Which sea is so highly polluted that the Barcelona Convention was set up in 976 to try and clean it up?

Hotel Barcelona Princess, Spain - Booking.com 8.8   One of our top picks in Barcelona. This property is 7 minutes walk from the beach. Barcelona Princess Hotel is a 10-minute walk from the beach in the city’s Forum area. It offers wonderful views, a free sauna and a gym. Free WiFi is available throughout. All guests have free access to the 2 heated outdoor pools. The one on the 23rd floor offers spectacular sea views. Rooms at Princess Barcelona are elegant and bright. Each has contemporary décor. All rooms have satellite TV and offer free drinks from the minibar. The hotel has a Mediterranean restaurant and 2 stylish bars, including a relaxed poolside bar with panoramic views. Princess Hotel Barcelona is set on Avenida Diagonal, next to Diagonal Mar Shopping Centre. The tour bus stops in front of the hotel and Maresme Forum Metro Station is 100 yards away. Plaza de Catalunya and Las Ramblas can be reached in 15 minutes, by Metro. Sant Martí is a great choice for travellers interested in beaches, monuments and city trips. This property is also rated for the best value in Barcelona! Guests are getting more for their money when compared to other properties in this city. We speak your language! Barcelona Princess has been welcoming Booking.com guests since 23 Jul 2004. Hotel Rooms: 364, Hotel Chain: Princess Most popular facilities Read more Booking.com guest review guidelines To keep the rating score and review content relevant for your upcoming trip, we archive reviews older than 24 months. Only a customer who has booked through Booking.com and stayed at the property in question can write a review. This lets us know that our reviews come from real guests, like you. Who better to tell others about the free breakfast, friendly staff, or quiet room than someone who’s stayed at the property before? We want you to share your story, both the good and the bad. All we ask is that you follow a few simple guidelines. Reviews vision We believe review contributions and property responses will highlight a wide range of opinion and experiences, which are critical in helping guests make well-informed decisions about where to stay. Reviews principles Contributions to Booking.com are a reflection of the dedication of our guests and properties, and are treated with the utmost respect. Whether negative or positive, we will post every comment in full and as quickly as possible, provided the guidelines are met. We will also provide transparency over the status of submitted content. We will use the same guidelines and standards for all user-generated content as well as the property replies to that content. We will allow the contributions to speak for themselves, and we won’t be the judge of reality. Booking.com’s role is that of a distributor of feedback from both guest and property. Guidelines and standards for Reviews These guidelines and standards aim to keep the content on Booking.com relevant and family-friendly without limiting expression of strong opinions. They are also applicable regardless of the sentiment of the comment. Contributions should be travel related. The most helpful contributions are detailed and help others make better decisions. Please don’t include personal, political, ethical, or religious commentary. Promotional content will be removed and issues concerning Booking.com’s services should be routed to our Customer Service or Accommodation Service teams. Contributions should be appropriate for a global audience. Please avoid using profanity or attempts to approximate profanity with creative spelling, in any language. Comments and media that include 'hate speech', discriminatory remarks, threats, sexually explicit remarks, violence, and the promotion of illegal activity are not permitted. All content should be genuine and unique to the guest. Reviews are most valuable when they are original and unbiased. Your contribution should be yours. Booking.com property partners should not post on behalf of guests or offer incentives in exchange for reviews. Attempts to bring down the rating of a competitor by submitting a negativ


What is the scientific scale for measuring the hardness of rocks?

Bestcrystals.com . Mohs Hardness Scale Mohs Hardness Scale Mohs Hardness Scale The hardness of a stone is one of the properties that contribute to identification.  Hardness is also an attribute which is important to be aware of, because it may determine what a stone may be used for (jewelry, carving, faceting, handling, storage, etc.)  You may want to familiarize yourself with the Mohs Scale of Hardness.  This will help you understand the relationships between stones according to their hardness.  The Mohs Scale of Hardness consists of 10 classifications, 1 being the softest, and 10 being the hardest.  The only mineral that is an exception to this is mercury, which is liquid.  To give you a few reference points, the diamond is of course the hardest, rated 10.  Your fingernail is a 2, a pocket knife is about a 5-6, and a piece of glass is a 6-7.  Each classification will scratch the one preceding it.  As you know, a diamond (10) will scratch glass (6-7).  This technique is commonly used in the field for initial identification, and it is good to have samples of some of these stones with you in order to perform the test.  Some minerals have varying hardness according to the direction you may scratch them in, but typically this is either hardly detectable or an exception to the rule. The following, is a partial listing of stones and their hardness classification: 1


Which Continent Is the the World's Smallest? By Matt Rosenberg Updated August 10, 2016. There are seven continents in the world and Asia is the largest , but which one is the smallest? The answer is Australia and it is almost a fifth of the size of Asia. Europe is not far behind, though, as it has just over a million more square miles than Australia. If we are looking at population, Australia is also at the bottom of the list of continents with permanent residents. Of course, Antarctica is the least populated continent because only a few thousand researchers call it a temporary home. Just How Small is Australia? In terms of land area, the continent of Australia is the world's smallest continent. In total, it includes 2,967,909 square miles (7,686,884 square kilometers), which is slightly smaller than the country of Brazil as well as the contiguous United States. Europe is the second smallest continent in area at 3,997,929 square miles (10,354,636 square kilometers). Antarctica is the third smallest continent in area at approximately 5,500,000 square miles (14,245,000 square kilometers). When it comes to population, technically Australia is the second smallest continent. If we exclude Antarctica, then Australia is the smallest. We might say that Australia is the smallest populated continent. Antarctica - Has no permanent residents though up to 4000 researchers and personnel live there in the summer and 1000 stay through the winter. Australia - 39,506,070 (all of Oceania) South America - 413,869,568 (Population count as of 2015 via the Population Reference Bureau (PRB) .) But Australia is Also the Largest... Australia is an island since it's surrounded by water but it is also large enough to be considered a continent. Though technically a continent, Australia may be considered the largest island in the world. In most cases, Greenland is accepted as the largest in the world . The country of Australia is the world's sixth-largest country on earth. Australia is the largest country that is entirely in the Southern Hemisphere. Australia is also the largest country without land borders. Among the inhabited continents, Australia has the driest continent. Australia's Relationship to Oceania Is Australia part of Oceania? This is a question of much debate and it depends on your definition of Oceania.  Oceania refers to the Pacific island region of the world that includes all of the small islands near Australia. It can be divided many ways and quite often, Australia is included in a sub-group of Oceania known as Australasia (Australia and New Zealand). Quite often, when referring to this southern Pacific region, people will use the term 'Australia and Oceania' rather than adding Australia into Oceania.


Which gas forms approximately 1% of the atmosphere?

Introduction to the Atmosphere: Background Material Introduction to the Atmosphere This section provides a brief overview of the properties associated     with the atmosphere. The general concepts found in this section are: The earth's atmosphere is a very thin layer wrapped around a very      large planet. Two gases make up the bulk of the earth's atmosphere: nitrogen ( ),      which comprises 78% of the atmosphere, and oxygen ( ),      which accounts for 21%. Various trace gases make up the remainder. Based on temperature, the atmosphere is divided into four layers:      the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. Energy is transferred between the earth's surface and the atmosphere      via conduction, convection, and radiation. Ocean currents play a significant role in transferring this heat poleward.      Major currents, such as the northward flowing Gulf Stream, transport      tremendous amounts of heat poleward and contribute to the development      of many types of weather phenomena. This section includes seven classroom activities. Atmospheric Properties The thin envelope of air that surrounds our planet is a mixture of gases, each  with its own physical properties. The mixture is far from evenly divided. Two  elements, nitrogen and oxygen, make up 99% of the volume of air. The other 1%  is composed of "trace" gases, the most prevalent of which is the inert gaseous  element argon. The rest of the trace gases, although present in only minute  amounts, are very important to life on earth. Two in particular, carbon dioxide  and ozone, can have a large impact on atmospheric processes. Another gas, water vapor, also exists in small amounts. It varies in concentration  from being almost non-existent over desert regions to about 4% over the oceans.  Water vapor is important to weather production since it exists in gaseous, liquid,  and solid phases and absorbs radiant energy from the earth. Structure of the Atmosphere The atmosphere is divided vertically into four layers based on  temperature: the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere,  and thermosphere. Throughout the Cycles unit, we'll focus primarily on  the layer in which we live - the troposphere. Troposphere The word troposphere comes from tropein, meaning to turn or change.  All of the earth's weather occurs in the troposphere. The troposphere has the following characteristics. It extends from the earth's surface to an average of 12 km (7 miles). The pressure ranges from 1000 to 200 millibars (29.92 in. to 5.92      in.). The temperature generally decreases with increasing height up to      the tropopause (top of the troposphere); this is near 200 millibars      or 36,000 ft. The temperature averages 15°C (59°F) near the surface        and -57°C (-71°F) at the tropopause. The layer ends at the point where temperature no longer varies        with height. This area, known as the tropopause, marks the transition        to the stratosphere. Winds increase with height up to the jet stream. The moisture concentration decreases with height up to the tropopause. The air is much drier above the tropopause, in the stratosphere. The sun's heat that warms the earth's surface is transported upwards       largely by convection and is mixed by updrafts and downdrafts. The troposphere is 70% Atmospheric Processes Interactions - Atmosphere and Ocean In the Cycles overview, we learned that water is an essential part of the earth's  system. The oceans cover nearly three-quarters of the earth's surface and play  an important role in exchanging and transporting heat and moisture in the atmosphere. Most of the water vapor in the atmosphere comes from the oceans. Most of the precipitation falling over land finds its way back to oceans. About two-thirds returns to the atmosphere via the water cycle. You may have figured out by now that the oceans and atmosphere interact extensively.  Oceans not only act as an abundant moisture source for


What is the term for the energy obtained from hot, underground rocks?

Hot Rock Energy - What is Hot Rock Energy? Hot Rock Energy What is Hot Rock Energy? Geothermal Energy | Hot Rock Energy | Hot Dry Rocks | Enhanced Geothermal Resources Classical Geothermal energy is widely regarded as describing the process of using hot water or steam extracted from geothermal reservoirs in the earth's crust, created by upward convection and conduction of heat from the Earth’s mantle and core, that can be used for geothermal heat pumps, water heating, or electricity generation. Hot Dry Rock (HDR) describes the process of extracting heat from deep crystalline rock heated by the decay of radioactive elements including uranium, thorium, and potassium isotopes in effect - nature's nuclear power plant. In recognition of the recent discovery that these target rocks aren't dry the newer term Hot Rock Energy is beginning to gain dominance. Enhanced Geothermal System (EGS) describes  Hot Rock Energy sytems with "engineered" heat exchangers where the hot rocks have been fractured to allow for enhanced fluid volumes and flow. Images of Hot Rock Energy Systems   Note the timelines for Geothermal Hot Rock that predict that Hot Rock Energy will be amongst, if not, the first of the non-coal "baseload" Alternative Energy systems to be deployed Hot Rock Energy will provide the cheapest green baseload electricity emission free production system   The amount of money spent on Hot Rock Energy is rapidly increasing http://www.pir.sa.gov.au/geothermal Hot Rock Energy | EGS* - Enhanced Geothermal Resource A type of geothermal power production system that utilizes the very high temperatures that can be found in rocks a few kilometers below ground. This is done by pumping high pressure water down a borehole into the heat zone. The water travels through fractures of the rock, capturing the heat of the rock until it is forced out of a second borehole as very hot water – the thermal energy of which is converted into electricity using either a steam turbine or a binary power plant system. All of the water, then cooled, is injected back into the ground to heat up again. Since the 1970s, research projects aimed at developing techniques for the creation of geothermal reservoirs are being conducted around the world. These include the following: • United States: Fenton Hill, Coso, Desert Peak, Glass Mountain, and The Geysers/Clear Lake • United Kingdom: Rosemanowes • France: Soultz, Le Mayet de Montagne • Japan: Hijiori and Ogachi • Australia: Cooper Basin, Hunter Valley, and others • Sweden: Fjallbacka • Germany: Falkenberg, Horstberg, and Bad Urach • Switzerland: Basel and Geneva More on Geothermal Historical Development Timelines The potential rewards for Australia of having almost limitless, green, base load electricity have been well recognised by our current Labor Government and several parliament members are actively promoting funding for research and ongoing development. A lot of interest is also being generated overseas and a 2007 paper, excerpted below, encapsulates many of the benefits that apply to both the USA and Australia. The Future of Geothermal Energy (USA 2007) -Impact of Enhanced Geothermal Systems on the United States in the 21st Century. An assessment by the MIT-led interdisciplinary panel. Read full paper "When examining the full life cycle of geothermal energy developments, their overall environmental impacts are markedly lower than conventional fossil-fired and nuclear power plants. In addition, they may have lower impacts in comparison to other renewables such as solar, biomass, and wind on an equivalent energy-output basis. This is primarily because a geothermal energy source is contained underground, and the surface energy conversion equipment is relatively compact, making the overall footprint of the entire system small. EGS geothermal power plants operating with closed-loop circulation also provide environmental benefits by having minimal greenhouse gas and other emissions. Being an indigenous resource, geothermal – like other renewable resources – can reduce our dependence on imported fossil fuels. As it pr


What name is given to the rocks swallowed by dinosaurs to assist their digestion?

Dinosaurs 118 Final - Science 118 with Oliver at Worcester State College - StudyBlue Who was the last Ptolemaic Pharaoh? Cleopatra Which of the Greek elements was the lightest? Fire The fall of what city was the ultimate (albeit distant) justification given for the first crusade? Jerusalem When did the universe begin (roughly)? 14 billion years ago Who was the tutor of Alexander, Prince of Macedon? Aristotle Identify the scientist associated with: Astrology Ptolemy What Greek city is the home of the Pythian Oracle of Apollo? Delphi The statement "We can't prove Aliens didn't build the pyramids, therefore they did" is an example of the appeal to stupidity. True or False? False An appeal to authority is legitimate if 1) The authority is an expert in the area of knowledge under consideration; and 2) The statement of the authority concerns his or her area of mastery; and 3) You happen to like the experts point of view. True or False? False If we pass laws against fully-automatic weapons, then it won't be long before we pass laws on all weapons, and then we will begin to restrict other rights, and finally we will end up living in a communist state. Thus we should not ban fully automatic weapons. What kind of argument is this? A slippery slope argument The argument fallacy hat means attacking the person instead of the argument is: Ad hominem Anecdotes are valid evidence. True or False? False "Science is built of facts the way a house if built of bricks; but an accumulation of facts is no more science than a pile of bricks is a house." - Who said this? Henri Poincaire Tautaology, circular reasoning, and 'avoiding the question' all mean the same thing. True or False? False Treating a complex issue as if there are only two, polar opposite choices is called: False Dichotomy 'Circular reasoning' is using a restatement of your conclusions as your premise. True or False? True What is the term for a faulty logical argument? Fallacious The fallacy occurs when we selectively focus on the evidence which tends to make our case while ignoring counter-examples is called: Confirmation Bias The fallacy of exclusion violates the total evidence principle. True or False? True Statement 1: All squares are rectangles. This is a square, therefore it is a rectangle. Statement 2: This is a rectangle, therefore it is a square. Statement 2 is an example of a: Non-reciprocal syllogism If, because we don't know something DIDN'T happen, we can conclude that it DID happen, then we have committed the appeal to: Ignorance Using 'expert' testimony to make your case is called; Appeal to Authority Dr. Oliver's observation that "people don't usually answer the question they are being asked" is known as 'avoiding the question.' True or False? True The latin term for a conclusion that "doesn't follow' from a premise is; Non sequitur Using an unrelated argument to distract from the case being debated is called a; Red Herring What Family includes leopards and domestic cats? Felidae According to the concept of punctuated equilibrium, a new species accumulates most of its unique features as it comes into existence Who is the creator of the cladistic method? Willi Hennig Is only found in only one group AND all members of the group possess it What order contains dogs, cats, bears, and weasels? Carnivora Sabertooth mammals are a _______ assemblage? Polyphyletic What term means a clade derived from multiple ancestors? Polyphyly The defininf character of the Vertebrata is Vertebrae The biological species concept is inadequate for grouping asexual organisms What group lost their eyes, and later re-evolved them? Snakes Chordates do not include what... echinoderms The term that is most appropriately associated with clade is... monophyletic If flight is a character used to group two distantly related organisms, it would be what kind of trait? Homoplastic Who wrote the book "Zoonomia" proposing evolution? Darwin's grandfather, Erasmus Darwin A tentative explanation that can be tested and is falsifiable. Who wrote the Essay on Population that so affected Darwin's thi


Which animal has been hunted almost to extinction because of its horn?

6 endangered animals poachers are hunting into extinction FacebookEmail Twitter Google+ LinkedIn Pinterest 6 endangered animals poachers are hunting into extinction The killing of Cecil the lion, one of Zimbabwe’s most loved wild animals, is just the tip of the iceberg when it comes to the thousands of animals taken by poachers each year. Post to Facebook 6 endangered animals poachers are hunting into extinction The killing of Cecil the lion, one of Zimbabwe’s most loved wild animals, is just the tip of the iceberg when it comes to the thousands of animals taken by poachers each year. Check out this story on USATODAY.com: http://usat.ly/1SocYFu CancelSend A link has been sent to your friend's email address. Posted! A link has been posted to your Facebook feed. 4 To find out more about Facebook commenting please read the Conversation Guidelines and FAQs 6 endangered animals poachers are hunting into extinction Jessica Phelan, GlobalPost Published 11:34 a.m. ET July 31, 2015 | Updated 2:55 p.m. ET July 31, 2015 A staff member with the Kenya Wildlife Services does an inventory of illegal elephant ivory stockpiles at its headquarters in Nairobi on July 21, 2015. (Photo: Tony Karumba, AFP/Getty Images) The killing of Cecil the lion, one of Zimbabwe’s most loved wild animals, is just the tip of the iceberg when it comes to the thousands of animals taken by poachers each year. Some are killed by hunters, others by organized criminals who want to sell different parts. Sometimes, it's impoverished people looking for easy cash or even a meal. Whatever poachers’ motivations, they’re threatening to wipe some of the most vulnerable species off the face of the earth. Here are six animals that, like Cecil, poaching might rob us of forever. ELEPHANTS  (Photo: Ben Curtis, AP) Poachers are  the single biggest threat  to elephants’ survival. After decades of decimation of elephant populations for their ivory, the international trade in “white gold” was banned in 1989. Yet people’s persistent willingness to hand over bigger and bigger sums of money for dead elephant tusk — in China,  $2,100 per 2.2 pounds  on average as of last year — has made it more tempting than ever for profit seekers to kill elephants illegally. The most comprehensive  survey  to date stated that 100,000 African elephants were poached across the continent between 2010 and 2012. According to those figures, in 2011 alone poachers killed roughly one in every 12 African elephants. Sometimes elephant poachers use bows and arrows as their weapon of choice. Sometimes they tip the arrows with poison, like the people who last year slaughtered one of Kenya’s most famous elephants,  Satao , and hacked off his magnificent 6.5-foot tusks. Other hunting expeditions have seen  gangs turn grenades and AK-47s on entire herds , even within the supposed shelter of national parks. Asian elephants , considered an even more vulnerable species, are also hunted for their tusks, body parts, meat and hide. Unlike their African cousins, only male Asian elephants have tusks — a fact that makes the consequences of poaching even more devastating, since the selective killings of bulls creates a gender imbalance and thereby reduces reproduction in the remaining population. RHINOS  (Photo: Tony Karumba, AFP/Getty Images) Rhinoceroses, like elephants, suffer the misfortune of having an external protrusion that humans arbitrarily place a high value upon. Rhino horn was reported to be selling for  $65,000 per 2.2 pounds  in 2012, making it more expensive by weight than gold, diamonds or cocaine. The demand comes from Southeast Asia, particularly Vietnam, where some people believe that consuming rhino horn will cure everything  from cancer to hangovers . The black market demand for rhino horn has led to a surge in poaching of the critically endangered black rhino and the more numerous southern white rhino across southern Africa since 2008. This is especially the case in South Africa, where illegal killings hit  another record high  at 393 in the 12 months leading up to April. And that’s not counting legal


Which chemical, commonly used to increase crop yield, sometimes contaminates drinking water?

Potential Carcinogens in Your Drinking Water and How to Test for Contamination Bringing Drinking Water & Insight To The World Cancer Awareness: “Top Ten” Potential Risks in Your Drinking Water (Part 1 of 2) by wfnblog on October 20, 2011 Many of us are increasingly unsettled about the potential harm of a growing number of contaminants in tap water, especially those which adversely impact human health. Since the 1970s, sampling for water pollutants has markedly increased. Now hundreds of manufactured chemicals have been found in the groundwater and various other drinking water sources. Chemical contamination of drinking water can be traced to several different causes, including wrongful disposal of household cleaners, leaking underground storage tanks, seepage from landfills, discharge from factories and increased pesticide & fertilizer use over the past fifty years. As troubling as the discovery of contaminated drinking water is, it’s a more hopeful sign that in recent decades, laboratories have become much more finely skilled in detecting a long list of chemicals. More importantly, our scientific knowledge of the health risks linked to drinking water contaminants has also improved. As a result, various home water treatment options are now widely available for reducing exposure to chemicals in tap water. Some contaminants are known to cause cancer in the human population.  Others are suspected culprits. These contaminants are commonly referred to as carcinogens. When the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) establishes primary drinking water standards for carcinogens, the EPA acknowledges that no concentration in drinking water is safe, but it also must decide what level of risk is tolerable for the purpose of regulation. For many carcinogens, the concentration in drinking water causing no more than one cancer per million is typically in the range of a few parts per billion.  Although more research continues to be done on an ongoing basis, here are our current “top ten” contaminants of possible concern: Synthetic Organic Chemicals: Pesticides, Fertilizers, THMs, VOCs, Solvents 1. Pesticides are manufactured by humans from carbon, chlorine, hydrogen, nitrogen and other elements for a variety of purposes. The health effects of pesticides depend on their chemical characteristics. The use of pesticides, which include insecticides, herbicides and fungicides, is widespread in commercial farming and residential landscaping. Pesticides enter the groundwater during accidental spills, improper application, illegal dumping, manufacturing discharge or excessive rainfall after normal application. These agricultural chemicals can contain substances that disrupt the endocrine system. Some of these chemicals break down very slowly,  so they persist in the environment—even in non-agricultural areas. 2. Fertilizers are another group of chemicals commonly used in agriculture to increase crop yield. Fertilizer by-products, formed as a result of natural chemical processes, however, can be potentially carcinogenic. These agricultural chemicals are one of the major sources of water pollution. For instance, the nitrogen in fertilizers gets converted into nitrate that seeps into groundwater. When ingested, nitrates form nitrosamines which have been found to cause tumor growths in animal studies. 3. Water Disinfection By-Products (THMs) are another issue. Although disinfection of the drinking water supply with chemicals like chlorine has dramatically reduced outbreaks of waterborne illnesses and deaths, research has suggested that long-term exposure to disinfection by-products may elevate cancer risk. Hundreds of disinfection by-products have been identified, but only a few are monitored. Even fewer have been tested for carcinogenicity. One common category of by-products are trihalomethanes, which form when chlorine and/or bromine combine with organic material in the water, such as decomposing leaves or animal waste. Some examples of THMs that may exist in drinking water are chloroform and bromoform. 4. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are chem


When you recycle a drink can, which metal is it you are recovering?

How to Recycle Metals: 6 Steps (with Pictures) - wikiHow How to Recycle Metals Community Q&A Recycling metal items from your household waste is an excellent way to save energy and help reduce the waste piles. This article provides an overview of which metals you can recycle and the forms that you're likely to find them in in your household; it will also provide some advice on what is likely not to be recyclable at most recycling depots! Steps 1 Contact local recycling facilities to see what is available to you, what types of materials they accept, and other guidelines they may have. Once you have done this, you can look for good materials to bring in for recycling. 2 Recycle aluminum . Aluminum is very lucrative for the recycling companies and recycled aluminum requires only 5 percent of the energy required for making it from scratch. Here are some of the items to consider recycling: Aluminum candy bar wrappers. Note that many wrappers might look like aluminum, but are actually tin foil and may not be recyclable. Ask your recycling facility. Aluminum plates Brass 6 Know which metals are not recyclable. There are a number of metallic items that won't be recyclable at most depots (although it never hurts to ask). The following items provide an idea of what is mostly likely not recyclable: Containers used for paint or aerosols - dispose of properly Toxic products - must be disposed of properly in accordance with relevant laws Clothes hangers (but there is a range of amazing things you can reuse these for, like a panty hose sculpture and more !) Your local dry cleaners may take hangers. Pieces of metal - make craft from scrap metal where possible Pipes (unless they are copper) Community Q&A If this question (or a similar one) is answered twice in this section, please click here to let us know. Video This video provides a few tips on recycling frozen juice containers, which contain plastic and cardboard in addition to metal. Tips Check out metal prices online to see whether or not you should be recycling for profit or just for doing a good deed. Note that what can and cannot be recycled depends on your local recycling capacities. Some of the items in this article may or may not be recyclable in your region, dependent on recycling capacity. This guide is general in nature; it pays to call and find out what is accepted. Things You'll Need Recycling depot Information about what your local depot does and does not accept for recycling; this differs from region to region and country to country and is dependent on demand


What is the name of the liquid rock which pours from a volcano? - YouTube What is the name of the liquid rock which pours from a volcano? Want to watch this again later? Sign in to add this video to a playlist. Need to report the video? Sign in to report inappropriate content. The interactive transcript could not be loaded. Loading... Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Published on Aug 1, 2013 This improves the knowledge of the children indirectly as they never know that they are learning. - Category


What is the term applied to the process of gathering together weather forecasts from various recording stations?

Weather Forecasting facts, information, pictures | Encyclopedia.com articles about Weather Forecasting COPYRIGHT 2003 The Gale Group, Inc. Weather forecasting Weather forecasting is the attempt by meteorologists to predict the state of the atmosphere at some future time and the weather conditions that may be expected. Weather forecasting is the single most important practical reason for the existence of meteorology as a science. It is obvious that knowing the future of the weather can be important for individuals and organizations. Accurate weather forecasts can tell a farmer the best time to plant, an airport control tower what information to send to planes that are landing and taking off, and residents of a coastal region when a hurricane might strike. Humans have been looking for ways to forecast the weather for centuries. The Greek natural philosopher Theophrastus wrote a Book of Signs, in about 300 b.c. listing more than 200 ways of knowing when to expect rain, wind , fair conditions, and other kinds of weather. Scientifically-based weather forecasting was not possible until meteorologists were able to collect data about current weather conditions from a relatively widespread system of observing stations and organize that data in a timely fashion. By the 1930s, these conditions had been met. Vilhelm and Jacob Bjerknes developed a weather station network in the 1920s that allowed for the collection of regional weather data. The weather data collected by the network could be transmitted nearly instantaneously by use of the telegraph, invented in the 1830s by Samuel F. B. Morse. The age of scientific forecasting, also referred to as synoptic forecasting, was under way. In the United States , weather forecasting is the responsibility of the National Weather Service (NWS), a division of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) of the Department of Commerce. NWS maintains more than 400 field offices and observatories in all 50 states and overseas. The future modernized structure of the NWS will include 116 weather forecast offices (WFO) and 13 river forecast centers, all collocated with WFOs. WFOs also collect data from ships at sea all over the world and from meteorological satellites circling Earth . Each year the Service collects nearly four million pieces of information about atmospheric conditions from these sources. The information collected by WFOs is used in the weather forecasting work of NWS. The data is processed by nine National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP). Each center has a specific weather-related responsibility: seven of the centers focus on weather prediction—the Aviation Weather Center, the Climate Prediction Center, the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center, the Marine Prediction Center, the Space Environment Center, the Storm Prediction Center, and the Tropical Prediction Center—while the other two centers develop and run complex computer models of the atmosphere and provide support to the other centers—the Environmental Prediction Center and NCEP Central Operations. Severe weather systems such as thunderstorms, tornadoes, and hurricanes are monitored at the National Storm Prediction Center in Norman, Oklahoma , and the National Hurricane Center in Miami , Florida . Hurricane watches and warnings are issued by the National Hurricane Center's Tropical Prediction Center in Miami, Florida, (serving the Atlantic, Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico , and eastern Pacific Ocean ) and by the Forecast Office in Honolulu , Hawaii , (serving the central Pacific). WFOs, other government agencies, and private meteorological services rely on NCEP's information, and many of the weather forecasts in the paper, and on radio and television, originate at NCEP. Global weather data are collected at more than 1,000 observation points around the world and then sent to central stations maintained by the World Meteorological Organization, a division of the United Nations. Global data also are sent to NWS's NCEPs for analysis and publication. The less one knows about the way the atmosphere works the simp


What kind of natural phenomenon 'meanders'?

15 weird natural phenomena [PICS] - Matador Network 15 weird natural phenomena [PICS] by Sarah Park August 27, 2010 Sarah Park brings us some of the most dangerous, beautiful, and downright weird wonders of the natural world. 1 Bioluminescent red tide When conditions are just right, ocean phytoplankton reproduce like bunnies, creating a thick, visible layer near the surface. These algae blooms (a.k.a "red tide") might look disgusting during the day, but in parts of California and other places where the bioluminescent variety of Noctiluca scintillans bloom, red tide nights look out of this world. This particular variety of phytoplankton glows blue when agitated, transforming the dark ocean into a giant lava lamp. Watch the waves light up as they crash, run across the sand to see the ground glow under your feet, or dive in to be surrounded by the bizarre Timex-y glow. N. scintillans is also the culprit behind the Bioluminescent Bays in Puerto Rico . Photo: catalano82 2 Foxfire During the late summer, a faint, eerie glow can be seen in forests around the world, where bioluminescent mushrooms grow on moist, rotting bark. The greatest diversity of foxfire occurs in the tropics, where moist forests encourage fungal growth. The newest varieties of glow-in-the-dark mushrooms were introduced to the world just last year, after being collected from Ribeira Valley Tourist State Park near Sao Paulo, Brazil. To up your chances of seeing this one, hunt in the forest during its wettest season and move as far as possible from any artificial light sources. And f you happen to see a patch of glowing shrooms, don't even think about it -- they're not that kind of mushroom . Photo: Ylem 3 Fire rainbow Another summertime occurrence, fire rainbows appear when sunlight hits frozen ice crystals in high-altitude cirrus clouds. Because the fire rainbow actually involves no rain at all, scientists would rather we refer to this occurrence by its much less fun, but much more accurate title: the circumhorizonal arc. Since the arc requires both the presence of cirrus clouds and for the sun to be extremely high in the sky, it's much more likely to be seen at latitudes closer to the equator. Conditions might be right for a fire rainbow in Los Angeles six months out of the year, but in a more northern city like London, that window drops to a mere two months. The photo above was taken in West Virginia . Photo: Jeff Kubina Intermission 4 Nacreous clouds For those of you a bit farther away from the equator, there's still plenty to see in the sky. Nacreous clouds (also called mother-of-pearl clouds) are extremely rare, but unmistakeable in the dark hours before dawn or after sunset. Because of their extremely high altitudes, they reflect sunlight from below the horizon, shining it down brightly, in stark comparison to the regular ol' dark clouds in the troposphere. The lower stratosphere, where nacreous clouds live, is so dry that it often prevents cloud formation, but the extreme cold of polar winters makes this beautiful phenomenon possible. Captured best during winter at high latitudes, nacreous clouds have been spotted in Iceland , Alaska, Northern Canada, and very rarely, farther south in England. Photo: Thomas Larsen RÃ¸ed 5 Snow rollers Snow rollers are formed when a thick layer of snow falls on top of a layer of ice. If the temperature and wind speed are right, chunks of snow can break loose and start rolling. As they're blown along the ground like wintry tumbleweeds, they pick up additional snow along the way. The inner layers are often weaker and less compact, allowing them to be blown easily away by the wind, leaving a large, naturally formed snow donut. Because of the precise temperature and wind speeds required to create this effect, snow rollers are a rare sight, but have made headlines with their appearances in parts of North America and the UK . Photo: jah~ 6 Columnar basalt A natural volcanic formation, columnar basalt has a seemingly man-made appearance. The (mostly) hexagonal columns form naturally as thick lava rapidly cools, contract


What is the collective name for rain hail, snow, and sleet?

Hail or Sleet, How to Tell the Difference Hail or Sleet, How to Tell the Difference By By: Kristen Connolly February 21, 2013, 8:25:21 AM EST There are two easy facts to differentiate between hail and sleet: time of year and size. Using these essentials, it is easy to identify what kind of frozen precipitation is falling. Hail: Hail occurs during severe weather. Hail is the formed when an object, including dust or particles in the air, collides with supercooled water. As the water freezes around the object, it begins to form an ice pellet. To understand this, you have to remember that warm air rises and cool air sinks (the same as heating or cooling in your house) this is because colder air is more dense than warmer air. Normally, warm air is very buoyant in the clouds that are associated with thunderstorms. This buoyancy causes these clouds to rise higher into the atmosphere past the freezing level. The length of time the ice pellet stays in the cloud is a representation of how large it will be when it falls to the ground. How does it increase in size? Inside the cloud, there are a series of updrafts. The pellet will continue to be tossed up and down, adding layers of ice, until it becomes too heavy for the updraft. When the hail becomes too heavy, it then falls to the ground. Usually accompanying severe thunderstorms, hail can be a variety of sizes, many times correlating with the intensity of the thunderstorms. Certain hail can get as large as golf balls, softballs or even larger! The largest hailstone ever found was in Vivian, S.D., it weighed 1.9 pounds and measured 8 inches in diameter with an 18.5-inch circumference. Sleet Sleet occurs during winter weather and is a type of winter precipitation. All precipitation falls out of a cloud as snow. In certain instances, in the winter, the snowflake will go through a warmer layer and begin to melt. As it continues to fall, it will then proceed through a colder layer and freeze into an ice pellet or ball, very similar to hail. Unlike hail, the pellet only "falls" once and is generally very tiny in size.


What is the hardest natural substance known? | Flexiguru What is the hardest natural substance known? Class 10th Chemistry Mahesh Kumar The hardest natural substance is diamond which is an allotrope of carbon. It has superlative physical qualities which originated from the strong covalent bonding between its atoms. The carbon atoms are arranged in a variation of the face-centred cubic crystal structure called a diamond lattice. Kamal Sharma Diamond. It's carbon packed extremely tightly together, which makes it pretty much unbreakable. This is also part of the reason why diamonds are so highly valued no one wants their diamond ring to fall to the ground and shatter into a million pieces. Diamond is currently thought to be the hardest natural material on Earth, having a hardness of ten out of ten on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness. Diamond is made up of carbon atoms which share strong covalent bonds (where electrons are shared between atoms) and are equally spaced in a lattice arrangement. These atoms cannot move, which is what makes diamonds so hard.


The Crow Society What do      you call a grouping of Crows? A murder Many birds live alone, but crows live in a group called a murder. Most people would call it a Flock of Crows. One could think of a      murder of Crows to be the "poetic term" .  The word for      this grouping appears in the title of the short story  "Murders      in the Rue Morgue" is a well-known short story by Edgar Allan Poe. This is all things to the "collective noun". In fact a murder is not      the only collective noun for a grouping of crows. A horde, hover, muster, parcel are also listed as collective nouns for      Crows. The most famous of them all is "a murder. A collective noun is a noun that is singular in formal shape but      denotes a group of referents. These are also called group nouns.      Sometimes, usually in grammatical discussions, collective noun is also      used to refer to plural-only words such as people or cattle. It gets crazy when you start to look at all of the A collective nouns.      Here are just a short list!


What is the maximum speed of a garden snail: 0.03 mph, 0.3 mph, or 3 mph?

Speed of a Snail - The Physics Factbook Speed of a Snail The World Almanac and Book of Facts 1999. New Jersey: Primedia, 1998: 572. "Garden snail, 0.03 mph" 0.013 m/s Branson, Branley Allan. World & I. 11, 5 (May 1996): 166. "A large banana slug has been observed to cover 6.5 inches in 120 minutes. At that rate, a tortoise would seem fleet-footed." 0.000023 m/s The Guinness Book of World Records 1998. Stanford, CT: Guinness, 1997: 144. "A garden snail named Archie, owned by Carl Branhorn of Pott Row, England, covered a 13 inch course in 2 minutes at the 1995 World Snail Racing Championships, held in Longhan, England." 0.0028 m/s Snails and slugs are gastropods, which make up the largest class of mollusks  with more than 60,000 species. Most of these species can be identified by their  shells. Some dwell in ocean, others in the freshwater of rivers, ponds, and lakes.  Land snails abound in tropical jungles and in damp temperate regions. All of them  need calcium carbonate for building their shells, and so are not common in sandy  soil. Slugs differ from snails in that they generally have only a small internal  shell. Snails move by sliding on their single foot. Specialized glands in the foot  secrete mucus, which lubricates the path over which the snail crawls. Snails can  only crawl. Even those that live in water can't swim. As they crawl they secrete  a slime to help themselves move across surfaces. Snails and slugs travel at speeds  that vary from slow (0.013 m/s) to very slow (0.0028 m/s). The snail's head bears the mouth opening and one or two pairs of tentacles.  The eyes are located at the base of the tentacles. Most snails live off plants  and dead organic matter, although a few are carnivorous. Their radula is a tongue-like  projection of their mouth which is lined with small sharp teeth. Some snails obtain  food by using their radula to drill holes in the shells of other mollusks. Freshwater snails and land snails have been eaten by people since prehistoric  times. Today they are still regarded as a delicacy in many countries. The market  supply comes largely from snails that are raised in captivity on special farms  in southern France, Italy, and Spain. About 10,000 snails can be kept in a 9 square  meter area, where they are fed meal, vegetables, and bran. Angie Yee -- 1999


What common mineral is formed by the fossilization of vegetation?

Rocks, Minerals, and Fossils Rocks, Minerals, and Fossils From Grolier's New Book of Popular Science A geologist studies a rock outcrop. Scott Orr/iStockphoto Rocks are subjected to a variety of physical and chemical conditions such as heat, weather, and erosion, which can change rocks from one kind to another. Grolier Growing up during the 1950s, Jack Horner wandered the hills and gullies of Montana, head down and eyes open, looking at rocks. At age 8, he found his first dinosaur bone. Today Horner is the world's best-known "dinosaur hunter." He searches for their fossil remains in rock beds from Mexico to Mongolia. Although few people will pursue rock or fossil hunting as a career, most everyone has, from time to time, stooped down to pick up an unusual rock, a pretty crystal, or a fossilized shell. This is hands-on geology, because the history of Earth is contained in its rocks, minerals, and fossils. Learning about their formation and forms can enhance one's appreciation of Earth's geologic history, and perhaps inspire a lifelong hobby. ROCKS Although almost everyone knows what a rock looks like, far fewer people can name its defining characteristics. A rock can be defined as a naturally formed solid that consists of particles of one or more natural substances such as mineral grains, glass, and fragments of plant debris. By the term "naturally formed," geologists exclude from this definition human-made solids such as concrete. With the term "solid," most geologists also exclude loose substances such as silt, clay, and sand from their definition of a rock. But sometimes it can be difficult to distinguish a loose material such as sand from a solid rock such as sandstone. To simplify matters, many geologists follow a simple rule: if you need a hammer to break it, it is a rock. This is not to say that rocks always remain in a solid state. Under great pressure, rocks can melt. Indeed, natural glass—a common type of rock—is formed by supercooling molten rock, or magma. Most rocks consist of a mixture of more than one substance, usually a variety of minerals and organic substances. Coal, for example, typically contains fragments of ancient plant debris, called macerals, mixed with assorted mineral grains. Most volcanic rocks contain a mixture of mineral grains and glass. Sometimes particles of a single mineral form the bulk of a rock, as calcite does in limestone. Rocks form the outer layer, or crust, of Earth. The rocks that can be seen on the surface or reached by digging through the soil are called bedrock. Over the centuries, geologists have mapped the bedrock of regions large and small. They have found that rocks of similar types underlie many large regions of the world. From these, geologists have developed three basic categories of rock, distinguished by the processes that form them. Igneous rock forms when molten rock below Earth's surface cools enough to solidify. The crust of the primitive Earth is believed to have once consisted entirely of igneous rock. Sedimentary rock, as its name implies, consists of sediment—particles of dissolved and weathered rock, as well as the remains of decayed plants and animals. Typically, sedimentary rock forms when such particles collect in oceans, lake beds, and other places, where they become cemented together in layers over hundreds or thousands of years. Metamorphic rock forms when preexisting rock sinks, without melting, deep into Earth, where it is twisted and deformed or chemically changed by heat, pressure, or chemicals. The processes that can transform one type of rock into another comprise the rock cycle. Traditionally the cycle is said to begin with igneous rock, which is weathered to sedimentary rock, and then transformed into metamorphic rock. But shortcuts in this cycle often occur. For example, a metamorphic rock may be weathered away to sediment without passing through the igneous stage. Similarly, igneous rock deep in the ground may be deformed into metamorphic rock without passing through the sedimentary stage. Igneous Rock. As magma cools, the elements flowing wi


In which part of the atmosphere is the ozone layer?

The Ozone  Layer The ozone layer is a  layer in Earth's atmosphere which contains relatively high  concentrations of ozone (O3). This layer absorbs 97-99% of the sun's  high frequency ultraviolet light, which is potentially damaging to life  on earth. Over 90% of ozone in earth's atmosphere is present here  "Relatively high" means a few parts per million—much higher than the  concentrations in the lower atmosphere but still small compared to the  main components of the atmosphere. It is mainly located in the lower  portion of the stratosphere from approximately 15 km to 35 km above  Earth's surface, though the thickness varies seasonally and  geographically. A dobson unit is the most basic measure used in ozone research.One  Dobson Unit (DU) is defined to be 0.01 mm thickness at STP (standard  temperature and pressure). Ozone layer thickness is expressed in terms  of Dobson units, which measure what its physical thickness would be if  compressed in the Earth's atmosphere. In those terms, it's very thin  indeed. A normal range is 300 to 500 Dobson units, which translates to  an eighth of an inch-basically two stacked pennies.      In space, it's best not to envision the ozone layer as a distinct,  measurable band. Instead, think of it in terms of parts per million  concentrations in the stratosphere (the layer six to 30 miles above the  Earth's surface). The unit is named after G.M.B. Dobson, one of the first scientists to  investigate atmospheric ozone . A thinning ozone layer  leads to a number of serious health risks for humans. It causes greater  incidences of skin cancer and cataract of the eye, with children being  particularly vulnerable. There are also serious impacts for  biodiversity. Increased UV-B rays reduce levels of plankton in the  oceans and subsequently diminish fish stocks. It can also have adverse  effects on plant growth, thus reducing agricultural productivity.  Another negative effect is the reduced lifespan of certain materials. Severe depletion of the  Antarctic ozone layer was first observed in the early 1980s. The  international response embodied in the Montreal Protocol. Today 191  countries worldwide have signed the Montreal Protocol which is widely  regarded as the most successful Multinational Environmental Agreement  ever reached to date. Furthermore the phasing  out of ozone depleting substances (ODS) has helped to fight climate  change since many ODS are also powerful greenhouse gases.


Which Indian state is at the eastern end of the Himalayas?

Indian Himalayan States - ENVIS on Himalayan Ecology, GBPIHED, Almora Indian Himalayan States % share of geographical area in the  Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) 1 JAMMU & KASHMIR Jammu & Kashmir, located in the extreme north of the country, is situated between 320 17' and 370 5' N latitudes and 720 40' and 800 30' E longitudes. It is bounded on north by China, on east by Tibet, on south by Himachal Pradesh and Punjab and on west by Pakistan. Geographically, this state is divided into four zones ï¿½ the mountainous and semi-mountainous plain known as Kandi belt, hills including Siwalik ranges, mountains of Kashmir valley and Pir Panjal range, and Tibetan tract of Ladakh and Kargil. The state has a number of lakes, rivers, rivulets and glacial regions. The important rivers of this state are Indus, Chenab and Sutlej (Jhelum). There are extreme variations in climate in the state due to its location and topography. The climate of the state varies from tropical in Jammu plains to semi-arctic cold in Ladakh with Kashmir and Jammu mountainous tracts having temperate climatic conditions. The temperature of this state varies spatially. Leh is coldest and Jammu is the hottest region in the state. In the winter nights, temperature goes down below zero and very often heavy snowfall occurs during November to February. The annual rainfall varies from region to region with 92.6 mm in Leh, 650.5 mm in Srinagar and 1,115.9 mm in Jammu. Geologically, the state represents constituted rocks varying from the oldest period of the earthï¿½s history to the youngest present day river and lake deposits.   Jammu & Kashmir at a glance Geographical area (km2) Agriculture (80% of total occupation) Major industries Handicrafts & handlooms *Included 78,114 and 37,555 km2 occupied by Pakistan and China, respectively, and 5,180 km2 handed over by Pakistan to China #Provisional figure of 2002 from SRS, Office of the Registrar General of India, Ministry of Home Affairs. HIMACHAL PRADESH Himachal Pradesh lies between the latitudes 30o 23' ï¿½ 33 o 13' N and longitudes 75 o 43' -79 o 4' E. The state is bounded by Uttarakhand on the southeast, Tibet on the east, Punjab on the west and southwest, Haryana on south and Jammu & Kashmir on the north. It is situated in the northwest corner of the India; right in the lap of Himalayan ranges. The altitudinal variation ranges between 460 meters to 6,600 meters above mean sea level. The state is divided into three zones ï¿½ the Siwaliks or the outer Himalaya, the low mountains which have less altitude in comparison to great mountains in the middle, and the zone of the Zanskar (high peaks of Himalaya). Many parts of this state are snow bound from December to April. Numerous passes and glaciers are found in this state. Most important rivers of this state are ï¿½ Chenab (Chandrabhaga), Ravi (Iravati), Sutlej (Shatadru), Beas (Vipasa) and Yamuna (Jamuna). The Chenab flows 122 km inside Himachal Pradesh before it enters Jammu & Kashmir. Yamuna has a catchments area of 2,320 km2 in Himachal Pradesh. The climate of northern part or the glacial region of this state is almost cool throughout the year.  In winter, snowfall continues until March and could be as high as three meters on the average. The southern part has similarity with the plains and varies from hot to sub-humid. The state experiences cold season from October to middle of March, hot seasons from April to June, and rainy season begins from July and goes upto September.   Himachal Pradesh at a glance Geographical Area                   #Provisional figure of 2002 from SRS, Office of the Registrar General of India, Ministry of Home Affairs.    UTTARAKHAND            Uttarakhand is located between 28o 43' ï¿½ 31o 27' N latitudes and 77o 34' ï¿½ 81o 02' E longitudes. The river Tons separates the state from Himachal Pradesh in the north-west, whereas the river Kali separates it from Nepal in the east. The greater Himalaya is the northern boundary of the state and is also the international boarder with China (Tibet). Foot-hills


What is the name of the atmospheric gas which screens out the sun's harmful ultraviolet radiation?

Ultraviolet Radiation: How It Affects Life on Earth : Feature Articles   By Jeannie Allen · September 6, 2001 The sun radiates energy in a wide range of wavelengths, most of which are invisible to human eyes. The shorter the wavelength, the more energetic the radiation, and the greater the potential for harm. Ultraviolet (UV) radiation that reaches the Earths surface is in wavelengths between 290 and 400 nm (nanometers, or billionths of a meter). This is shorter than wavelengths of visible light, which are 400 to 700 nm. People and plants live with both helpful and harmful effects of ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun. (Photograph courtesy Jeannie Allen) UV radiation from the sun has always played important roles in our environment, and affects nearly all living organisms. Biological actions of many kinds have evolved to deal with it. Yet UV radiation at different wavelengths differs in its effects, and we have to live with the harmful effects as well as the helpful ones. Radiation at the longer UV wavelengths of 320-400 nm, called UV-A, plays a helpful and essential role in formation of Vitamin D by the skin, and plays a harmful role in that it causes sunburn on human skin and cataracts in our eyes. The incoming radiation at shorter wavelengths, 290-320 nm, falls within the UV-B part of the electromagnetic spectrum. (UV-B includes light with wavelengths down to 280 nm, but little to no radiation below 290 nm reaches the Earth’s surface). UV-B causes damage at the molecular level to the fundamental building block of life deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Electromagnetic radiation exists in a range of wavelengths, which are delineated into major divisions for our convenience. Ultraviolet B radiation, harmful to living organisms, represents a small portion of the spectrum, from 290 to 320 nanometer wavelengths. (Illustration by Robert Simmon) DNA readily absorbs UV-B radiation, which commonly changes the shape of the molecule in one of several ways. The illustration below illustrates one such change in shape due to exposure to UV-B radiation. Changes in the DNA molecule often mean that protein-building enzymes cannot read the DNA code at that point on the molecule. As a result, distorted proteins can be made, or cells can die. Ultraviolet (UV) photons harm the DNA molecules of living organisms in different ways. In one common damage event, adjacent bases bond with each other, instead of across the ladder. This makes a bulge, and the distorted DNA molecule does not function properly. (Illustration by David Herring) But living cells are smart. Over millions of years of evolving in the presence of UV-B radiation, cells have developed the ability to repair DNA. A special enzyme arrives at the damage site, removes the damaged section of DNA, and replaces it with the proper components (based on information elsewhere on the DNA molecule). This makes DNA somewhat resilient to damage by UV-B. In addition to their own resiliency, living things and the cells they are made of are protected from excessive amounts of UV radiation by a chemical called ozone. A layer of ozone in the upper atmosphere absorbs UV radiation and prevents most of it from reaching the Earth. Yet since the mid-1970s, human activities have been changing the chemistry of the atmosphere in a way that reduces the amount of ozone in the stratosphere (the layer of atmosphere ranging from about 11 to 50 km in altitude). This means that more ultraviolet radiation can pass through the atmosphere to the Earths surface, particularly at the poles and nearby regions during certain times of the year. Without the layer of ozone in the stratosphere to protect us from excessive amounts of UV-B radiation, life as we know it would not exist. Scientific concern over ozone depletion in the upper atmosphere has prompted extensive efforts to assess the potential damage to life on Earth due to increased levels of UV-B radiation. Some effects have been studied, but much remains to be learned.


Deepest Oceans and Seas of the World - Worldatlas.com Pacific Ocean (35,837 ft) (10,924 meters) Atlantic Ocean (30,246 ft) (9,219 meters) Indian Ocean (24,460 ft) (7,455 meters) Southern Ocean (23,737 ft) (7,236 meters) Caribbean Sea (22,788 ft) (6,946 meters) Arctic Ocean (18,456 ft) (5,625 meters) South China Sea (16,456 ft) (5,016 meters) Bering Sea (15,659 ft) (4,773 meters) Mediterranean Sea (15,197 ft) (4,632 meters) Gulf of Mexico (12,425 ft) (3,787 meters)


Which is the largest animal ever to have inhabited the Earth?

What is the biggest animal ever to exist on Earth? | HowStuffWorks What is the biggest animal ever to exist on Earth? Sebastien Burel/ Dreamstime.com By considerable measure, the largest known animal on Earth is the blue whale . Mature blue whales can measure anywhere from 75 feet (23 m) to 100 feet (30.5 m) from head to tail, and can weigh as much as 150 tons (136 metric tons). That's as long as an 8- to 10-story building and as heavy as about 112 adult male giraffes! These days, most adult blue whales are only 75 to 80 feet long; whalers hunted down most of the super giants. Female blue whales generally weigh more than the males. The largest blue whale to date is a female that weighed 389,760 pounds (176,792 kg). A blue whale's head is so wide that an entire professional football team -- about 50 people -- could stand on its tongue. Its heart is as big as a small car , and its arteries are wide enough that you could climb through them. Even baby blue whales dwarf most animals. At birth, a blue whale calf is about 25 feet (7.6 m) long and weighs more than an elephant. And they do grow up fast: During the first 7 months of its life, a blue whale drinks approximately 100 gallons (379 liters) of its mother's milk per day, putting on as much as 200 pounds (91 kg) every 24 hours. An adult blue whale can eat more than 4 tons (3.6 metric tons) of krill, a tiny shrimp-like creature, every day. A Whale of a World Marine Mammal Quiz This puts blue whales well above any known land mammal in terms of size. Most people believe that the largest animals to ever exist on Earth were the dinosaurs . However, one of the largest land dinosaurs, the sauropod Argentinosaurus, weighed only about 180,000 pounds (81,647 kg). That's little more than half the size of an adult blue whale. It makes a lot of sense that the world's largest animal would be a sea creature. Land animals have to support their own weight, whereas sea creatures get some help from the water. It is believed that at one time there were more than 200,000 blue whales. There are only about 10,000 blue whales now -- they've been on the endangered list since the mid-1960s -- and the population is not expected to recover.


What once covered 14% of the Earth's land area, but by 1991 over half had been destroyed?

deforestation CONTACT US DEFORESTATION Rainforests once covered 14% of the earth's land surface; now they cover a mere 6% and experts estimate that the last remaining rainforests could be consumed in less than 40 years.  Deforestation accounts for about 20% of global emissions of CO2 December 2015: Three trillion trees on planet Earth – what it means.  link Full article below in first section.   Google has developed an interactive map to show forest change around the planet.   link             ______________________________________________________________  Latest news: Nov. 24 2016: Protected forests in Europe felled to meet EU renewable targets. Protected forests are being indiscriminately felled across Europe to meet the EU’s renewable energy targets, according to an investigation by the conservation group Birdlife. Up to 65% of Europe’s renewable output currently comes from bioenergy, involving fuels such as wood pellets and chips, rather than wind and solar power. Bioenergy fuel is supposed to be harvested from residue such as forest waste but, under current legislation, European bioenergy plants do not have to produce evidence that their wood products have been sustainably sourced. In Slovakia, the drive to reach the EU’s renewable energy targets has seen a 72% increase in the use of wood for bioenergy since 2007, according to Birdlife . link         link The scale of deforestation - link Dec. 7 2015: Three trillion trees on planet Earth – what it means. A Yale University science team came to an estimate for the number of trees on Planet Earth - 3,041,000,000,000 - saying it is interesting to know the number of trees in the world but asking why is it useful? It is our duty as scientists to help environmental stewards and decision-makers by filling critical gaps in our knowledge. In the face of climate change - one of the most significant global threats to life as we know it – we are faced with one clear challenge: we must remove carbon from the atmosphere. Despite all of our best technological advances, it is nature that provides us with our single most effective weapons in this fight against rising CO2 concentrations. Trees absorb carbon directly from the atmosphere to be stored in their biomass and the soil. The United Nations Environment Programme ( Unep ) and  Plant for the Planet  designed the ambitious "Billion Tree Campaign". The problem was that no-one had any idea how many trees there were to start with. Without a baseline understanding of the Earth's forests, it was difficult to comprehend the impacts of these restoration efforts. By using strict criteria for the information that we include (e.g. using only trees with trunks equal to or larger than 10 cm diameter), and incorporating a huge amount of data into our predictive equations, the margin of error around this global estimate was exceptionally small (192 billion trees). By combining satellite technology with ground-sourced information collected by local forestry experts around the world, the most detailed map of the world's forests to date was generated. It revealed that the Earth's forests are home to approximately 3.041 trillion trees. Therefore one billion additional trees would only represent an increase of 0.03% on top of the current global number. In addition, the study revealed that we lose approximately 10 billion trees each year, so even if the billion tree campaign was repeated annually, it would not get us much closer to the goal of halting the net global forest loss. With new information, UNEP and Plant for the Planet’s new target is to restore one trillion trees, and work has begun in earnest - the total number of trees planted to date already exceeds 14 billion. link October 2015: Indonesia has the world's highest rate of deforestation, even higher than Brazil, which contains most of the Amazon rainforest. From 2000 to 2012, according to research published in  Nature , Indonesia lost more than 23,000 square miles of forest to logging, agriculture, and other uses. That's roughly the size of West Virginia. In 2010, the government attemp


Effective Communication at Pepsi Co - Term Paper Effective Communication at Pepsi Co Which Indian state is at the eastern end of the Himalayas? A: Assam. What is the name of the atmospheric gas which screens out the sun's harmful ultraviolet radiation? A: Ozone. What is the world's deepest ocean? A: Pacific. Which is the largest animal ever to have inhabited the Earth? A: Blue Whale. What once covered 14% of the Earth's land area, but by 1991 over half had been destroyed? A: Rainforest. Which inland sea between Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan is fast disappearing because the rivers that feed it have been diverted and dammed? A: Aral Sea. The damaged Chernobyl nuclear power station is situated in which country? A: Ukraine. What type of rock is granite? A: Igneous. What type of rock is basalt? A: Igneous. What is the main constituent of natural gas? A: Methane. What is the term for nutrient enrichment of lakes? A: Eutrophication. Which of the Earth's atmospheric layers reflects radio waves? A: Ionosphere. Which gas forms 80% of Earth's atmosphere? A: Nitrogen. In which mountain chain would you find Mount Everest? A: Himalayas. What is the collective term for substances such as coal, oil and natural gas, the burning of which produces carbon dioxide? A: Fossil fuel. What contributes to the greenhouse effect at lower atmospheric levels, but in the upper atmosphere protects life on Earth? A: Ozone. What is the name of the process by which substances are washed out of the soil? A: Leaching. Who was director of the environmental pressure group Friends of the Earth 1984 - 90? A: Jonathon Porritt. Which European country is committed to decommissioning all of its nuclear reactors? A: Sweden. Which Canadian city gave its name to the 1987world agreement on protection of the ozone layer? A: Montreal. Five-legged creatures have damaged which 1250 mile long wonder of the world? A: Great Barrier Reef.


The damaged Chernobyl nuclear power station is situated in which country?

What is Chernobyl? | The Chernobyl Gallery Chernobyl in 2010 What is the Chernobyl Disaster? The Chernobyl nuclear disaster began early in the early hours of Saturday 26 April 1986 within the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant. An explosion and fire released large quantities of radioactive contamination into the atmosphere, which spread over much of Western USSR and Europe. It is considered the worst nuclear power plant accident in history and is one of only two classified as a level 7 event on the International Nuclear Event Scale (the other being the Fukushima nuclear disaster in 2011).   Aerial view of Reactor Four The disaster began during a systems test at reactor number four of the Chernobyl plant. There was a sudden surge of power output, and when an emergency shutdown was attempted a more extreme spike in power output occurred, which led a reactor vessel to rupture and a series of explosions. These events exposed the graphite moderator of the reactor to air, causing it to ignite. The resulting fire sent a plume of highly radioactive smoke into the atmosphere and over an extensive geographical area. The plume went on to drift over large parts of the western Soviet Union and Europe. According to official post-Soviet data about 60% of the radioactive fallout landed in Belarus.   Increased radiation dose across Europe The battle to contain the contamination and avert a greater catastrophe ultimately involved over 500,000 workers, known as liquidators ,  and cost an estimated 18 billion Rubles. Only after the level of radiation set off alarms at the Forsmark Nuclear Power Plant in Sweden, over one thousand kilometers from the Chernobyl Plant, did the Soviet Union publicly admit that an accident had occurred. The true scale of the disaster was concealed. After evacuating the nearby city of Pripyat, the following warning message was read on state TV:   “There has been an accident at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant. One of the nuclear reactors was damaged. The effects of the accident are being remedied. Assistance has been provided to any affected people. An investigative commission has been set up.” – 28 April 1986, 21:00     From 1986 to 2000, over 350,000 people were evacuated and resettled from the most severely contaminated areas of Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine. Thirty one deaths are directly attributed to the accident, all among the reactor staff and emergency workers. Estimates of the number of deaths potentially resulting from the accident vary enormously. A UNSCEAR report places the total confirmed deaths from radiation at 64 as of 2008. The World Health Organization (WHO) suggests it could reach 4,000 civilian deaths, a figure which does not include military clean-up worker casualties. A 2006 report predicted 30,000 to 60,000 cancer deaths as a result of Chernobyl fallout. A Greenpeace report puts this figure at 200,000 or more. The Russian publication, Chernobyl, concludes that 985,000 premature cancer deaths occurred worldwide between 1986 and 2004 as a result of radioactive contamination from Chernobyl.   “Nearly 400 million people resided in territories that were contaminated with radioactivity at a level higher than 4 kBq/m2 (0.11 Ci/km2) from April to July 1986. Nearly 5 million people (including, more than 1 million children) still live with dangerous levels of radioactive contamination in Belarus, Ukraine, and European Russia.” Chernobyl: Consequences of the Catastrophe for People and the Environment (PDF; 4,3 MB) 2009   A massive concrete and metal structure, a sarcophagus , was hastily constructed to encase Unit 4 as an emergency measure to halt the release of radiation into the atmosphere following the 1986 disaster.   What is the Exclusion Zone? The “Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Zone of Alienation” is the officially designated exclusion area around the site of the Chernobyl nuclear reactor disaster. It is commonly known as the “Chernobyl Exclusion Zone” or simply “The Zone”. Established soon after the disaster by the Russian military to cover the areas worst affected by radioactive contamination it wa


Granite - Igneous Rock Types Igneous Rock Types Pictures of Igneous Rock Types Use Deep Earth and Other Planets Granite consists of quartz (gray), plagioclase feldspar (white) and alkali feldspar (beige) plus dark minerals, in this case biotite and hornblende . (more below) "Granite" is used by the public as a catch-all name for any light-colored, coarse-grained igneous rock. The geologist examines these in the field and calls them granitoids pending laboratory tests. The key to true granite is that it contains sizable amounts of quartz and both kinds of feldspar. This article goes much deeper into granite . This granite specimen comes from the Salinian block of central California, a chunk of ancient crust carried up from southern California along the San Andreas fault. Pictures of other granite specimens appear in the granite picture gallery . Also see the granite landforms of Joshua Tree National Park . And big closeup pictures of granite are available in the closeup rock wallpaper photos . Photo Credit: Photo (c) 2004 Andrew Alden, licensed to About.com ( fair use policy )


Basalt: Igneous Rock - Pictures, Definition, Uses & More Basalt What Is Basalt, How Does It Form, and How Is It Used? Basalt: A fine-grained igneous rock that is usually black in color. The specimen shown is about two inches (five centimeters) across. What is Basalt? Basalt is a dark-colored, fine-grained, igneous rock composed mainly of plagioclase and pyroxene minerals. It most commonly forms as an extrusive rock, such as a lava flow, but can also form in small intrusive bodies, such as an igneous dike or a thin sill. It has a composition similar to gabbro . The difference between basalt and gabbro is that basalt is a fine-grained rock while gabbro is a coarse-grained rock. Olympus Mons Volcano: This shield volcano is composed of basalt and has enormous calderas at the summit. Olympus Mons is the highest topographic feature on Mars and is the largest known volcano in our solar system. It is about 375 miles (600 kilometers) in diameter and 15 miles (25 kilometers) high. NASA Mars Orbiter Camera image. Earth's Most Abundant Bedrock Basalt underlies more of Earth's surface than any other rock type. Most areas within Earth's ocean basins are underlain by basalt. Although basalt is much less common on continents, lava flows and flood basalts underlie several percent of Earth's land surface. Basalt is a very important rock. Basalt on Moon and Mars Basalt is also an abundant rock on the Moon. Much of the Moon's surface is underlain by basaltic lava flows and flood basalts. These areas of the Moon are known as "lunar maria." Large areas of the Moon have been resurfaced by extensive basalt flows which may have been triggered by major impact events. The ages of lunar maria can be estimated by observing the density of impact craters on their surface. Younger basalt flows will have fewer craters. Olympus Mons is a shield volcano on Mars. It, like most other volcanic features on Mars, was formed from basaltic lava flows.  It is the highest mountain on Mars and is the largest known volcano in our solar system. Basalt-Forming Environments: This map shows the location of oceanic divergent boundaries and hotspots. These are locations where large volumes of basalt have been formed. Map copyright by Geology.com and MapResources. Locations generalized after United States Geological Survey, Geologic Investigations Map I-2800: This Dynamic Planet. Igneous rock composition chart: This chart shows that basalt is typically composed of pyroxenes, plagioclase, micas, and amphiboles. Basalt-Forming Environments Most of the basalt found on Earth was produced in just three rock-forming environments:  1) oceanic divergent boundaries , 2) oceanic hotspots , and 3) mantle plumes and hotspots beneath continents . The images on this page feature some of these basalt-forming environments. Sea floor pillow basalts on the Juan de Fuca Ridge, a divergent plate boundary located about 150 miles (240 kilometers) west of the Washington-Oregon coast. This lava flow, produced by a fissure eruption, was about five years old when the photograph was taken. NOAA Ocean Explorer image. Hawaii Basalt Flows: Lava flows dump into the Pacific Ocean on the coast of Hawaii. Multiple locations where hot lava streams into the ocean can be seen in this image along with a red-hot lava flow traversing the lava field. This photo shows the enormous extent of the flows. They extend from the shoreline up to the horizon. A volcanic plume from the Pu`u `O`o vent can be seen over the horizon near the center of the image. The lava in these flows originated from the Pu`u `O`o vent. USGS image. Basalts at Oceanic Divergent Boundaries Most of Earth's basalt is produced at divergent plate boundaries on the mid-ocean ridge system (see map). Here convection currents deliver hot rock from deep in the mantle. This hot rock melts as the divergent boundary pulls apart, and the molten rock erupts onto the sea floor.  These submarine fissure eruptions often produce pillow basalts as shown in the image on this page. The active mid-ocean ridges host repeated fissure eruptions.


What is the main constituent of natural gas?

Components of Natural Gas - Enbridge Gas Distribution Components of Natural Gas Components of Natural Gas Properties of Natural Gas Natural gas is a colourless, tasteless, odourless, and non-toxic gas. Because it is odourless, mercaptan is added to the natural gas, in very small amounts to give the gas a distinctive smell of rotten eggs. This strong smell can alert you of a potential gas leak . Natural gas is about 40 per cent lighter than air, it has a high ignition temperature and a narrow flammability range, meaning natural gas will ignite at temperatures above 1,000 degrees and burn at a mix of approximately 4-15 per cent volume in air. For more information on natural gas, visit the  Canadian Gas Association . To learn more about the physical properties of natural gas, download our Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS): Fiche technique pour le gaz naturel Chemical Composition of Natural Gas Natural gas is primarily composed of methane, but also contains ethane, propane and heavier hydrocarbons. It also contains small amounts of nitrogen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and trace amounts of water. The monthly average chemical compositions of natural gas for Victoria Square, which supplies the Greater Toronto Area, are provided below:


Which of the Earth's atmospheric layers reflects radio waves?

The Atmosphere and Radio Waves | Ionosphere The Atmosphere and Radio Waves View More The atmosphere plays a vital role in the way in which radio waves travel around the earth. Without its action it would not be possible for signals to travel around the globe on the short wave bands, or travel greater than only the line of sight distance at higher frequencies. with an interest in the topic. Copyright: Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)   THE ATMOSPHERE AND RADIO WAVES The atmosphere plays a vital role in the way in which radio waves travel around the earth.Without its action it would not be possible for signals to travel around the globe on the shortwave bands, or travel greater than only the line of sight distance at higher frequencies. Infact the way in which the atmosphere affects radio is of tremendous importance for anyonewith an interest in the topic.In view of the importance of the atmosphere an overview of its make-up is given here. Layers of the Atmosphere The atmosphere can be split up into a variety of different layers according to their properties. As different aspects of science look at different properties there is no singlenomenclature for the layers. The system that is most widely used is that associated with.Lowest is the troposphere that extends to a height of 10 km. Above this at altitudesbetween 10 and 50 km is found the stratosphere. This contains the ozone layer at a heightof around 20 km. Above the stratosphere, there is the mesosphere extending from analtitude of 50 km to 80 km, and above this is the thermosphere whereThere are two main layers that are of interest from a radio viewpoint. The first is thetroposphere that tends to affect frequencies above 30 MHz. The second is the ionosphere.This a region which crosses over the boundaries of the meteorological layers and extendsfrom around 60 km up to 700 km. Here the air becomes ionised, producing ions and freeelectrons. The free electrons affect radio waves at certain frequencies, often bending themback to earth so that they can be heard over vast distances around the world.     Troposphere The lowest of the layers of the atmosphere is the troposphere. This extends from groundlevel to an altitude of 10 km. It is within this region that the effects that govern our weather occur. To give an idea of the altitudes involved it is found that low clouds occur at altitudesof up to 2 km whereas medium level clouds extend to about 4 km. The highest clouds arefound at altitudes up to 10 km whereas modern jet airliners fly above this at altitudes of upto 15 km.Within the troposphere there is generally a steady fall in temperature with height and thishas a distinct bearing on some propagation modes which occur in this region. The fall intemperature continues in the troposphere until the tropopause is reached. This is the areawhere the temperature gradient levels out and then the temperature starts to rise. At thispoint the temperature is around -50 ºC.The refractive index of the air in the troposphere plays a dominant role in radio signalpropagation. This depends on the temperature, pressure and humidity. When radio signalsare affected this often occurs at altitudes up to 2 km. The ionosphere The ionosphere is an area where there is a very high level of free electrons and ions. It isfound that the free electrons affect radio waves. Although there are low levels of ions andelectrons at all altitudes, the number starts to rise noticeably at an altitude of around 30 km.However it is not until an altitude of approximately 60 km is reached that the it rises to asufficient degree to have a major effect on radio signals.The overall way in which the ionosphere is very complicated. It involves radiation from thesun striking the molecules in the upper atmosphere. This radiation is sufficiently intensethat when it strikes the gas molecules some electrons are given sufficient energy to leavethe molecular structure. This leaves a molecule with a deficit of one electron that is calledan ion, and a free electron. As might be expected the most common molecules to beionised ar


Which gas forms 80% of Earth's atmosphere?

Introduction to the Atmosphere: Background Material Introduction to the Atmosphere This section provides a brief overview of the properties associated     with the atmosphere. The general concepts found in this section are: The earth's atmosphere is a very thin layer wrapped around a very      large planet. Two gases make up the bulk of the earth's atmosphere: nitrogen ( ),      which comprises 78% of the atmosphere, and oxygen ( ),      which accounts for 21%. Various trace gases make up the remainder. Based on temperature, the atmosphere is divided into four layers:      the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere. Energy is transferred between the earth's surface and the atmosphere      via conduction, convection, and radiation. Ocean currents play a significant role in transferring this heat poleward.      Major currents, such as the northward flowing Gulf Stream, transport      tremendous amounts of heat poleward and contribute to the development      of many types of weather phenomena. This section includes seven classroom activities. Atmospheric Properties The thin envelope of air that surrounds our planet is a mixture of gases, each  with its own physical properties. The mixture is far from evenly divided. Two  elements, nitrogen and oxygen, make up 99% of the volume of air. The other 1%  is composed of "trace" gases, the most prevalent of which is the inert gaseous  element argon. The rest of the trace gases, although present in only minute  amounts, are very important to life on earth. Two in particular, carbon dioxide  and ozone, can have a large impact on atmospheric processes. Another gas, water vapor, also exists in small amounts. It varies in concentration  from being almost non-existent over desert regions to about 4% over the oceans.  Water vapor is important to weather production since it exists in gaseous, liquid,  and solid phases and absorbs radiant energy from the earth. Structure of the Atmosphere The atmosphere is divided vertically into four layers based on  temperature: the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere,  and thermosphere. Throughout the Cycles unit, we'll focus primarily on  the layer in which we live - the troposphere. Troposphere The word troposphere comes from tropein, meaning to turn or change.  All of the earth's weather occurs in the troposphere. The troposphere has the following characteristics. It extends from the earth's surface to an average of 12 km (7 miles). The pressure ranges from 1000 to 200 millibars (29.92 in. to 5.92      in.). The temperature generally decreases with increasing height up to      the tropopause (top of the troposphere); this is near 200 millibars      or 36,000 ft. The temperature averages 15°C (59°F) near the surface        and -57°C (-71°F) at the tropopause. The layer ends at the point where temperature no longer varies        with height. This area, known as the tropopause, marks the transition        to the stratosphere. Winds increase with height up to the jet stream. The moisture concentration decreases with height up to the tropopause. The air is much drier above the tropopause, in the stratosphere. The sun's heat that warms the earth's surface is transported upwards       largely by convection and is mixed by updrafts and downdrafts. The troposphere is 70% Atmospheric Processes Interactions - Atmosphere and Ocean In the Cycles overview, we learned that water is an essential part of the earth's  system. The oceans cover nearly three-quarters of the earth's surface and play  an important role in exchanging and transporting heat and moisture in the atmosphere. Most of the water vapor in the atmosphere comes from the oceans. Most of the precipitation falling over land finds its way back to oceans. About two-thirds returns to the atmosphere via the water cycle. You may have figured out by now that the oceans and atmosphere interact extensively.  Oceans not only act as an abundant moisture source for


In which mountain chain would you find Mount Everest?

Mountains, Mountain Range Information, Facts, News, Photos -- National Geographic Space Photograph by George Mobley Mountains are the wrinkles of age and pimples of youth on Earth's crusty outer skin. They rise up as the crust collides, cracks, crumbles, folds, and spews. By definition, they dominate their surroundings with towering height. The mighty chunks rise all over the world, including the oceans. They usually have steep, sloping sides and sharp or rounded ridges. The highest point is called the peak or summit. Most geologists classify a mountain as a landform that rises at least 1,000 feet (300 meters) or more above its surrounding area. A mountain range is a series or chain of mountains that are close together. The world's tallest mountain ranges form when pieces of Earth's crust—called plates—smash against each other, in a process called plate tectonics, and buckle up like the hood of a car in a head-on collision. The Himalaya in Asia formed from one such massive wreck that started about 55 million years ago. Thirty of the world’s highest mountains are in the Himalaya. The summit of Mount Everest, at 29,035 feet (8,850 meters), is the highest point on Earth. The tallest mountain measured from top to bottom is Mauna Kea, an inactive volcano on the island of Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean. Measured from the base, Mauna Kea stands 33,474 feet (10,203 meters) tall, though it only rises 13,796 feet (4,205 meters) above the sea. Types of Mountains Volcanic mountains form when molten rock from deep inside the Earth erupts through the crust and piles up on itself. The island chain of Hawaii is actually the tops of volcanoes. Well-known volcanoes on land include Mount St. Helens in Washington State and Mount Fuji in Japan. Sometimes volcanic eruptions break down mountains instead of building them up, like the 1980 eruption that blew the top off Mount St. Helens. When magma pushes the crust up but hardens before erupting onto the surface, it forms so-called dome mountains. Wind and rain pummel the domes, sculpting peaks and valleys. Examples include the Black Hills of South Dakota and the Adirondack Mountains of New York. Plateau mountains are similar to dome mountains, but form as colliding tectonic plates push up the land without folding or faulting. They are then shaped by weathering and erosion. Other types of mountains form when stresses within and between the tectonic plates lead to cracking and faulting of the Earth's surface, which forces blocks of rock up and down. Examples of fault-block mountains include the Sierra Nevada in California and Nevada, the Tetons in Wyoming, and the Harz Mountains in Germany. Mountains often serve as geographic features that define natural borders of countries. Their height can influence weather patterns, stalling storms that roll off the oceans and squeezing water from the clouds. The other side is often much drier. The rugged landscapes even provide refuge—and protection—for fleeing and invading armies.


What is the collective term for substances such as coal, oil and natural gas, the burning of which produces carbon dioxide?

» Natural Gas and the Environment NaturalGas.org The Natural Gas Industry and the Environment Emissions from the Combustion of Natural Gas Natural gas is the cleanest of all the fossil fuels, as evidenced in the Environmental Protection Agency’s data comparisons in the chart below, which is still current as of 2010. Composed primarily of methane, the main products of the  combustion  of natural gas are carbon dioxide and water vapor, the same compounds we exhale when we breathe. Coal and oil are composed of much more complex molecules, with a higher carbon ratio and higher nitrogen and sulfur contents. This means that when combusted, coal and oil release higher levels of harmful emissions, including a higher ratio of carbon emissions, nitrogen oxides (NOx), and sulfur dioxide (SO2). Coal and fuel oil also release ash particles into the environment, substances that do not burn but instead are carried into the atmosphere and contribute to pollution. The combustion of natural gas, on the other hand, releases very small amounts of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, virtually no ash or particulate matter, and lower levels of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and other reactive hydrocarbons. Fossil Fuel Emission Levels Source: EIA – Natural Gas Issues and Trends 1998   Natural gas, as the cleanest of the fossil fuels, can be used in many ways to help reduce the emissions of pollutants into the atmosphere. Burning natural gas in the place of other fossil fuels emits fewer harmful pollutants, and an increased reliance on natural gas can potentially reduce the emission of many of these most harmful pollutants. Pollutants emitted in the United States, particularly from the combustion of fossil fuels, have led to the development of many pressing environmental problems. Natural gas, emitting fewer harmful chemicals into the atmosphere than other fossil fuels, can help to mitigate some of these environmental issues. These issues include: Greenhouse Gas Emissions Source: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change-2007 Global warming, or the ‘greenhouse effect’ is an environmental issue that deals with the potential for global climate change due to increased levels of atmospheric ‘greenhouse gases’. There are certain gases in our atmosphere that serve to regulate the amount of heat that is kept close to the earth’s surface. Scientists theorize that an increase in these greenhouse gases will translate into increased temperatures around the globe, which would result in many disastrous environmental effects. In fact, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predicts in its ‘Fourth Assessment Report’ released in 2007 that during the 21st century, global average temperatures are expected to rise by between 2.0 and 11.5 degrees Fahrenheit.  A Fifth Assessment Report is expected to be released by the IPCC between 2013 and 2015. Power Plants Contribute to the Emission of Greenhouse Gases Source: API The principle greenhouse gases include water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen oxides, and some engineered chemicals such as cholorofluorocarbons. While most of these gases occur in the atmosphere naturally, levels have been increasing due to the widespread burning of fossil fuels by growing human populations. The reduction of greenhouse gas emissions has become a primary focus of environmental programs in countries around the world. One of the principle greenhouse gases is carbon dioxide. Although carbon dioxide does not trap heat as effectively as other greenhouse gases (making it a less potent greenhouse gas), the sheer volume of carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere is very high, particularly from the burning of fossil fuels. In fact, according to the Energy Information Administration in its December 2009 report ‘Emissions of Greenhouse Gases’ in the United States, 81.3 percent of greenhouse gas emissions in the United States in 2008 came from energy-related carbon dioxide. Source: EIA-Emissions of Greenhouse Gases Report 2009 Because carbon dioxide makes up such a high proportion of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions, reduc