The Biba boutiques were at the heart of swinging London and at one time had the highest turnover of any British retail company. Who founded and ran Biba?

ATOM RETRO CLOTHING - Mens & Womens Retro Clothing, Mod Clothing, Indie Clothes The Knack And How To Get It: The Roots Of Mod Clothing And Style   In the beginning Mod created Heaven on Earth... oh wait that's just a form of plagiarism from some other quite famous works, but where did it all start? The Prequel to Mod! It's story is a kin to the greatest of dramas, with twists and turns, romance and tragedy, good times and bad. After the end of WWII, Britain emerged still very much conforming to well served, yet age old traditional values - but this time with an added despair. A country that had lost a whole lot in the ravages of war had also conjured up a loss in direction for many of it's young people. A sense that outmoded traditions and overly strict moral conscience were stifling creativity and the ability to express ones self in turn generated a subversive reaction amongst many of Britain's youth. This creative rebellion manifested itself in the form of fashion, music and the arts. The affluent youth began pushing the boundaries, with previously conservative fashion trends slowly being replaced with a more flamboyant and individual style - The first sub culture to emerge amongst Britain's more expressionistic youth was the Teddy Boy. The Edwardian look defined a new generation and Drape coats, quiffs, bolo (shoestring) ties, sideburns and creepers became the order of the day. By 1953, Teddy Boys had become a recognised and rapidly growing phenomenon and when the Daily Express printed the words Teddy Boy (Teddy being short for Edward?ian) in it's September 23rd edition, the movement was gaining momentum. Heavily influenced by American Rock and Roll with the likes of Elvis Presley, Bill Haley, Eddie Cochran and the film Blackboard Jungle all coming to prominence - The archetypal Hero's and icons of the Teddy Boy era were born - Themselves, a reflection of this new rebellious attitude. To grasp an insight into the extrovert fashions of the Teddy Boy, it's advantageous firstly to create a snap shot in the mind of the typical member. The average Teddy Boy adorned the classic drape jacket, often with the authentic velvet collar feature. It's Edwardian inspiration was also practical for the time. Hanging out on cold street corners (always was and will be a typical teenage past time) meant that the woollen fabric was an ideal solution for beating the cold. Style and substance - a drape jacket also had many concealed pockets, not just for protecting hands from the bitter cold, but also for concealing weapons and contraband such as alcohol. The more elegant, sophisticated and sought after a persons drape jacket, the more being in possession of such a garment became a symbol of status within the group - a badge of honour if you like. The Teddy Boy's would also wear drainpipe jeans, often short length to leave a portion of the sock on show and to act as a stark contrast between the dark black trousers and the striking footwear. Classic gibson shoes with thick crepe soles or the famous brothel creepers became the shoes of choice for many a Teddy Boy. The outfit would be finished off with a smart shirt, often with wide collars (a traditional Americana influence) and the classic bootlace (bolo) tie. Hair was lovingly and time consumingly quiffed, sometimes in an audacious overblown manner, tapering out in to the iconic duck arse (also referred to as duck tail or DA) at the back. ... and so what of the Teddy Girl? As with their male companions, the Teddy Girls dressed out of a need to shock the older generations. Once again, the American Rock & Roll influence featured heavily on the agenda - toreador pants (close fitting trousers that extend to or slightly above the calf) and the classic circle skirt became an instantly recognisable trait of the typical Teddy Girl. In order to create a true identity, away from the excessively respectable, prim and proper look of previous generation, the Teddy Girl opted for low cut tops, experimenting with different styles and looks in order to achieve a new and outrageous appearance and ultimately


What is caused by the gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun on Earth?

What Causes the Tides? What Causes the Tides? By Lauren Cox, Live Science Contributor | August 5, 2010 08:56am ET MORE Tides may seem simple on the surface, but the ins and outs of tides confounded great scientific thinkers for centuries they even led Galileo astray into a bunk theory. Today people know that the gravitational pulls between the earth, moon and sun dictate the tides. The moon, however, influences tides the most. The moon's gravitational pull on the earth is strong enough to tug the oceans into bulge. If no other forces were at play, shores would experience one high tide a day as the earth rotated on its axis and coasts ran into the oceans' bulge facing the moon . However, inertia -- the tendency of a moving object to keep moving -- affects the earth's oceans too. As the moon circles the earth, the earth moves in a very slight circle too, and this movement is enough to cause a centrifugal force on the oceans. (It's centrifugal force that holds water in a bucket when you swing the bucket in an overhead arc.) This inertia, or centrifugal force, causes the oceans to bulge on the opposite side facing the moon. While the moon's gravitational pull is strong enough to attract oceans into a bulge on the side of the earth facing the moon, it is not strong enough to overcome the inertia on the opposite side of the earth. As a result, the world's oceans bulge twice once when they are on the side of Earth closest to the moon , and once when they are on the side farthest from the moon, according to the Wood's Hole Oceanographic Institution in Wood's Hole, Mass. Geography complicates the tides, but many places on Earth experience just two high and two low tides every 24 hours and 50 minutes. (The extra 50 minutes is caused by the distance the moon moves each day as it orbits Earth). The sun and the tides "Solar tides" are caused by the sun's gravitational pull and are weaker than lunar tides. The sun is 27 million times more massive than the moon, but it is also 390 times farther away. As a result, the sun has 46 percent of the tide-generating forces (TGFs) that the moon has, according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Solar tides are therefore often considered just variations on lunar tides. Local geography can vary tide strength as well. Just north of the coast of Maine in Canada, the Bay of Fundy has a unique funnel shape at just the right position to creates the largest tides in the world. Water in the bay can rise more than 49 feet (15 meters) or about as high as a 4-story house. FORCE, the Fundy Ocean Research Center for Energy, estimates the Bay of Fundy pushes110 billion tons (100 billion metric tons) of water with every tide. Recently, local leaders have moved to take advantage of the tides. In July, Maine's Governor John Baldacci and Nova Scotia's Premier Darrell Dexter signed a Memorandum of Understanding to share research and ideas in tidal and offshore wind sources of renewable energy, according to Business Weekly. Understanding tides: then and now When Galileo Galilei attempted to explain tides in 1595, he left the moon out of this theory and focused on the inertia of the oceans and his correct idea that the earth orbited the sun, according to a NOVA documentary. It wasn't until 1687, that Sir Isaac Newton explained that ocean tides result from the gravitational attraction, according to NOAA.


In geology what is the term used for the layer between the Earth's crust and the core?

Earth's crust | geology | Britannica.com A cross section of Earth’s outer layers, from the crust through the lower mantle. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Crustal abundances of elements of atomic numbers 1 to 93. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Figure 22: The topographic expressions of eroded anticlines and synclines. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Figure 21: Three basic fault types: (top) normal fault, (middle) reverse fault, and (bottom) strike-slip fault. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Figure 20: The forms of three types of folds. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Figure 23: Two transform faults offsetting a mid-oceanic ridge. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Volcanic activity and the Earth’s tectonic plates Stratovolcanoes tend to form at subduction zones, or convergent plate margins, where an oceanic plate slides beneath a continental plate and contributes to the rise of magma to the surface. At rift zones, or divergent margins, shield volcanoes tend to form as two oceanic plates pull slowly apart and magma effuses upward through the gap. Volcanoes are not generally found at strike-slip zones, where two plates slide laterally past each other. “Hot spot” volcanoes may form where plumes of lava rise from deep within the mantle to the Earth’s crust far from any plate margins. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Earth is composed of three layers: the crust, the mantle, and the core. Created and produced by QA International. © QA International, 2010. All rights reserved. www.qa-international.com Geologic materials cycle through various forms. Sediments composed of weathered rock lithify to form sedimentary rock, which then becomes metamorphic rock under the pressure of Earth’s crust. When tectonic forces thrust sedimentary and metamorphic rocks into the hot mantle, they may melt and be ejected as magma, which cools to form igneous, or magmatic, rock. Created and produced by QA International. © QA International, 2010. All rights reserved. www.qa-international.com John P. Rafferty, biological and earth science editor of Encyclopædia Britannica, discussing the connection between Earth’s tectonic plates and earthquake development. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. At the margins of Earth’s plates, where two plates pull apart or one plate dives beneath another, magma (molten underground rock) frequently rises to the surface through volcanic vents. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.


Which gas forms about 78% of the Earth's atmosphere?

atmosphere - National Geographic Society atmosphere Our atmosphere—the thin blue line. Photograph courtesy NASA Atmospheric Orbit Although the International Space Station orbits in the thermosphere, most satellites orbit the Earth outside its atmosphere. GPS satellites, for instance, are in orbit more than 20,000 kilometers (12,400 miles) above the Earth. Magnetosphere Earths magnetosphere is not considered part of the atmosphere. The magnetosphere, formed by the Earths magnetic fields, protects the atmosphere by preventing it from being blown away by powerful solar wind. Ingredients for Life Scientists have gathered enough information about other planets in our solar system to know that none can support life as we know it. Life is not possible without a stable atmosphere containing the right chemical ingredients for living organisms: hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon. These ingredients must be balanced—not too thick or too thin. Life also depends on the presence of water. Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune all have atmospheres made mostly of hydrogen and helium. These planets are called gas giants, because they are mostly made of gas and do not have a solid outer crust. Mercury and Mars have some of the right ingredients, but their atmospheres are far too thin to support life. The atmosphere of Venus is too thick—the planet's surface temperature is more than 460 degrees Celsius (860 degrees Fahrenheit). Jupiter's moon Europa has a thin atmosphere rich with oxygen. It is likely covered by a huge ocean of liquid water. Some astrobiologists think that if life will develop elsewhere in the solar system, it will be near vents at the bottom of Europa's ocean. We live at the bottom of an invisible ocean called the atmosphere , a layer of gases surrounding our planet . Nitrogen and oxygen account for 99 percent of the gases in dry air , with argon , carbon dioxide , helium , neon , and other gases making up minute portions. Water vapor and dust are also part of Earth ’s atmosphere. Other planets and moons have very different atmospheres, and some have no atmospheres at all. The atmosphere is so spread out that we barely notice it, yet its weight is equal to a layer of water more than 10 meters (34 feet) deep covering the entire planet. The bottom 30 kilometers (19 miles) of the atmosphere contains about 98 percent of its mass . The atmosphere—air—is much thinner at high altitudes. There is no atmosphere in space. Scientists say many of the gases in our atmosphere were ejected into the air by early volcanoes. At that time, there would have been little or no free oxygen surrounding the Earth. Free oxygen consists of oxygen molecules not attached to another element , like carbon (to form carbon dioxide) or hydrogen (to form water). Free oxygen may have been added to the atmosphere by primitive organisms, probably bacteria , during photosynthesis . Photosynthesis is the process a plant or other autotroph uses to make food and oxygen from carbon dioxide and water. Later, more complex forms of plant life added more oxygen to the atmosphere. The oxygen in today’s atmosphere probably took millions of years to accumulate . The atmosphere acts as a gigantic filter , keeping out most ultraviolet radiation while letting in the sun’s warming rays. Ultraviolet radiation is harmful to living things, and is what causes sunburns. Solar heat, on the other hand, is necessary for all life on Earth. Earth’s atmosphere has a layered structure. From the ground toward the sky, the layers are the troposphere , stratosphere , mesosphere , thermosphere , and exosphere . Another layer, called the ionosphere , extends from the mesosphere to the exosphere. Beyond the exosphere is outer space . The boundaries between atmospheric layers are not clearly defined, and change depending on latitude and season . Troposphere The troposphere is the lowest atmospheric layer. On average, the troposphere extends from the ground to about 10 kilometers (6 miles) high, ranging from about 6 kilometers (4 miles) at the poles to more than 16 kilometers (10 miles) at th


The lowest part of the Earth's atmosphere, where we live, is called what?

Layers of the atmosphere | NIWA Layers of the atmosphere Post-Doctoral Fellowships Layers of the atmosphere The atmosphere is comprised of layers based on temperature. These layers are the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and thermosphere. A further region at about 500 km above the Earth's surface is called the exosphere. The different layers of the atmosphere The atmosphere can be divided into layers based on its temperature, as shown in the figure below. These layers are the troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere and the thermosphere. A further region, beginning about 500 km above the Earth's surface, is called the exosphere. The red line on the figure below shows how temperature varies with height (the temperature scale is given along the bottom of the diagram). The scale on the right shows the pressure. For example, at a height of 50 km, the pressure is only about one thousandth of the pressure at the ground. The Troposphere This is the lowest part of the atmosphere - the part we live in. It contains most of our weather - clouds, rain, snow. In this part of the atmosphere the temperature gets colder as the distance above the earth increases, by about 6.5°C per kilometre. The actual change of temperature with height varies from day to day, depending on the weather. The troposphere contains about 75% of all of the air in the atmosphere, and almost all of the water vapour (which forms clouds and rain). The decrease in temperature with height is a result of the decreasing pressure. If a parcel of air moves upwards it expands (because of the lower pressure). When air expands it cools. So air higher up is cooler than air lower down. The lowest part of the troposphere is called the boundary layer.  This is where the air motion is determined by the properties of the Earth's surface.  Turbulence is generated as the wind blows over the Earth's surface, and by thermals rising from the land as it is heated by the sun.  This turbulence redistributes heat and moisture within the boundary layer, as well as pollutants and other constituents of the atmosphere.  The top of the troposphere is called the tropopause. This is lowest at the poles, where it is about 7 - 10 km above the Earth's surface. It is highest (about 17 - 18 km) near the equator. The Stratosphere This extends upwards from the tropopause to about 50 km. It contains much of the ozone in the atmosphere. The increase in temperature with height occurs because of absorption of ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun by this ozone. Temperatures in the stratosphere are highest over the summer pole, and lowest over the winter pole. By absorbing dangerous UV radiation, the ozone in the stratosphere protects us from skin cancer and other health damage. However chemicals (called CFCs or freons, and halons) which were once used in refrigerators, spray cans and fire extinguishers  have reduced the amount of ozone in the stratosphere, particularly at polar latitudes, leading to the so-called "Antarctic ozone hole". Now humans have stopped making most of the harmful CFCs we expect the ozone hole will eventually recover over the 21st century, but this is a slow process. The Mesosphere The region above the stratosphere is called the mesosphere. Here the temperature again decreases with height, reaching a minimum of about -90°C at the "mesopause". The Thermosphere and Ionosphere The thermosphere lies above the mesopause, and is a region in which temperatures again increase with height. This temperature increase is caused by the absorption of energetic ultraviolet and X-Ray radiation from the sun. The region of the atmosphere above about 80 km is also caused the "ionosphere", since the energetic solar radiation knocks electrons off molecules and atoms, turning them into "ions" with a positive charge. The temperature of the thermosphere varies between night and day and between the seasons, as do the numbers of ions and electrons which are present. The ionosphere reflects and absorbs radio waves, allowing us to receive shortwave radio broadcasts in New Zealand from other parts


What is the name of the effect that deflects winds and currents as a result of the Earth's rotation?

Professional Development - Tides and Currents: NOAA's National Ocean Service Education Professional Development Home Education Professional Development Tides and Currents Currents Currents Currents are the motion in the ocean! While tides involve water moving up and down; currents are the back-and-forth movement of water. Two main components of currents are their speed and direction. A simple way to measure a current is to toss an object into the water and time how long it takes the object to travel a fixed distance. Technology allows us to be a little more accurate and sophisticated in our measurements. For example, the object in the water might be a buoy that is equipped with Global Positioning System technology and satellite communications to relay data and information about its change in position over time in the water. Physics of Currents Links for Teachers | Links for Students Water is  constantly moving. The engines driving surface and sub surface currents  throughout the world ocean are wind and water density. To understand the  dynamics of the global system of ocean currents, you must understand  the effect that wind, air and water temperature, salinity, and Earth's  rotation have on ocean currents. Wind is the flow of air between areas of high and low pressure. If  Earth did not rotate, air in the atmosphere would basically circulate in  a simple back-and-forth pattern between the poles (high pressure areas)  and the equator (a low pressure area). The direction of surface  currents would then align with this general wind pattern. But because  Earth rotates, circulating air is deflected toward the right in the  Northern Hemisphere and toward the left in the Southern Hemisphere,  resulting in curved paths. This deflection is called the Coriolis Effect. Global winds drag on the water’s surface. Just as Coriolis deflects  winds to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the  Southern Hemisphere, it also results in the deflection of major surface  ocean currents to the right in the Northern Hemisphere (in a clockwise  spiral) and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere (in a  counter-clockwise spiral). These major spirals of ocean-circling  currents are called gyres and occur north and south of the equator. One particularly powerful western boundary current is the Gulf Stream.  The Gulf Stream, paired with the eastern boundary Canary Current, flanks  the North Atlantic gyre. The Gulf Stream originates in the Gulf of  Mexico, exits through the Strait of Florida, and follows the eastern  coastline of the United States and Newfoundland. It influences the  climate of the east coast of Florida, keeping temperatures warmer in the  winter. Since it also extends toward Europe, it warms western European  countries as well. The location of modern-day currents exist because of the shape of the  ocean basins. This has not always been the case. The long-term positions  of currents have changed over millennia due to plate tectonics,  climate, and periodic astronomical events such as asteroid impacts. Winds drive ocean currents in the upper 100 meters of the ocean’s  surface. However, ocean currents also flow thousands of meters below the  surface. These deep-ocean currents are driven by differences in the  water’s density, which is controlled by temperature (thermo) and  salinity (haline). This process is known as thermohaline circulation. In Earth's polar regions, ocean water gets very cold, forming sea ice.  As a consequence the surrounding seawater gets saltier, This happens  because salt is left behind when sea ice forms. As the seawater gets  saltier, its density increases, and it starts to sink. Surface water is  pulled in to replace the sinking water, which in turn eventually becomes  cold and salty enough to sink. This initiates the deep-ocean currents  driving the global conveyer belt. The Global Conveyer Belt is the main avenue by which  high temperatures are distributed around the globe moderating extremes  and giving Earth more even air surface temperature. Coast


In the distant past what was the name given to the Super-Continent that made up the majority land mass of Earth?

Climate during the Carboniferous Period   Similarities with our Present World Average global temperatures  in the Early Carboniferous Period were hot- approximately 20° C (68° F). However, cooling during the Middle Carboniferous  reduced average global temperatures to about 12° C (54° F).  As shown on the chart below, this is comparable to the average global temperature  on Earth today! Similarly, atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2)  in the Early Carboniferous Period were approximately 1500 ppm (parts per million), but by the Middle Carboniferous had declined  to about 350 ppm -- comparable to average CO2 concentrations today! Earth's atmosphere today contains about 380  ppm CO2 (0.038%). Compared to former geologic times, our present atmosphere, like the Late Carboniferous atmosphere, is CO2- impoverished! In the last 600 million years of Earth's history  only the Carboniferous Period and our present age, the Quaternary  Period, have witnessed CO2 levels less than 400 ppm.   Global Temperature and Atmospheric CO2 over Geologic  Time  Late Carboniferous to Early Permian time (315 mya -- 270  mya) is the only time period in the last 600 million years when both atmospheric CO2 and temperatures were as low as they are  today (Quaternary Period ). Temperature after C.R. Scotese http://www.scotese.com/climate.htm CO2 after R.A. Berner, 2001 (GEOCARB III) See an estimate of CO2 concentrations over the  past 15,000 years , based on plant stomata.   There has historically been much more CO2  in our atmosphere than exists today. For example, during the Jurassic  Period (200 mya), average CO2 concentrations were about 1800 ppm or about 4.7 times higher than today. The highest concentrations of CO2  during all of the Paleozoic Era occurred during the Cambrian Period,  nearly 7000 ppm -- about 18 times higher than today. The Carboniferous Period and the Ordovician  Period were the only geological periods during the Paleozoic  Era when global temperatures were as low as they are today.  To the consternation of global warming proponents, the Late Ordovician  Period was also an Ice Age while at the same time CO2 concentrations  then were nearly 12 times higher than today-- 4400 ppm. According  to greenhouse theory, Earth should have been exceedingly hot. Instead,  global temperatures were no warmer than today. Clearly, other factors besides  atmospheric carbon influence earth temperatures and global warming.   The Carboniferous Ice Age Two special conditions of terrestrial landmass distribution, when they exist concurrently, appear  as a sort of common denominator for the occurrence of very long-term simultaneous declines in both global temperature and atmospheric carbon  dioxide (CO2): 1) the existence of a continuous continental   landmass stretching from pole to pole, restricting free circulation of   polar and tropical waters, and 2) the existence of a large (south)   polar landmass capable of supporting thick glacial ice accumulations.   These special conditions existed during the Carboniferous Period, as  they do today in our present Quaternary Period. Climate change during the Carboniferous Period  was dominated by the great Carboniferous Ice Age. As the Earth alternately  cooled then warmed, great sheets of glacial ice thousands of feet  thick accumulated, then melted, then reaccumulated in synchronous cycles. Vast glaciers up to 8,000 feet thick existed at the south pole  then, moving from higher elevations to lower, driven by gravity and their  tremendous weight. These colossal slow-motion tidal waves of ice destroyed  and pulverized everything in their path, scraping the landscape to bare  bedrock-- altering mountains, valleys, and river courses. Ancient bedrock  in Africa, Australia, India and South America show scratches and gouges  from this glaciation. Image credit: Manchester Metropolitan University Manchester, UK Earth's continents during the Carboniferous Period were arranged differently  than they are today. South America, Africa, India, Australia, Antarctica


What is the name for the study of Continental Drift?

continental drift - National Geographic Society continental drift The way some continents fit together like puzzle pieces inspired the theory of continental drift. Map by USGS Urkontinent Alfred Wegener’s original name for his proposed, ancient continent was “Urkontinent”—ur meaning “first or original,” and kontinent meaning “continent” in Wegener’s native language, German. A more popular name for this huge ancient landmass is Pangaea, which means “all lands” in Greek. Colliding Skyward The collision of the Indian subcontinent and Asian continent created the Himalayan mountain range, home to the world's highest mountain peaks, including 30 that exceed 7300 meters (24,000 feet). Because continental drift is still pushing India into Asia, the Himalayas are still growing. Continental drift describes one of the earliest ways geologist s thought continent s moved over time. Today, the theory of continental drift has been replaced by the science of plate tectonics .    The theory of continental drift is most associated with the scientist Alfred Wegener . In the early 20th century, Wegener published a paper explaining his theory that the continental landmass es were “drifting” across the Earth, sometimes plowing through oceans and into each other. He called this movement continental drift.    Pangaea   Wegener was convinced that all of Earth’s continents were once part of an enormous , single landmass called Pangaea .    Wegener, trained as an astronomer , used biology , botany , and geology describe Pangaea and continental drift. For example, fossil s of the ancient reptile mesosaurus are only found in southern Africa and South America. Mesosaurus, a freshwater reptile only one meter (3.3 feet) long, could not have swum the Atlantic Ocean. The presence of mesosaurus suggests a single habitat with many lakes and rivers.   Wegener also studied plant fossils from the frigid Arctic archipelago of Svalbard, Norway. These plants were not the hardy specimen s adapt ed to survive in the Arctic climate . These fossils were of tropical plants, which are adapted to a much warmer, more humid environment. The presence of these fossils suggests Svalbard once had a tropical climate .   Finally, Wegener studied the stratigraphy of different rocks and mountain range s. The east coast of South America and the west coast of Africa seem to fit together like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle , and Wegener discovered their rock layers “fit” just as clearly. South America and Africa were not the only continents with similar geology. Wegener discovered that the Appalachian Mountains of the eastern United States, for instance, were geologically related to the Caledonian Mountains of Scotland.    Pangaea existed about 240 million years ago. By about 200 million years ago, this supercontinent began breaking up. Over millions of years, Pangaea separated into pieces that moved away from one another. These pieces slowly assumed their positions as the continent we recognize today.   Today, scientists think that several supercontinents like Pangaea have formed and broken up over the course of the Earth’s lifespan. These include Pannotia, which formed about 600 million years ago, and Rodinia, which existed more than a billion years ago.   Tectonic Activity   Scientists did not accept Wegener’s theory of continental drift. One of the elements lacking in the theory was the mechanism for how it works—why did the continents drift and what patterns did they follow? Wegener suggested that perhaps the rotation of the Earth caused the continents to shift towards and apart from each other. (It doesn't.)   Today, we know that the continents rest on massive slab s of rock called tectonic plate s. The plates are always moving and interacting in a process called plate tectonics.    The continents are still moving today. Some of the most dynamic sites of tectonic activity are seafloor spreading zones and giant rift valleys.    In the process of seafloor spreading , molten rock rises from within the Earth and adds new seafloor ( oceanic crust ) to the edges of the old. Seafloor spr


Cullen Skink is a hearty soup made with potatoes, onion and which fish?

How to cook perfect cullen skink | Life and style | The Guardian How to cook perfect cullen skink Full-flavoured, hearty, and comfortingly creamy, is cullen skink the world's finest fish soup? Felicity's perfect cullen skink. Photograph: Felicity Cloake Wednesday 4 January 2012 19.10 EST First published on Wednesday 4 January 2012 19.10 EST Share on Messenger Close Cullen skink. Not a promising name for a soup, in all honesty – I think Dickens missed a trick by not borrowing it for one of his villains – but one sniff and you'll be won over. Stuffed full of warming wintery ingredients like smoked fish and starchy potatoes, made rich and comforting with milk or cream, it never fails to cheer, even in the darkest days of January. (Unless, I admit, you're sitting upwind of someone else's helping, in a badly ventilated office, with only a meanly filled, heavily chilled turkey sandwich for company. Then you might feel, with some justification, that cullen skink is as malevolent as it sounds.) About that name: Cullen is, of course, a fishing town on the Moray Firth, an inlet popular with haddock, while "skink" has a more puzzling history. The New York Times claims it comes from the Middle High German word for a weak beer , which seems to make some of sense for a thin soup, but the Oxford Companion to Food counters that it's a variation of the German "schinke", or ham, denoting a shin specifically: "so the archetypal skink is a soup made from shin of beef". Cattle perhaps being more valuable than fish in coastal regions, the locals adapted the idea to suit their own ingredients – and I'm very glad they did. Smokier and more assertive than American chowder, heartier than classical French bisque, it's one of the world's finest seafood soups. The fish River Cottage recipe cullen skink. Photograph: Felicity Cloake The overwhelming flavour of cullen skin is smoked fish – haddock traditionally, but, as Hugh Fearnley-Whittingstall and Nick Fisher point out in the River Cottage Fish Book , just about any smoked white fish will do – so it's important to make sure that flavour is a good one. Most recipes simply call for smoked haddock, with some adding "preferably undyed" – the taste is generally exactly the same, though obviously all that yellow colouring adds nothing positive to the nutritional content – but Stirling-born Nick Nairn specifies Arbroath smokies in his Great British Menu recipe . Smokies are headless, gutted haddock, hot smoked over wood in the traditional fashion, and they're not easy to track down, but the smell when I finally get my mitts on a couple of pairs is enough to convince me they're probably worth the shoe leather. While I love their distinctive wood-smoked flavour and creamy texture, they overpower the soup, giving it an unpalatable acrid character. Save your precious smokies for somewhere they'll be better appreciated. The soup base Mark Hix recipe cullen skink. Photograph: Felicity Cloake Although cullen skink relies upon a certain amount of milk or cream to give it richness, when and how much to add varies wildly. Mark Hix , for example, gives a recipe in British Regional Food which involves cooking the ingredients in fish stock, and stirring in a couple of tablespoons of cream at the end. Although the stock cube I've used is rather overpoweringly fishy, the result is nice enough but lacks the comforting creamy sweetness I associate with this kind of soup. I also think the haddock, which has been simmered for 15 minutes, has gone a bit rubbery, which is a shame. Nick Nairn also uses stock as a base, but this time it's homemade using Arbroath smokies (which, at £8 a pair, is no mean investment) along with white wine, leeks, fennel and onion. He adds this to softened onions, leeks and some boiled potatoes plus another couple of fish, simmers for 10 minutes, then blends with milk and cream before serving. A third smokie, flaked, become a garnish. This means the soup has the distinctive, smoky flavour of the fish, while the garnish shows off their delicate texture – but, as previously mentioned, the finished re


Which common kitchen herb is used in a Mojito?

Making Cocktails with herbs Cocktails with Herbs Making Cocktails with Herbs Herbs can be used for a variety of reasons, whether you are using them for medicinal purposes or for culinary enhancements. Most people may not have given enough thought to adding certain herbs to a refreshing summer cocktail, but each herb can provide your favorite beverage with an interesting twist. Of all the herbs that can be used in a cocktail, perhaps the most popular is the mint herb. In addition to using mint in your refreshing beverages, you can also add the green and spicy flavors of a variety of herbs that you may already have in your backyard or kitchen. This is one additional reason to consider creating your own herb garden. Not only can you create fantastic meals, you can relax with a flavorful drink. Mint Mint is a type of perennial plant that is relatively easy to grow in your own home. It is considered to be one of the more popular herbs that are used in alcohol beverages. There are a variety of types of mint, some of which include spearmint, peppermint, apple mint, and pineapple mint. Peppermint has lavender flowers and dark green leaves. Spearmint has pink flowers and lighter green leaves that are pointy. Apple mint has light green leaves and pineapple mint has white-banded green leaves. This herb can add a cool and slightly sweet flavor to your cocktails whether you want to enjoy a mojito, margarita or other type of beverage. Watermelon Mint Margaritas Thyme Thyme is an herb that is widely used in the culinary world. It is used across the world such as in Mediterranean, Indian, French, Levantine and Spanish cuisines. It is most often used to add flavor to meats, stews and soups, but can also add a slightly bitter note to cocktails. It also adds green flavors and can give the impression of gin minus the overpowering flavor of juniper. It is used to counterpart flavors that include lemons, pears and apples. Lemon Thyme Martinis Basil Basil is another herb that can easily be grown in the comfort of your own home. It is considered to be the king of herbs by most gardeners. It is a fragrant herb that has more than 50 different species. Basil has a strong and distinct flavor that gives off a peppery edge with a savory and sweet note. It adds a rich and spicy flavor to your cocktails. Drinks Containing Basil Oregano Oregano is a part of the mint family and is a low-growing type of perennial plant. It is native to the Mediterranean and Western Europe. It is closely related to and sometimes called wild marjoram. The Greek, or Italian oregano is the most widely used type in the culinary and cocktail worlds. The flavor that oregano adds to cocktails is similar to that of sage and basil. It adds a note to the cocktail that is warm, green and spicy. Bloody Mariana Sage Sage is an herb that is native to the Mediterranean. It is another type of low-growing perennial and is an evergreen shrub that has lavender flowers. It has been used for thousands of years for its medicinal properties, but is even more widely known in the culinary world for flavoring bread stuffings, pork and poultry. Sage has an enticing aroma and a strong flavor that can overpower food or cocktails if too much is used. The flavor is fern-like, woody and musky and has notes of warm decay, white pepper, and menthol. You can help release some of the essential oils by gently rolling a leaf in your fingers before adding it to the cocktail. Vanilla, Pear and Sage Chamomile Chamomile is one of the oldest herbs that is known for its medicinal properties. It was used by the Egyptians as a cure for ague and the Egyptians offered it to their gods. The aroma of the fresh flowers of chamomile can be compared to that of certain apples. The flavor of chamomile is mild and relaxing. Many drink a chamomile tea as part of a nighttime ritual to help them relax better and fall asleep easier. Add the earthy and floral flavor of this ‘ground apple” to your favorite cocktail, or make a creation of your own. bulk flaxseed - organic tea bulk - black walnut leaf - poke root - kelp iodine - damian


Which fruit goes into the liqueur Kirsch?

DIY vs. Buy: How to Make Cherry Liqueur | Serious Eats DIY vs. Buy: How to Make Cherry Liqueur DIY Cherry Liqueur The first time I tried cherry liqueur, I thought it tasted like cough syrup. For years, I avoided anything made with the stuff because I don't want my cocktails to remind me of sick children. Then one day I ordered a Singapore Sling without really knowing what was in it. When I found out that cherry liqueur played a big part in making this drink so good, I realized that maybe I had stereotyped all cherry liqueurs because of one that was particularly bad (and probably cheap). Prejudice erased, I soon started splashing a little cherry liqueur in everything from Manhattans to Sangria. I went a little nuts at the roadside cherry stands this summer, so once I saw I had more cherries than my freezer and I knew what to do with, I knew it was time to experiment with my own cherry liqueur. What's Available to Buy? When you're buying cherry liqueur, you have to pay attention or you may end up with the wrong thing. Cherry liqueur is sweetened and can be made with any type of spirit base. Brandy is the most common, so cherry liqueur is often called cherry brandy. Then there's kirsch or kirschwasser, which is an unsweetened eau de vie distilled from cherries. But sometimes kirsch is called cherry brandy. You can't use kirsch and cherry liqueur interchangeably, since one is sweet and the other isn't. Despite the somewhat confusing name game, it's actually not difficult to know if you have the right bottle in your hand. Kirsch, the unsweetened eau de vie, is clear in color, while liqueurs will be dark. Cherry Heering is my favorite cherry liqueur, and it's not hard to find for about $25 or $30 a bottle. It's made with real cherries and it actually tastes like cherries. There are also more affordable options from Bols and Hiram Walker, but now that I make my own, I haven't been tempted. Why DIY? Cherry Heering tastes great and is made with real fruit, so the reason to DIY isn't because good commercial cherry liqueur doesn't exist. But it's fun to turn a basket of local fruit into something delicious that you can drink for months to come. While I'm certainly not going to age my liqueur in oak casks in the garage, I can make a complex and fruity liqueur using my trusty steeping jar. Making your own cherry liqueur is a simple and inexpensive way to expand your home cocktail repertoire. Cherry liqueur wasn't one of my home bar staples, so once I decided to make my own I was surprised by all the recipes I had previously missed out on trying. Get the Recipe DIY Cherry Liqueur » Use It! You can sip your cherry liqueur on the rocks, or splash it in some sparkling wine or seltzer. Add it to some cola for a delicious and slightly alcoholic version of Cherry Coke, or use it to add depth to a sangria. With a little tasting and adjusting, you can use homemade cherry liqueur in recipes that call for Cherry Heering or cherry brandy. The Singapore Sling is the drink that won me over—it's fun and fruity without being syrupy sweet or unbalanced. Another delightful drink is the Buck's Fizz , which is like a Mimosa with a little cherry liqueur and gin added in to make it even better. Like cherries themselves, cherry liqueur goes really well with the brown liquors. So try a Blood and Sand made with Scotch or a Whitfield Takes Manhattan , which is a fun twist on the classic Manhattan. Another Manhattan-inspired option is Remember the Maine , which adds a little absinthe to spice things up.


What is the main ingredient of Guacamole?

Simple secrets to making excellent guacamole By Will Brokaw Quality avocados are the key component of excellent guacamole. Few things are as addictive as perfectly-made guacamole. I can think of nothing that disappears faster at a party, ballgame, or dinner. Due to my occupation as an avocado extraordinaire, many people ask me what the secret is to making great guacamole. Believe it or not, it is not hard to make excellent guacamole, but there are a few simple guidelines to follow. (1) Start with excellent, high-quality avocados. First, since avocados are the main ingredient in guacamole, the most critical factor is to start with excellent, high-quality avocados. For most purposes, the Hass variety of avocado is usually the most popular option, due to it’s buttery taste and smooth texture. From September-February, however, try Gwen avocados, as their buttery flavor exceeds that of the Hass variety during this period. Many of the avocados you see in supermarkets are either old or of inferior quality, due to the fact that the supply chain is so long. Choose a size such that you will be able to eat the whole fruit in one sitting. This way you will not have to store an avocado half in the refrigerator. Left-over half avocados will likely discolor within a few hours (unless, of course, they happen to be extremely fresh.) You can choose hard avocados, but you will have to wait for them to ripen on their own schedule! (Of course, if you really want the highest-quality RIPE avocados, you can always order directly from WillsAvocados.com.) (2) Start simple, go slow. Get ready! The basic ingredients of guacamole are: salt & pepper! The secret with these basic ingredients is to add them to taste. Don’t add too many ingredients or too much at once, or you will risk making your guacamole too powerful in one area or another. Again, the main ingredient of guacamole is the avocado, and that’s the main thing that you should be able to taste. You should constantly be tasting your guacamole as you add to it! These basic ingredients alone should generate consistent complements from those you serve. (3) Special ingredients often improve even a perfect guacamole. Everyone has a special ingredient they like to add to the guacamole mix. Here are some ingredients that you can experiment with. Again – go slow and add them to taste! Freshly Diced Garlic. Pre-crushed garlic (sold in a jar) or garlic powder is simply no substitute for the punch of fresh, finely-chopped garlic. Again, this should be added to taste, and the garlic should not overpower the avocado itself. Lime (or lemon) juice. Freshly-squeezed. Not only does lime add flavor and punch to your basic guacamole, but it may also help preserve it longer from browning! Cilantro. Fresh, finely-chopped cilantro is one thing that can improve a guacamole by adding a distinct flavor and a slight crunch. But you run a risk here, as some people do not like cilantro. Consider your audience before adding it. Hot Sauce. Try Tapatio , or other hot-pepper sauces. These are also ingredients that are just as easy to add in later by the individual. Fresh Bulb Onion: Chopped Small. If you're into onion, you'll love the flavor and crunchy yet succulent texture it gives to guacamole. Canned Peppers/Chiles. As someone who loves food, I normally do not stray from fresh, whole ingredients when preparing it. However, I make an exception when it comes to canned chiles and peppers. For some reason, these ingredients add a wonderful character that even the finest quality fresh chiles and peppers aren't capable of. Fresh tomato. If you want to add fresh tomato, be sure to use only the most potently flavored heirloom or dry-farmed tomatoes. Otherwise their flavor will be overpowered and unnoticeable by the other ingredients. Specific Guacamole Recipes For specific ideas and guidance, I have gathered a few guacamole recipes from our family and friends. If you need advice on superb tortilla chips and other excellent quality Mexican style foods, Steve at Rancho Gordo  is an excellent source. Enjoy. Larry Rose’s Guacamole


Rigatoni with Cheese and Italian Sausage recipe | Epicurious.com This was yummy, I had with Rao's Marinara. Easy, but very good graham66 / Flag if Inappropriate This is easy and impressive. Next time I'd like to scale up on quality of ingredients, but even with purchased marinara, it was a keeper. I used local Boulder brand hot Italian sausage and Bertolli marinara. I don't think you can mess up with the proportions either -- I used 1 lb. of pasta and 1 lb. of sausage and 1 jar of sauce. I'd use more sauce next time and make my own, maybe with big chunks of tomatoes. It's a beautiful dish! jendi51 from Denver, CO / Flag if Inappropriate Made this with shells as well - used only mild italian sausage (family preference) and added basil/oregano/thyme. Used extra garlic. Had Wesleydale not Mozza - was even better! Family inhaled this - will make again A Cook from Milton, ON / Flag if Inappropriate This was a total hit at my house. I made it family style and so added more sausage and cheese. Also, I didn't have rigatoni and so I used shells instead. It reheated well. A definite keeper! jsd517 from Redwood City, CA / Flag if Inappropriate


What is the name of the special Indian clay oven?

Types of Tandoori Clay Oven for use in Restaurant and Home Resources Types of Tandoor In a laymanï¿½s parlance tandoor is clay oven with a hole in the bottom. The hole is used for adding and removing fuel .Typically, a special type of clay along with shredded coir rope is used to prepare the oven. To solidify the oven a special paste of mustard oil, jaggery, yoghurt and ground spinach is rubbed inside the oven. The history of tandoor indeed goes back to Arab countries from where it has spread to India and finally to western countries. The word tandoor has been derived from Babylonian word ï¿½tinuruï¿½ from the Semitic word ï¿½narï¿½ meaning fire. Arabic then made it tannur and then Turkey and Central Asia made it tandoor. In ancient times there were only clay tandoor but now a days, there are different types of tandoor as discussed below. Square Tandoor: Square tandoor is commonly used by all restaurants across the world in their kitchen. To make square tandoor, first Stainless Steel Square Box is made and given smooth finish around edges. After box is made, clay pot is installed inside the box and remaining space is covered with Fiber Blanket and Thermal Insulation to keep heat inside the clay pot. Till 2004 most of the restaurants were using tandoors with charcoal as fuel. All cooks prefer charcoal due to unique combination of clay and charcoal in Tandoori cooking as charcoal burns slowly and keep clay pot hot for longer time. But charcoal has its own issues like irregular supply from vendors and requires special exhaust hood in kitchen. Due to these factors, most restaurant users stopped using Charcoal as fuel and shifted to Gas Tandoors. Gas tandoors are similar to Square tandoors and only difference is fuel which can be Natural Gas or Propane (L.P.G). Gas tandoors are fitted with burners and unique Baffle plate which sits on burners, to deflect flame of the burner, to heat up clay pot. Gas Tandoors are as good as charcoal tandoors though some Tandoori lovers may disagree. Gas tandoors are more users friendly, easy to operate clean fuel and offer economical operating cost. Before buying Gas Tandoors, please make sure about kind of burners used, whether burner comes with Pilot Safety System and Igniter as unsafe Gas Burner installation can be dangerous. Therefore buy Gas Tandoors which are certified by recognized agencies and come with ï¿½CE ï¿½or ï¿½NSFï¿½ or ï¿½ETLï¿½ labels. A Regular size Square tandoor is good for 60 seats Restaurant for Bread and Kebab use. If you have more seats, it is suggested to buy 2 tandoors and use 1 for Bread and other for Kebabs. Clay Pots Clay pots for tandoors are prepared by hand with great care. The clay for the tandoor is available freely but cautious approach should be taken when selecting the best clay for this purpose. In Asian countries like India, clay is sourced from special locations and is cleaned and refined for making clay pot. Various additives like hay and hairs of goats & sheepï¿½s hair are added in the clay mixture in order to give special strength as temperatures ranging upto 1000 degrees centigrade can be seen in clay pots. In recent years, makers of tandoors in United Kingdom are making clay pot with special clay only available in few mines across the world. Though this clay is different from Indian clay, it is more pure and strong when fired. Due to these features, you will find most restaurants in UK are not using Indian clay pots and sourcing their tandoors locally. The same quality tandoors are sold in USA also for past 2 years. Catering/Drum Tandoor In Catering/Drum Tandoor, clay pot is fitted in Steel or Stainless Steel Barrel, in a plain design with S. S. Straps tied round its top, centre and bottom for reinforcement. The pot inside the barrel is duly insulated with thermal Insulations, glass wool, rock salt and ceramic powders. A hole is there at the bottom of the drum to remove ashes .A wheel can also be attached at the bottom to move the drum from one place to another. Generally handles are provided for Lifting, Pushing and Pulling. Most of the time, cate


The Harvey Wall Banger cocktail contain Vodka, orange juice and what else?

Harvey Wallbanger recipe | Epicurious.com 1 orange slice for garnish Advertisements Preparation In a highball glass almost filled with ice cubes, combine the vodka and orange juice. Stir well. Float the Galliano on top and garnish with orange slice Nutritional Info


Which chef presents 'Saturday Morning Kitchen' on TV?

James Martin quits Saturday Kitchen after 10 years fronting the BBC weekend show   | Daily Mail Online Hanging up the apron: James Martin faces outpouring of grief from fans as he quits Saturday Kitchen after 10 years fronting the popular BBC weekend show Chef has announced decision to leave popular cooking show after a decade at its helm TV personality explained he wanted to pursue other ventures Fans have taken to social media in their droves to share their disappointment  James is expected to make final appearance on BBC One show in March  Range of guest presenters are set to fill in for the culinary favourite


Which food dish is named after one of Napoleons famous victories?

Famous Food Dishes and How they Got Their Names Famous Food Dishes and How they Got Their Names The origins of Beef Stroganoff and Peach Melba by David Johnson 1/4 cup seedless grapes, halved 1/2 cup plain yogurt Directions 1. In a bowl, toss together the apples, lemon juice, celery, walnuts, raisins, and grapes. 2. In another bowl, fold together the yogurt and mayonnaise. Add to salad and mix well. Related Links Restaurant People often ask what is in a particular dish they are about to eat, but seldom do they ask how that particular meal got its name. The origins of a dish are often as interesting as the food itself, as the following guide indicates. Beef Stroganoff A combination of beef, mushrooms, and sour cream, Beef Stroganoff was the prize-winning recipe created for a cooking competition held in the 1890s in St. Petersburg , Russia . The chef who devised the recipe worked for the Russian diplomat Count Pavel Alexandrovich Stroganov, a member of one of Russia's grandest noble families. Beef Wellington A national hero for defeating Napoleon at Waterloo in 1815, Arthur Wellesley was made the first Duke of Wellington . He loved a dish of beef, mushrooms, truffles, Madeira wine, and paté cooked in pastry, which has been named in his honor. Caesar Salad In the 1920s, Caesar Cardini, owner of an Italian restaurant in Tijuana, Mexico , and his brother, Alex, invented a salad of romaine lettuce, anchovies, coddled egg, lemon juice, grated Parmesan cheese, and garlic-flavored croutons tossed with a garlic vinaigrette flavored with Worcestershire sauce . At first it was called Aviator's Salad, but later Cardini named the dish after himself. Chicken Marengo A French dish of chicken braised with garlic, tomatoes, olives, white wine or brandy, and garnished with crayfish and sometimes fried eggs, Chicken Marengo was born on the battlefield. On June 14, 1800, Napoleon Bonaparte defeated the Austro-Hungarian army at the village of Marengo, in northern Italy. After a ferocious battle in which 5,800 French and 9,400 Austrians were killed, the victorious French were ravenous. Chicken Marengo was made from whatever ingredients they were able to take from the village. Delmonico Steak (and Delmonico Potatoes) Swiss immigrants, the Delmonico family created New York City's first real luxury restaurant, which they ran from 1835 to 1881. With a menu printed in French and English, Delmonico's featured French and American cuisine. Under the direction of French chef Charles Ranhofer, Delmonico's set the standard for gourmet food. Delmonico Steak, a tender strip of usually boneless top loin, has become an American classic. It is also known as Kansas City strip steak or New York steak. Delmonico Potatoes are boiled, buttered potatoes sprinkled with parsley and lemon juice. Eggs Benedict and Lobster Newburg were also created at the restaurant. Eggs Benedict Eggs Benedict was most likely created at Delmonico's Restaurant, in New York City, in response to a complaint that the menu never changed. Regulars at the fancy restaurant, Mr. and Mrs. LeGrand Benedict asked for something new. To oblige, the chef served up eggs on ham served on a muffin and covered in Hollandaise sauce . Once called Lobster Wenberg, the name of the dish was changed after Ben Wenberg participated in a brawl at the originating restaurant.   Lobster Newburg In the mid-1800s, shipping magnate Ben Wenberg asked Charles Ranhofer, chef at Delmonico's Restaurant, to prepare a meal he had discovered in South America —chunks of lobster sautéed in butter and served in a sauce of cream and egg flavored with paprika and sherry. The meal was such a success that it was added to the Delmonico's menu as Lobster Wenberg. However, some time later, Wenberg consumed too much wine from Delmonico's renowned cellars and got into a brawl. He was banished from Delmonico's forever and his name stricken from the menu. "Wenberg" became "Newburg." Peach Melba Sometimes called the greatest chef who ever lived, Auguste Escoffier created a dessert of poached peach halves, vanilla ice cream, and raspberry sa


What alcoholic drink is made from molasses?

Historical liquor made from molasses, sugar | The Triangle Historical liquor made from molasses, sugar September 23, 2011 by Matthew.Hartshorne Rum has lately become a staple of college parties, but many people do not appreciate its long and varied history. First, though, it’s helpful to understand a little bit about what rum is, and how it is made. Rum is defined as liquor made by fermenting and distilling sugarcane juice or, more commonly, the tailings from sugar production, such as molasses. The distillation process is generally done in a column still to provide a cleaner, more consistent product; however, a number of distillers still utilize pot stills for small batches. After distillation, rum is aged in oak barrels for a period of time. Rum is classified by its color as light, gold or dark, with darker rum having more flavor or spice based upon other additives. The particular rum in question is Cruzan Rum’s Cruzan Black Strap. This rum is part of a subset of dark rum called Naval Rum. Cruzan Rum was founded in 1760 on the island of St. Croix in the U.S. Virgin Islands. Ownership of the distillery has passed through a number of corporations over the years, currently residing with Beam Global Spirits Inc., but distillery operations have been managed by the Nelthropp family for eight generations. Naval Rum is the darkest of the rums, ranging from dark amber to opaque black in color. The color comes from the retention of a larger percentage of the molasses components, which results in a far, far stronger flavor than in any other type of rum. Cruzan Black Strap rum is intended as a slightly smoother version of Naval Rum, especially low in hot fusel alcohols, providing an accessible version of the style to the general public. The rum pours a jet black, but reveals a beautiful deep ruby red color with golden red highlights right at the edge of the glass. When served in a snifter, a surprising amount of spicy alcohol character is present, which almost covered the sweet vanilla and molasses notes. The taste is very sweet for liquor, far sweeter than even most bourbons, but not cloying. The taste is of very smooth and sweet molasses, or perhaps even a very dark brown sugar with hints of caramel. The rums have a very smooth, warming nature to them without giving the impression of being spiced at all. The best description I’ve heard of this rum is that it’s “dessert in a bottle,” and I have used it that way on several occasions. Though I love to drink this rum straight, I also find that it provides a wonderful, caramel molasses character to mixed drinks. I decided to mix up three cocktails, although all three are debatably highballs, which is a name for the category of drinks made by cutting a portion of liquor with a larger portion of mixer. The first is the reliable standby of the college house party, the rum and coke. This particular drink was vastly improved by the substitution of the Black Strap. My main objection to the usual rum and coke is that the soda overshadows the rum; however, there is not a chance of this happening if a reasonable portion of Black Strap is used. The vanilla character of the rum really penetrates, reminding me of Vanilla Coke, and the molasses flavor provides a nice, sweet caramel depth. This drink is improved even more by a twist of lemon, and I found myself enjoying it far more than I thought I would. For my second drink I mixed the Rum Swizzle. Shake two ounces of rum, a half ounce each of triple sec and lemon juice, then strain into a tall, ice-filled glass. Top off with ginger ale and a lemon wheel. This drink was much sweeter than the base rum, thanks to the triple sec, and the lemon provided a very bright citrus highlight. The sweetness really brought out the molasses character in this rum, and the ginger ale provided a nice contrast of spice. Overall, this drink was very, very smooth and went down quite easily. The third drink I mixed was the Dark and Stormy; this drink is the big, bad cousin to the Rum Swizzle that I mixed. The key to this drink is the ginger beer; I would stay away from


In Greek cuisine a vine or cabbage leaf with a savoury stuffing is called what?

Puzzles - Food and Drink 1. What is the main ingredient of Guacamole? 2. Rigatoni is what? 3. What is the name of the special Indian clay oven? 4. In which Cornish seaside town does Rick Stein have his seafood restaurant? 5. Name one (or more!) of the spices used to infuse Mulled Wine 6. What flavour is the drink Ouzo? 7. What is the first name of Greg's fearsome female) sidekick, sous-chef to Michel Roux, in Celebrity Mastechef? 8. Which food dish is named after one of Napoleon's famous victories? 9. What alcoholic drink is made from molasses? 10. In Greek cuisine vine or cabbage leaves with a savoury stuffing are called what? 6. What flavour is the drink Ouzo? Liquorice 9. What alcoholic drink is made from molasses? Rum 1. What is the main ingredient of Guacamole? avocados 5. Name one (or more!) of the spices used to infuse Mulled Wine cinnamon, allspice, clove ...? 10. In Greek cuisine vine or cabbage leaves with a savoury stuffing are called what? um, dolmades???? 4. In which Cornish seaside town does Rick Stein have his seafood restaurant? Padstow 6. What flavour is the drink Ouzo? Aniseed 7. What is the first name of Greg's fearsome female sidekick, sous-chef to Michel Roux Jnr, in Celebrity Masterchef?   Celebrity?   She in the chef Masterchef is our Monica. 8. Which food dish is named after one of Napoleon's famous victories? Chicken Marengo 3. What is the name of the special Indian clay oven?  the Tandoor we could add 'Nutmeg' to the mulled wine spices.  Though I always use a sachet.... I have a bit of a girl-crush on Monica, even though she is terrifyingly stern. I think Monica is all dolled up for one of the Masterchef progs this week, I is sure I saw her in a very smart silver grey outfit in one of the trailers. I must set my digirecorder


What was the name of the cavalry regiment raised and trained by Oliver Cromwell in the English Civil War?

Military Units of the Civil Wars, Commonwealth & Protectorate Top of Page The Horse (Cavalry) Cavalrymen were organised in troops like infantry companies. Each troop was commanded by a captain and consisted of between thirty and one hundred men. Although some cavalry troops operated independently, they were usually brigaded together into a regiment of around six troops under the command of a colonel. Cuirassiers Cuirassiers were the lineal descendants of the fully-armoured men-at-arms of the Middle Ages. They rode into battle encased in a suit of articulated armour, with the exception of the lower leg (which was protected by a long boot) and the back of the thigh. The invention of the wheel-lock firing mechanism made it practical to use firearms on horseback, so cuirassiers discarded the heavy lance in favour of pistols, carbines and swords. Mounted and armoured pistoleers, called reiters, dominated European battlefields during the late 16th and early 17th centuries. Although it was fashionable for officers and noblemen to sit for portraits in full armour, very few cuirassier units served during the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. Not only were cuirassiers expensive to equip and maintain, it was also difficult to find horses strong enough to bear their weight. Their cumbersome armour became steadily less effective as firearms improved, which is consistent with the general decline in the use of protective armour during the 17th century. Individual commanders on both sides sometimes went into battle equipped as cuirassiers but the only regular cuirassier units were Parliamentarian. The cuirassier lifeguard troops of the Earl of Essex, the Earl of Bedford and Sir William Balfour played an important role at the battle of Edgehill in 1642. The most famous cuirassier unit of the civil wars was Sir Arthur Hesilrige's regiment, the "Lobsters", which was active during 1643 as the heavy cavalry of Sir William Waller's army but was reformed as a harquebusier regiment after Waller's defeat at Roundway Down. Harquebusiers Most civil war cavalry were equipped as "harquebusiers". Originally, harquebusiers were foot soldiers who had exchanged the crossbow for the arquebus (or harquebus), an early form of matchlock firearm. During the French religious wars of the 16th century, harquebusiers were mounted on horseback. By the early 17th century, they had evolved into the light cavalrymen of western Europe. Ideally, harquebusiers were armed with a carbine or harquebus, a pair of pistols and a sword. During the civil wars, the carbine or harquebus was likely to be carried by officers only. The carbine is distinguished from the harquebus by being of larger bore and firing a larger, heavier bullet. Both types had a barrel length of around three feet and were carried suspended from a shoulder belt. The pistols, carried in saddle holsters, had a barrel length of around twenty inches. Cavalry firearms were of the firelock pattern, either flintlocks or the more expensive and less popular wheel-lock. Harquebusier defensive armour consisted of a light breast- and back-plate and pot helmet, sometimes with a "gorget" to protect the throat. A thick leather buff-coat was usually worn underneath the armour, and often replaced it altogether. A distinctive feature of English harquebusier arms was the three-bar pot helmet with articulated neck-guard. Harquebusiers were classified as light cavalry, in contrast to cuirassiers who were regarded as heavy cavalry. In practice, however, cavalry tactics developed during the civil wars so that harquebusier regiments such as Prince Rupert's horse and Cromwell's Ironsides fought as shock troops, the role usually associated with cuirassiers. Dragoons Dragoons were mounted infantrymen who rode small horses or cobs to move into position and then fought on foot. They wore no armour and usually carried a musket or carbine and sword. The practice of mounting musketeers for greater mobility probably originated during the late 16th century in the French Huguenot armies of Henri of Navarre. Dragoons were used in the Dutch armies


William Howard Russell became famous as what during the Crimean War?

William Howard Russell | British journalist | Britannica.com William Howard Russell THIS IS A DIRECTORY PAGE. Britannica does not currently have an article on this topic. Learn about this topic in these articles:   in history of publishing: Foundations of modern journalism ...go and get the news, were recruited, and they replaced many occasional correspondents, although there was always room for the stringer, a part-time reporter based in a small town or a remote region. William Howard Russell, a reporter for the London Times during the Crimean War (1853–56), became famous as one of the first war correspondents, and his writings...


The Bourbon dynasty began to rule which country from 1700 and still do?

French History of the Bourbon Dynasty Louis-Phillippe, King of the French 1830-1848   With the advent of the Second Republic in 1848, Bourbon monarchy in France ended. The Bourbon pretender to the throne of France, the Comte de Chambord, was offered a restored throne following the collapse of the empire of Emperor Napoleon III in 1870. However the stubborn Chambord refused to accept the throne unless France abandoned the revolution-inspired tricolore and accepted what he regarded as the true Bourbon flag of France, something the French National Assembly could not possibly agree to. (The tricolour, having been associated with the First Republic, had been used by the July Monarchy, Second Republic and Empire.) A temporary Third Republic was established, while monarchists waited for Chambord to die and for the succession to pass to the Comte de Paris, who was willing to accept the tricolour. However Chambord did not die for over a decade, by which public opinion switched to support the republic as the 'form of government that divides us least.' Henry IV of France     Henry IV (December 13, 1553 - May 14, 1610) was King of France from 1589-1610, the first of the Bourbon kings of France. He was the son of Antoine de Bourbon, Duke of Vendome and Jeanne d'Albret, Queen of Navarre. Henry was born in Pau, PyrÃ©nÃ©es-Atlantiques, in the southwest of France. On August 18 1572 Henry married Marguerite de Valois, sister of the then King Charles IX. In the same year he became king Henry III of Navarre, succeeding his mother Jeanne d'Albret, who had brought him up as a Huguenot. Jeanne herself was also a Protestant, and had declared Calvinism the religion of Navarre.  Henry's marriage was part of a plan to help quell the French Wars of Religion. As part of this plan, he was forced to convert to Roman Catholicism on February 5, 1576, and kept in confinement, but later that year he gained his freedom and resumed Protestantism. He became the legal heir to the French throne upon the death in 1584 of FranÃ§ois, Duke of AlenÃ§on, brother and heir to King Henri III, who had succeeded Charles IX in 1574. Since Henry of Navarre was a descendant of King Louis IX, King Henry III had no choice but to recognize him as the legitimate successor. (Salic law disinherited the king's sisters and all others who could claim descent by distaff line.) In December 1588 King Henry III had the Duke of Guise and that man's brother the Cardinal, murdered. Henry had to flee Paris and joined forces with Henri of Navarre, but died shortly thereafter.  On the death of the king in 1589, Henri of Navarre became nominally the king of France. But the Catholic League, strengthened by support from outside, especially from Spain, was strong enough to force him to the south, and he had to set about winning his kingdom by military conquest. He was victorious at Ivry and Arques, but failed to take Paris. With the encouragement of the great love of his life, Gabrielle d'EstrÃ©e, on July 25, 1593 he declared that Paris vaut bien une messe (Paris was worth a Mass) and permanently renounced Protestantism. His entrance into the Roman Catholic Church secured for him the allegiance of the vast majority of his subjects and he was crowned King of France at the Cathedral of Chartres on February 27, 1594. In 1598, however, he declared the Edict of Nantes, which gave circumscribed toleration to the Huguenots. Henry's first marriage was not a happy one, and the couple remained childless. Even before Henry had succeeded to the throne in August, 1589 the two had separated, and Marguerite de Valois lived for many years in the chateau of Usson in Auvergne. After Henry had become king various advisers impressed upon him the desirability of providing an heir to the French Crown in order to avoid the problem of a disputed succession.  Henry himself favored the idea of obtaining an annulment of his first marriage and taking Gabrielle d'EstrÃ©e as a bride, who had already borne him three children. Henry's councillors strongly opposed this idea, but the matter was resolved unexpectedly by Gabrielle


The Emancipation of the Russian Serfs, 1861: A Charter of Freedom or an Act of Betrayal? | History Today The Emancipation of the Russian Serfs, 1861: A Charter of Freedom or an Act of Betrayal? Russia Civil Rights , Social Michael Lynch takes a fresh look at the key reform of 19th-century Russia. In 1861 serfdom, the system which tied the Russian peasants irrevocably to their landlords, was abolished at the Tsar’s imperial command. Four years later, slavery in the USA was similarly declared unlawful by presidential order. Tsar Alexander II (1855-81) shared with his father, Nicholas I, a conviction that American slavery was inhumane. This is not as hypocritical as it might first appear. The serfdom that had operated in Russia since the middle of the seventeenth century was technically not slavery. The landowner did not own the serf. This contrasted with the system in the USA where the negro slaves were chattels; that is, they were regarded in law as the disposable property of their masters. In Russia the traditional relationship between lord and serf was based on land. It was because he lived on his land that the serf was bound to the lord. The Russian system dated back to 1649 and the introduction of a legal code which had granted total authority to the landowner to control the life and work of the peasant serfs who lived on his land. Since this included the power to deny the serf the right to move elsewhere, the difference between slavery and serfdom in practice was so fine as to be indistinguishable. The purpose behind the granting of such powers to the Russian dvoriane (nobility of landowners) in 1649 had been to make the nobles dependent on, and therefore loyal to, the tsar. They were to express that loyalty in practical form by serving the tsar as military officers or public officials. In this way the Romanov emperors built up Russia’s civil bureaucracy and the armed services as bodies of public servants who had a vested interest in maintaining the tsarist state. The serfs made up just over a third of the population and formed half of the peasantry. They were most heavily concentrated in the central and western provinces of Russia. Why was it necessary to end Serfdom? In a number of respects serfdom was not dissimilar to the feudalism that had operated in many parts of pre-modern Europe. However, long before the 19th century, the feudal system had been abandoned in western Europe as it moved into the commercial and industrial age. Imperial Russia underwent no such transition. It remained economically and socially backward. Nearly all Russians acknowledged this. Some, known as slavophiles, rejoiced, claiming that holy Russia was a unique God-inspired nation that had nothing to learn from the corrupt nations to the west. But many Russians, of all ranks and classes, had come to accept that reform of some kind was unavoidable if their nation was to progress. It became convenient to use serfdom to explain all Russia’s current weaknesses: it was responsible for military incompetence, food shortages, over population, civil disorder, industrial backwardness. These were oversimplified explanations but there some truth in all of them: serfdom was symptomatic of the underlying difficulties that held Russia back from progress.It was, therefore, a particularly easy target for the intelligentsia, those intellectuals who in their writings argued for the liberalising of Russian society, beginning with the emancipation of the exploited peasants. As often happened in Russian history, it was war that forced the issue. The Russian state had entered the Crimean War in 1854 with high hopes of victory. Two years later it suffered a heavy defeat at the hands of the Allied armies of France, Britain and Turkey. The shock to Russia was profound. The nation had always prided itself on its martial strength. Now it had been humiliated. Alexander II’s Role By an odd twist of fate, defeat in the war proved of value to the new Tsar. Although he had been trained for government from an early age, foreign observers had remarked on how diffident and un


Near which city in Russia did the greatest tank battle of World War II take place in July 1943?

1943: Battle of Kursk Today in WW II: 14 Jan 1943 Churchill and Roosevelt begin the Casablanca conference .    Battle of Kursk: 5ï¿½19 July 1943 Battery of Red Army 152mm howitzers preparing to fire during the Battle of Kursk. 3,000 guns and aircraft severely disrupted the German deployment at the outset of Operation Citadel. The German push into Russia had been stopped at the gates of Moscow in the winter of 1941-42 and again at Stalingrad on the Volga a year later. In February 1943, the Battle of Stalingrad ended with over 300,000 German soldiers dead or captured. Soviet forces moved on Kharkov but a German counterattack stopped that Winter Offensive. To bolster morale in Germany and hold his allies in line, Hitler needed a clear cut victory in Russia. To erase the pain of Stalingrad, Hitler decided to order a massive force to regain the initiative against the Red Army. Hitler and his generals looked for a place where a decisive victory could be purchased relatively cheaply. They chose to cut off a 90 mile bulge in the Eastern Front between the cities of Orel and Kharkov that included the small city of Kursk at its pivot, using a gigantic pincer movement. Hitler's key military leaders wanted to stage this offensive (Operation Citadel) in May 1943, but bickering and interference by Hitler delayed it until early July. Months of preparation under the eyes of the Soviet army eliminated any surprise when Operation Citadel launched on 5 July. The Germans failed in their objective to pinch off the Kursk salient and suffered irreplacable losses of men and materiel in the process. Now that both German and Soviet records are available, it is clear that the German plan was based on faulty assumptions. After two years of fighting inside Soviet territory, the Germans assumed that a well-prepared offensive would be able to penetrate the Soviet defense and that superior German tactics, staff work, and weaponry would compensate for greater Soviet numbers. Furthermore, they thought that adverse weather would hamper any Soviet offensive, and that if such an offensive occurred, the mobile German counterattack could halt it. The Germans were badly mistaken. The Soviet army of mid-1943 had evolved far from the Soviet army of 1941. They had learned from their mistakes, more than the Germans had learned about the Reds. The Kursk salient contained Soviet forces that were hardened and ready, strong and complete units that would be difficult to encircle and erase even under the best of circumstances. For the German army of 1943, Operation Citadel was far too ambitious to succeed. The Soviet's plan was much more realistic and actionable. They anticipated the German lines of attack and prepared the battlefield with dense mine fields, trenches, and camouflaged gun positions. An enormous reserve force was assembled with plans to absorb the German attack and exhaust them, then counterattack with overwhelming force when the Germans were weakened and without reserves. The Battle at Kursk Unfolds The Germans massed tanks, guns and tens of thousands of troops on the front. From the north, the Wehrmacht's Ninth Army was poised to move from the south of Orel toward Olkhovatka. In the south, the Fourth Panzer Army would move from east of a line joining Kharkov and Belgorod toward Prokhorovka. At dawn on 5 July German guns opened up a huge bombardment, and masses of German tanks moved into the battle supported by Stuka fighters overhead. Soviet artillery, T-34 tanks and Katyusha rockets answered. German Tigers did well, but the lighter Mark IV and Panthers were decimated. Guns tanks and infantry fought for more than a week in vicious battles of total war. More than 2.2 million men were engaged on both sides, along with 5,000 airplanes and 6,000 armored vehicles. Soviet minefields channeled German tanks into prepared fields of artillery fire. Panzers would make progress in one area but be immediately challanged and attacked by Soviet planes or by infantry with explosives. The Soviet defenses held. Tank Battle at Prokhorovka, 12 July 1943 The


At the battle of Ashdown, in A.D 871, the Danes were defeated by forces under which famous king?

Battle of Ashdown – January 8, 871 | The American Legion's BurnPit Battle of Ashdown – January 8, 871 January 8th, 2010 by Siggurdsson   Next story »   Alfred the Great Defeats Vikings Only one king of England earned the sobriquet “the Great;” that was Alfred, who ruled the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex from 871 to 899. He managed to preserve his southwestern English kingdom from Viking takeover, and was a great scholar, highly religious man and apparently a reluctant but competent warrior. He was the youngest of four brothers, all sons of King Æthelwulf of Wessex. His father sent him to Rome when he was 4 years old, where even then his piety impressed Pope Leo IV. A year later, Æthelwulf made a pilgrimage to Rome, giving lavish gifts of money and Anglo-Saxon objects to the clergy. Being the youngest son and with little apparent chance at the throne, many of the West Saxon nobility thought that Alfred would become a priest or monk. This perception was reinforced by the fact that Alfred was a somewhat delicate young man, suffering from some gastro-intestinal problem that caused him intermittent pain throughout his life (recently speculated to be Crohn’s disease). Alfred virtually disappears from the historical records (mainly the well-known Anglo-Saxon Chronicle) until the year 866. In that year his biographer, Bishop Asser, records that Alfred was essentially made “king in waiting” by his brother King Æthelred. For the next four years, Wessex is spared any major depredations by the raiding Vikings (or Norsemen, or Northmen, or Danes, or heathens, or whatever you wish to call them), who had been launching incessant raids throughout the whole of England, Scotland, Ireland and coastal areas of western Europe for nearly 75 years. It is speculated by modern historians that Alfred’s brother paid protection money to keep the Vikings away, but the contemporary chronicles are silent on that matter. Other Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England – Northumbria, Kent, East Anglia, Mercia -- were overrun by the “Great Heathen Army” between 865 and 870. However, the end of the year 870 saw the first incursion of Danes into Wessex. A large force of Vikings (probably an offshoot of the Great Heathen Army) occupied the town of Reading in late December, using it as a base for further raids and possible conquest. It was a strong position, with the rivers Thames and Kennet protecting two sides, the sea another, and a great wooden rampart protecting the only land approach. Reading was also likely chosen because it was the site of a royal estate, guaranteeing that King Æthelred would respond to the taking of his land. On December 31 of that year, the Danes sent out a raiding party, most likely mounted on stolen horses to increase their mobility. [It should be noted that this tactic of a winter campaign is highly unusual, as most pre-modern European warfare was confined to the late spring to very early autumn time frame, due to the weather, and to the difficulty in obtaining supplies.] It was met by local levies of Wessex at Englefield, where the Danes were driven back to their base at Reading.  Five days later, King Æthelred and Prince Alfred led the Wessex army in an assault on the Reading fortifications. Though nearly breaking through, the Anglo-Saxons were routed. Growing bold after their victory at Reading, on January 8 the Viking leaders, King Basecg and Halfdan Ragnarsson, led a body of men to take out the remnants of the West Saxon forces. King Æthelred sought to assemble his scattered forces in the Berkshire Downs. There is a legend that Alfred used an ancient “Blowing Stone,” a perforated sandstone rock to alert the local militia to assemble to defend their homes. The West Saxon army is said to have contained between 800-1000 soldiers, with the Viking force numbering slightly less. The two forces were both arrayed in similar accoutrements: leather armor, leather or possibly iron helmets, round wooden shields with central metal bosses, and javelins, spears and swords, with a few bows and slings scattered here and there


What did Prince Albert, consort of Queen Victoria, die of?

Prince Albert's death finally solved 150 years, he was suffering Crohn's disease | Daily Mail Online comments His sudden death 150 years ago this week propelled his adoring wife, Queen Victoria, into life-long mourning. And until now it had always been thought that Prince Albert’s unexpected passing on December 14, 1861 - at the age of just 42 - had been caused by a virulent bout of typhoid fever. Now an acclaimed historian, who has spent the last three years researching the death of the Prince Consort, believes he actually succumbed to a very modern affliction – Crohn’s Disease. Mystery solved: Historian Helen Rappaport who has uncovered details about the death of Prince Albert Crohn’s is a serious – and sometimes fatal - form of inflammatory bowel disease that today affects one in 500 people. While the exact cause is unknown, the condition is linked to a problem with the body’s immune system response. RELATED ARTICLES Share this article Share A person’s genes and environmental factors seem to play a role in the development of Crohn’s disease, but it usually occurs in people between ages 15 - 35. Symptoms can come in waves and include debilitating and crampy abdominal pain, fever, fatigue, loss of appetite, chronic diarrhoea, liver inflammation and weight loss. So were the Royal Family simply mistaken about Albert’s death or was there a cover up? According to author Helen Rappaport - who has been given unrivalled access to contemporary records including both Albert and Victoria’s private letters, the Royal Archives and records of the Royal Household – the Queen’s husband had been chronically sick on and off all his adult life and suffered from long-standing gastric problems.  Deep bond: Queen Victoria was distraught after Prince Albert's death at the age of 42 This was never verified by doctors after his death, however, as grieving Victoria refused to allow a post-mortem to be carried out on her beloved husband. So Rappaport took her findings, contained in a detailed 14-page medical dossier, to the John Radcliffe Hospital in Oxford where Dr Chris Conlon, consultant in infectious diseases including typhoid, and Dr Simon Travis, consultant in gastroenterology, examined them in detail. Having looked at the evidence, both doctors dismissed typhoid fever and cancer as possible causes of death and concluded the evidence for Crohn’s looked very strong.  They pointed out that there are a number of similarities between the symptoms displayed by those suffering from typhoid fever and Crohn’s disease, including fever and severe abdominal pain, which may have accounted for confusion at the time. QUEEN VICTORIA'S GRIEF Her grief over the loss of her husband, Prince Albert, came to define her entire reign. The extent of Queen Victoria’s despair has been laid bare in a previously unseen letter, in which she expresses the hope that she will go to an early grave. The remarkably candid letter, which has been acquired by London auctioneers Argyll Etkin, is thought to be the first in the public domain in which the Queen yearns for her own death, so she can be reunited with her husband. Victoria wrote the ‘astonishing’ letter in March 1863, some 15 months after Albert’s death, to 82-year-old Viscount Gough. The hospital will be holding a seminar into the issue entitled ‘What Killed Prince Albert?”’ next month. The author then went to a  Crohn’s specialist in Belgium, Philippe van Hootegem of the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Leuven. In his written reply, he says: ‘You were able to collect from letters and diaries a lot of details concerning the health problems of the Prince. These data clearly demonstrate the presence of a chronic condition with several years of intermittent episodes of  symptoms such as fatigue, abdominal cramps, inability to eat for several days, attacks of diarrhoea etc… leading eventually to a more serious situation of acute illness with rapid deterioration and death at  the age of 42. ‘A chronic inflammatory bowel disease such as Crohn’s disease could certainly explain a


Who was the first monarch of the House of Tudor?

House of Tudor | Tudor Penny Post From: TBD (Year) The Tudor dynasty or House of Tudor was a European royal house of Welsh and English origin, descended in the male line from the Tudors of Penmynydd. Tudor monarchs ruled the Kingdom of England and its realms, including their ancestral Wales and the Lordship of Ireland (later the Kingdom of Ireland) from 1485 until 1603. The first monarch, Henry VII, descended through his mother from a legitimized branch of the English royal House of Lancaster. The Tudor family rose to power in the wake of the “Wars of the Roses”, which left the House of Lancaster, to which the Tudors were aligned, extinct. In total, five Tudor monarchs ruled their domains for just over a Century: Henry VII (before accession known as Henry Tudor, 28 January 1457 – 21 April 1509), the first monarch of the House of Tudor, was King of England from his seizing the crown on 22 August 1485 until his death on 21 April 1509. After a reign of nearly 24 years he was peacefully succeeded by his son, Henry VIII. Henry VIII (28 June 1491 – 28 January 1547) was King of England from 21 April 1509 until his death. Henry VIII of England was the only male-line male heir of Henry VII to live to the age of maturity. Henry VIII was succeeded by his son Edward VI. Edward VI (12 October 1537 – 6 July 1553) was King of England and Ireland from 28 January 1547 until his death. Edward was the third monarch of the Tudor dynasty and England’s first monarch raised as a Protestant. Edward VI was followed by his half-sister, Mary I Mary I (18 February 1516 – 17 November 1558) was the Queen of England and Ireland from July 1553 until her death. Her executions of Protestants led to the posthumous sobriquet “Bloody Mary”. As the fourth crowned monarch of the Tudor dynasty, Mary is remembered for her restoration of Roman Catholicism after the short-lived Protestant reign of her half-brother. Her re-establishment of Roman Catholicism was reversed after her death in 1558 by her younger half-sister and successor Elizabeth I, daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603) was Queen of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana or Good Queen Bess, the childless Elizabeth was the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty. The House of Stuart came to power in 1603 when the Tudor line failed, as Elizabeth I died without a legitimate heir. Tudor Penny Post – 5 Sheets of 24 stamps each 5 different sheets of 24 stamps each showing the five Tudor monarchs (Henry VII, Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary I & Elizabeth I). The sheets are known both perforate and imperforate. Below are the perforated sheets shown. All 5 sheets are signed. The Henry VII sheet was printed by William Caxton at Westminster, London, and the 4 subsequent sheets were printed by Messrs Wynkyn de Worde at St Bride’s, Fleet Street, London. Each stamp was priced One penny or A groat for a row or A Florin for the sheet. A legend at each side of the sheets gives the instruction “Place ye label above ye addresse & towards ye ryghte of ye lettrre. Applye ye small mixture of cowe dunge & syrruppe to back of ye label and affyxe” Henry VII: Gerald King – The Tudor House – Sheets of 24 stamps – Henry VII (First monarch). Henry VIII: Gerald King – The Tudor House – Sheets of 24 stamps – Henry VIII (Second monarch). Edward VI: Gerald King – The Tudor House – Sheets of 24 stamps – Edward VI (Third monarch). Mary I: Gerald King – The Tudor House – Sheets of 24 stamps – Mary I (Fourth monarch). Elizabeth I: Gerald King – The Tudor House – Sheets of 24 stamps – Elizabeth I (Fifth monarch).   Matrimonial Cause From: TBD (Year) A sheet of 8 stamps showing King Henry VIII (Reign from 21 April 1509 to 28 January 1547, Coronation on 24 June 1509) and his 6 wives. The values (One shilling to six shillings) for the wives reflect the order of marriage (1 to 6) while the two Henry VIII stamps are valued at one sovereign each. The six wives 1 Shilling stamp: Catherine of Aragon (married in 1509, marriage annulled


Napoleon Bonaparte - Facts & Summary - HISTORY.com Google Napoleon’s Education and Early Military Career Napoleon Bonaparte was born on August 15, 1769, in Ajaccio, on the Mediterranean island of Corsica. He was the second of eight surviving children born to Carlo Buonaparte (1746-1785), a lawyer, and Letizia Romalino Buonaparte (1750-1836). Although his parents were members of the minor Corsican nobility, the family was not wealthy. The year before Napoleon’s birth, France acquired Corsica from the city-state of Genoa, Italy. Napoleon later adopted a French spelling of his last name. Did You Know? In 1799, during Napoleon’s military campaign in Egypt, a French soldier named Pierre Francois Bouchard (1772-1832) discovered the Rosetta Stone. This artifact provided the key to cracking the code of Egyptian hieroglyphics, a written language that had been dead for almost 2,000 years. As a boy, Napoleon attended school in mainland France, where he learned the French language, and went on to graduate from a French military academy in 1785. He then became a second lieutenant in an artillery regiment of the French army. The French Revolution began in 1789, and within three years revolutionaries had overthrown the monarchy and proclaimed a French republic. During the early years of the revolution, Napoleon was largely on leave from the military and home in Corsica, where he became affiliated with the Jacobins, a pro-democracy political group. In 1793, following a clash with the nationalist Corsican governor, Pasquale Paoli (1725-1807), the Bonaparte family fled their native island for mainland France, where Napoleon returned to military duty. In France, Napoleon became associated with Augustin Robespierre (1763-1794), the brother of revolutionary leader Maximilien Robespierre (1758-1794), a Jacobin who was a key force behind the Reign of Terror (1793-1794), a period of violence against enemies of the revolution. During this time, Napoleon was promoted to the rank of brigadier general in the army. However, after Robespierre fell from power and was guillotined (along with Augustin) in July 1794, Napoleon was briefly put under house arrest for his ties to the brothers. In 1795, Napoleon helped suppress a royalist insurrection against the revolutionary government in Paris and was promoted to major general. Napoleon’s Rise to Power Since 1792, France’s revolutionary government had been engaged in military conflicts with various European nations. In 1796, Napoleon commanded a French army that defeated the larger armies of Austria, one of his country’s primary rivals, in a series of battles in Italy. In 1797, France and Austria signed the Treaty of Campo Formio, resulting in territorial gains for the French. The following year, the Directory, the five-person group that had governed France since 1795, offered to let Napoleon lead an invasion of England. Napoleon determined that France’s naval forces were not yet ready to go up against the superior British Royal Navy. Instead, he proposed an invasion of Egypt in an effort to wipe out British trade routes with India. Napoleon’s troops scored a victory against Egypt’s military rulers, the Mamluks, at the Battle of the Pyramids in July 1798; soon, however, his forces were stranded after his naval fleet was nearly decimated by the British at the Battle of the Nile in August 1798. In early 1799, Napoleon’s army launched an invasion of Ottoman-ruled Syria, which ended with the failed siege of Acre, located in modern-day Israel. That summer, with the political situation in France marked by uncertainty, the ever-ambitious and cunning Napoleon opted to abandon his army in Egypt and return to France. The Coup of 18 Brumaire In November 1799, in an event known as the coup of 18 Brumaire, Napoleon was part of a group that successfully overthrew the French Directory. The Directory was replaced with a three-member Consulate, and Napoleon became first consul, making him France’s leading political figure. In June 1800, at the Battle of Marengo, Napoleon’s forces defeated one of France’s perennial enemies,