rule, the Roman Republic remained an alliance of independent city-states and kingdoms (with varying degrees of independence, both de jure and de facto) until it transitioned into the Roman Empire. It was not until the time of the Roman Empire that the entire Roman world was organized into provinces under explicit Roman control.


At what point was the entire Roman world joined together under Roman control?


What was not seen as an influence of Rome's influence in the west?


What type of city-states were involved with the Roman Republic?


In what battle did Rome claim victory over several Latin cities in?

The first Roman republican wars were wars of both expansion and defence, aimed at protecting Rome itself from neighbouring cities and nations and establishing its territory in the region. Initially, Rome's immediate neighbours were either Latin towns and villages, or else tribal Sabines from the Apennine hills beyond. One by one Rome defeated both the persistent Sabines and the local cities, both those under Etruscan control and those that had cast off their Etruscan rulers. Rome defeated Latin cities in the Battle of Lake Regillus in 496 BC, the Battle of Mons Algidus in 458 BC, the Battle of Corbione in 446 BC, the Battle of Aricia, and especially the Battle of the Cremera in 477 BC wherein it fought against the most important Etruscan city of Veii.


What year did the Battle of Lake Regillus take place?