What secret society traces its origins to Medieval stone workers?

Masons Secrets: Freemason Society Masons: Freemason Society The Secret Society of Masons "George Washington was a Mason, along with 13 other presidents and numerous Supreme Court Justices . Benjamin Franklin published a book about Freemasonry on his own printing press. Nine signers of the Declaration of Independence were Freemasons, including the man with the biggest signature: Jon Hancock."    ~~  MSNBC article on the Freemasons society aka Masons secret society titled "Secrets of 'The Lost Symbol,'" 10/27/09 Dear friends, Few understand the degree to which secret societies like the Masons (a.k.a. Freemasons society) wield power and control behind the scenes in our world. 14 out of the 43 U.S. presidents were Masons. That's one out of three presidents. Yet most people know very little about this secretive organization. Key major media articles have given a glimpse of the inordinate power of top secret societies, yet the media in general seem reluctant to investigate deeply and to inform us what's happening behind closed doors with the Freemasons and other powerful secret societies. In Europe of the middle ages and beyond, the Catholic Church ruled with an iron fist. Galileo was placed under house arrest till the day he died for claiming the Earth revolved around the sun. In those oppressive times, secret societies served a vital function, as they were one of the very few ways to preserve and foster knowledge suppressed by the church. Yet whenever there is secrecy, the potential for corruption and manipulation increases dramatically. In this modern era of the Internet and easy access to knowledge, does the secrecy of the Masons and other secret societies play a useful role in our world? Is there a good purpose today for the most rich and powerful people in the world to meet behind closed doors without any public scrutiny? The engaging MSNBC article below discusses key, little-known facts about the Masons and Freemasonry based on Dan Brown's blockbuster The Lost Symbol . Brown's novel paints the Masons in a very positive light, yet it also reveals their immense power. Why is it that so few people know about the Masonic origins of the U.S. and the incredible number of members of the global elite who belong to the Freemasons society and other secretive groups even now. Key statements are highlighted in bold for those who prefer to skim. And as I have extensively researched secret societies for years, I've added my own comments in italics at various places in this article to present another viewpoint based on reliable, verifiable information I have obtained. Take the time educate yourself on these important groups and help to educate others, so that we can shine light into these shadows. Please help to spread the word on this powerful, yet little-known aspect of our world. With best wishes for a transformed world, Secrets Of 'The Lost Symbol' Inside Dan Brown's latest thriller and the untold tales of our nation's capital By Matt Lauer: 'Today' anchor Dateline NBC This report aired on Dateline NBC on Friday, Oct. 15, 2009 Imagine the scene: a mysterious temple, its entrance guarded by massive stone columns and sphinxes. Inside, strange symbols, ancient inscriptions, and mystical numbers lead to a room shaped like a pyramid, with an eye that points toward the heavens, and in the center of the floor, a massive altar. Some of the most powerful men in the country gather here to enact an ancient, secret ritual, drinking wine meant to represent blood from a human skull, and all of it happening just a mile from the U.S. Capitol. It sounds like a work of fiction, and it does come from one – the opening scene of Dan Brown's best-selling novel, "The Lost Symbol." But Brown makes a remarkable claim: that the ritual is real, part of the history of the secretive brotherhood called the Freemasons. Skull and Bones, the infamous Yale secret society, uses similar secret symbols operating out of a foreboding building called the "Tomb." George W. Bush, his father, his grandfather, and John Kerry are just a few of their prominent membe


"What war was depicted in Picasso's painting ""Guernica""?"

15 Fascinating Facts About Picasso's ‘Guernica’ | Mental Floss 15 Fascinating Facts About Picasso's ‘Guernica’ getty images Like us on Facebook You already know Pablo Picasso’s 1937 painting Guernica is among his most revered works, but do you know how and why he created the anti-war masterpiece? 1. GUERNICA WAS A COMMISSIONED PAINTING. As the 1937 World’s Fair approached, members of Spain’s democratic government wanted the Spanish pavilion at Paris’ International Exposition Dedicated to Art and Technology to feature a mural that would expose the atrocities of Generalissimo Francisco Franco and his allies. Naturally, these organizers set their sights on one of Spain’s most celebrated painters, Pablo Picasso, who had first gained recognition in the 1910s with his adoption of cubist artistic expression. 2. PICASSO HADN’T BEEN TO SPAIN IN OVER THREE YEARS. Picasso didn’t have to go far to work on a piece for the Paris exhibition—he had lived in France since 1904. An expat who was vocal about his opposition to the militant autocracy of his home country, Picasso crafted the tribute to the war-torn Spanish city without having set foot within the nation’s borders since 1934. He would never return to Spain. 3. FRANCO’S FORCES BLAMED THE BOMBING DEPICTED IN THE PAINTING ON THEIR RIVALS. Picasso’s painting depicts the bombing of the Basque town of Guernica on April 26, 1937. Franco’s German and Italian allies in the Spanish Civil War carpet-bombed Guernica, a stronghold of Republican opposition to Franco’s Nationalists, for hours. Casualty estimates vary from 200 to 1000 deaths. To make matters worse, Franco and his allies blamed the horrific attack on Republican forces. 4. AN ARTICLE IN THE TIMES INSPIRED PICASSO. Picasso didn’t witness the Guernica atrocities firsthand, but he was deeply moved by a report of the event written by South African-British journalist George Steer for The Times. The article, titled, “ The Tragedy of Guernica: A Town Destroyed in Air Attack: Eye-Witness’s Account ,” was attributed in print to “Our Special Correspondent.” 5. HE BEGAN WORKING ON THE PAINTING AT THE LAST MINUTE. Getty Images Picasso was so affected by Steer’s Guernica story that he scrapped all pending plans to devote himself to the pavilion mural. The artist began work on what would be one of his earliest politically inclined pieces on May 1, 1937, approximately three weeks before the scheduled launch of the exhibit. Guernica was not completed until early June, about two weeks after the pavilion opened. 6. PICASSO SIMULTANEOUSLY PUT TOGETHER ANOTHER CRITIQUE OF FRANCO. The fact that Picasso cranked out what is now known as one of the most famous paintings of the 20th century in just over a month is impressive enough in its own right, but Guernica wasn’t even the sole focus of the artist’s attention during this time. In January 1937, Picasso had published a set of etching and aquatint prints, collectively titled The Dream and Lie of Franco . On June 7 of the same year, around the same time that he delivered Guernica to the Spanish pavilion, Picasso added a second batch of images to The Dream and Lie of Franco. 7. AN EARLY VERSION OF THE PAINTING WAS MORE EMPOWERING. Unsurprisingly, Guernica evolved between its inception and completion. One of Picasso’s earliest drafts of the painting included a raised fist, a universal symbol of solidarity in resistance to oppression. Opponents of Franco’s reign had embraced the emblem during the Spanish Civil War. Picasso depicted the fist empty-handed at first, then grasping a sheaf of grain . Ultimately, he deleted the image altogether. 8. ANOTHER STAGE OF GUERNICA INVOLVED COLOR. Guernica is one of history’s most recognizable grayscale paintings, but at one point during the piece’s development, Picasso entertained the idea of adding color to the project. He included a red teardrop sprouting from a crying woman’s eye, as well as swatches of colored wallpaper. None of these elements made the final cut. 9. PICASSO REFUSED TO TALK ABOUT THE PAINTING’S SYMBOLISM. Scholars have long tried to decode the signi


What Russian empress had affairs with many men?

8 Things You Didn’t Know About Catherine the Great - History in the Headlines 8 Things You Didn’t Know About Catherine the Great July 9, 2012 By Barbara Maranzani Share this: 8 Things You Didn’t Know About Catherine the Great Author 8 Things You Didn’t Know About Catherine the Great URL Google Catherine II of Russia (1729-1796) was one of history's most unlikely rulers. After marrying into Russia's Romanov family, she found herself part of a coup to unseat her husband and place her on the throne. The achievements of her reign, which lasted for 34 years, have often been overshadowed by her personal life, one of the most scandalous of her—or any—era. However, behind the rumor and gossip lay one of the most astute and skillful rulers in Russia's long, turbulent history. Here are some facts you may not know about Catherine the Great. 1. Catherine the Great’s name wasn’t Catherine, and she wasn’t even Russian. The woman whom history would remember as Catherine the Great, Russia’s longest-ruling female leader, was actually the eldest daughter of an impoverished Prussian prince. Born in 1729, Sophie von Anhalt-Zerbst enjoyed numerous marital prospects due to her mother’s well-regarded bloodlines. In 1744, 15-year-old Sophie was invited to Russia by Czarina Elizabeth, a daughter of Peter the Great who had assumed the Russian throne in a coup just three years earlier. The unmarried and childless Elizabeth had chosen her nephew Peter as heir and was now in search of his bride. Sophie, well trained by her ambitious mother and eager to please, made an immediate impact on Elizabeth, if not her intended husband. The marriage took place on August 21, 1745, with the bride (a new convert to Orthodox Christianity) now bearing the name Ekaterina, or Catherine. 2. Catherine’s eldest son—and heir—may have been illegitimate. Catherine and her new husband had a rocky marriage from the start. Though the young Prussian princess had been imported to produce an heir, eight years passed without a child. Some historians believe Peter was unable to consummate the marriage, while others think he was infertile. Desperately unhappy in their married lives, Peter and Catherine both began extramarital affairs, she with Sergei Saltykov, a Russian military officer. When Catherine gave birth to a son, Paul, in 1754, gossips murmured that Saltykov—not Peter—had fathered him. Catherine herself gave credence to this rumor in her memoirs, going so far as to say that Empress Elizabeth had been complicit in permitting Catherine and Saltykov’s relationship. While historians today believe that Catherine’s claims were simply an attempt to discredit Peter and that he was indeed Paul’s father, there is little debate over the paternity of Catherine’s three additional children: It’s believed that none of them were fathered by Peter. Catherine the Great on her wedding day. 3. Catherine came to power in a bloodless coup that later turned deadly. Elizabeth died in January 1762, and her nephew succeeded to the throne as Peter III, with Catherine as his consort. Eager to put his own stamp on the nation, he quickly ended Russia’s war with Prussia, an act that proved deeply unpopular to Russia’s military class. A program of liberal domestic reforms aimed at improving the lives of the poor also alienated members of the lower nobility. These unhappy factions turned to Catherine, who was also fearful of Peter’s intentions. As tensions mounted, a plan to overthrow Peter took root. When the conspiracy was uncovered in July 1762, Catherine moved quickly, gaining the support of the country’s most powerful military regiment and arranging for her husband’s arrest. On July 9, just six months after becoming czar, Peter abdicated, and Catherine was proclaimed sole ruler. However, what had began as a bloodless coup soon turned deadly. On July 17 Peter was murdered by Alexei Orlov, the brother of Catherine’s current lover Gregory. Though there is no proof that Catherine knew of the murder before it happened, it cast a pall over her reign from the start. 4. Catherine faced down more than a doz


How many pence were in a pound prior to 1971?

The History of Decimalisation in Britain By  Ben Johnson   |   Comments Prior to 1971, there were 12 pennies to the shilling and 20 shillings to the pound. There were guineas, half crowns, threepenny bits, sixpences and florins. This old system of currency, known as pounds, shillings and pence or lsd, dated back to Roman times when a pound of silver was divided into 240 pence, or denarius, which is where the 'd' in 'lsd' comes from. (lsd: librum, solidus, denarius ). To prepare the nation for the changeover in currency systems, the Decimal Currency Board (DCB) was set up, running a public information campaign in the two years prior to the switchover on Monday 15 February 1971, also known as Decimal Day. Three years before changeover, new 5p and 10p coins were introduced; these were the same size and worth the same amount as the one and two shilling coins. In 1969 a new 50p coin was introduced to replace the old 10 bob (shilling) note. The banks were closed for four days before changeover to prepare. Currency converters were available for everyone, and prices in the shops were shown in both currencies. This went some way to alleviate the feeling many people had, that shopkeepers might use the conversion from old money to new to increase prices! Cafe price list circa 1960 with prices in shillings and pence 'Decimal Day' ran without a hitch. Although the elderly generation found it more difficult to adapt to decimalisation, in general the population readily embraced the new currency and the oft-used phrase of the 1970’s "How much is that in old money?" is now more commonly used in reference to metrication. For a short time the old and new currencies operated in unison, whereby people could pay in pounds, shillings and pence and receive new money as change. Originally it was planned that old money would be phased out of circulation over eighteen months, but as it turned out, the old penny, halfpenny and threepenny coins were officially taken out of circulation as early as August 1971. from l to r:  shilling, farthing, threepenny bit It was originally intended that the new unit of currency would be referred to as ‘new pence’ to distinguish it from the old money, but this was quickly adapted to the abbreviation ‘pee’, which we still use today. The term ‘decimal currency’ describes any currency that is based on one basic unit with a sub-unit which is a power of 10, most commonly 100, and comes from the Latin word decem, meaning ten. In comparison to the rest of the world, Britain lagged behind in the decimalisation stakes. Having converted to the ruble (equal to 100 kopecks) in 1704, Russia became the world’s first country to adopt a decimal currency, followed by the 1795 introduction of the franc in the wake of the French Revolution. from l to r:  sixpence (or tanner), half crown, half penny  Whilst Britain and our nearest neighbour Ireland did not convert to decimalisation until 1971, this was not the first time Britain had considered decimalisation. As far back as 1824 Parliament had considered decimalising the British currency. In 1841,the Decimal Association was founded in support of both decimalisation and use of the SI metric system, the international standard for physical measurements which had been adopted by France in the 1790s and has since been widely introduced across the world (although interestingly the metric system has still not been fully implemented in the UK). However despite the introduction of the two shilling silver florin in 1849, worth one-tenth of a pound, and the double florin (a four-shilling piece) in 1887, there was little development towards decimalisation in Britain for nearly a century. It was not until 1961, in the wake of South Africa’s successful move to decimalisation that the British Government introduced the Committee of the Inquiry on Decimal Currency, whose 1963 report resulted in the final agreement to adopt decimalisation on 1 March 1966, with the approval of the Decimal Currency Act in May 1969.   Whilst various names for a new unit of currency had been suggested – such as the new pou


Hippodromes and Circuses were arenas for what sport?

images   The Hippodrome Theatre stood in New York City from 1905 to 1939, on the  site of a what is now a large modern office building known as "The  Hippodrome Center", at 1120 Avenue of the Americas, in the Theater  District of Midtown Manhattan. It was called the world's largest theatre  by its builders. The Hippodrome was built by Frederick Thompson and Elmer Dundy, creators  of the Luna Park amusement park at Coney Island. The theatre was located  on Sixth Avenue, now named Avenue of the Americas, between Forty-third  and Forty-fourth streets. Its auditorium seated 5,300 people and it was  equipped with what was then the state of the art in theatrical  technology. The theatre was acquired by The Shubert Organization in  1909. Construction With J. H. Morgan as architect, the Hippodrome first opened in 1905 with  a seating capacity of 5,200, and is still considered as one of the true  wonders of theatre architecture. Its stage was 12 times larger than any  Broadway "legit" house and capable of holding as many as 1,000  performers at a time, or a full-sized circus with elephants and horses.  It also had an 8,000-gallon clear glass water tank that could be raised  from below the stage by hydraulic pistons for swimming-and-diving shows. The glory years For a time the Hippodrome was the largest and most successful theater in  New York. The Hippodrome featured lavish spectacles complete with circus  animals, diving horses, opulent sets, and 500-member choruses. Until the  end of World War I, the Hippodrome housed all sorts of spectacles then  switched to musical extravaganzas produced by Charles Dillingham,  including "Better Times," which ran for more than 400 performances. When Dillingham left in 1923 to pursue other interests, the Hippodrome  was leased to Keith-Albee, which hired Thomas Lamb to turn it into a  vaudeville theatre by building a much smaller stage and discarding all  of its unique features. The most popular vaudeville artists of the day,  including illusionist Harry Houdini, performed at the Hippodrome during  its heyday. Others might vanish rabbits, but in 1918, on the  brightly-lit stage of the Hippodrome, Houdini made a 10,000-pound  elephant disappear. He created a sensation. When Houdini fired a pistol,  Jennie vanished from view. The Hippodrome's huge running costs made it a perennial financial  failure, and a series of producers tried and failed to make money from  the theatre. It became a location for vaudeville productions in 1923  before being leased for budget opera performances, finally becoming a  sports arena. Decline and fall In 1922, the elephants that graced the stage of the Hippodrome since its  opening moved uptown to the Bronx's Royal Theater. On arrival, stage  worker Miller Renard recalled, the elephants were greeted with  extraordinary fanfare: The next day the Borough President gives them a dinner on the lawn of  the Chamber of Commerce up on Tremont Avenue, with special dinner menus  for the elephants. It was some show to see all those elephants march up  those steps to the table where each elephant had a bail of hay. The[n],  the Borough President welcomes the elephants to the Bronx, and the place  is just mobbed with people. And that was the worst week's business we  ever done in that theatre. In 1925, movies were added to the vaudeville, but within a few years,  competition from the newer and more sumptuous movie palaces in the  Broadway-Times Square area forced Keith-Albee-Orpheum, which was merged  into RKO by May 1928, to sell the theatre. Several attempts to use the  Hippodrome for plays and operas failed, and it remained dark until 1935,  when producer Billy Rose leased it for his spectacular Rodgers & Hart  circus musical, Jumbo, which received favorable reviews but lasted only  five months due to the Great Depression. After that, the Hippodrome sputtered through bookings of late-run  movies, boxing, wrestling, and Jai Lai games before being demolished in  1939 as the val


Who was the Supreme Commander of the Allied forces in Europe during WWII?

Dwight David Eisenhower   Introduction For some time, military historians have been exploring the proposition that service in the Armed Forces of our Nation has been instrumental in preparing a notable number of Americans for positions of senior leadership in the government. Military service played a vital role, for example, in the development of such leaders as Andrew Jackson, Theodore Roosevelt, and Harry Truman. In our own times, perhaps no man better exemplifies this proposition than Dwight David Eisenhower, General of the Army and the thirty-fourth President of the United States. Today, the name Eisenhower is synonymous with dynamic leadership in a complex international environment. But in 1941, this remarkable soldier was nearing the end of an undistinguished military career that had afforded him few opportunities to demonstrate his leadership. Yet, within three years and under the intense pressure of a global war, he rose to become Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces in Europe. The leadership skills that won the great land campaigns of the twentieth century did not come about overnight. They were the product of years of development-development that took place in the small peacetime Army of the 1920s and 30s. As we shape the force for the future, that example should serve as a source of inspiration for professionals throughout our ranks. With this publication, the Army joins in the Nation's remembrance of the 100th anniversary of Dwight Eisenhower's birth. At the same time, this commemoration provides us with a special opportunity to reflect on how military service has prepared so many Americans to contribute so much to the Nation and to the world. This booklet, prepared by the U.S. Army Center of Military History, will add to your understanding of a great American and help you appreciate the profound influence that a career of military service can have on the future of the Nation.   General of the Army Dwight David Eisenhower, Chief of Staff, United States Army. Portrait by Nicodemus Hufford, 1973   DWIGHT D. EISENHOWER Dwight D. Eisenhower was a master craftsman in the demanding art of leadership. For twenty years, first as a soldier and then as a statesman, he bore the daily responsibility for difficult decisions that had far-reaching consequences for the nation. An obscure Army officer in 1940, he was internationally known four years later as the Supreme Allied Commander who was leading the Allied armies, navies, and air forces in the crusade in Europe. But Eisenhower was more than just the coalition's chief soldier. He was also a statesman involved as deeply in arranging the political and diplomatic aspects of the alliance as the military. In the politico-military realm, he encountered the sorts of contentious international issues that could divide even friends and learned to mediate the conflicting demands of men and nations. In the process, he came personally to know the men who shaped the postwar world, leaders with whom he continued to deal as he became Army Chief of Staff in 1945, Commander in Chief of NATO forces in 1950, and President of the United States in 1953. As the 1930s drew to a close, however, Eisenhower had no expectations of such lofty duties. In 1940, he finally attained the rank of colonel, the limit of his aspirations through the previous twenty-five years of service. During the 1920s and into the mid1930s, there seemed little chance of another war and thus little chance for distinction. Nonetheless, like many of his generation of officers, Eisenhower diligently studied his profession, preparing himself for jobs he had no realistic expectation of ever holding. It was in those dusty years of peace that much of his schooling as a decision-maker took place. Preparation for High Command Dwight David, one of seven sons of David and Ida Eisenhower, was born 14 October 1890 in the little east Texas town of Denison. He grew up in Abilene, Kansas, where he absorbed the virtues of small town America that distinguished him the rest of his life-scrupulous honesty, self-reliance, determination, and


What famous train ran between Paris and Istanbul?

Ten Famous Trains Ten Famous Trains Trans-Siberian Express Traveling between Moscow and Vladivostok, the Trans-Siberian Express makes the longest regular train trip in the world, covering 5,778 mi and making 91 stops over the course of nine days. During the Cold War, Westerners could travel only in compartments, where they were subject to Stalinist propaganda played on loudspeakers. Blue Train The Blue Train has run between Cape Town and Pretoria, South Africa, since 1939 and derives its name from its blue locomotives, railroad cars, and leather seats. It is still considered one of the most luxurious trains running, having been upgraded in 1997 to include televisions and phones in all of its suites. Indian Pacific Connecting the east and west coasts of Australia, the Indian Pacific runs from Sydney to Perth in three days, over a distance of 2,461 mi. This route has the world's longest stretch of straight track, which lasts for 297 mi. Super Chief Originally operated by the Santa Fe Railway beginning in 1936, the Super Chief ran from Chicago to Los Angeles. It was considered one of the best long-distance trains in the U.S. and was renowned for its gourmet food and Hollywood clientele. Amtrak currently operates a long distance train over the same route. TGV The French TGV (train à grande vitesse, or high speed train) is an electric train system. Trains run between Paris and several other cities, regularly traveling at speeds as high as 186 mph. A modified TGV set a world speed record in 1990 when it hit 320 mph in trial runs. Orient Express In 1883 the Orient Express began service from Paris to Istanbul, crossing six countries. The train was famous for its five-course French meals and for its passengers, who were often diplomats, royalty, or government couriers. 20th Century Limited The 20th Century Limited debuted in 1902 as the New York Central's luxury train, operating between New York and Chicago. It traveled the smooth “water level route” alongside the Hudson River and the shores of Lake Erie. The railroad would roll out a crimson carpet to welcome passengers to the train, giving rise to the phrase the “red carpet treatment. Amtrak currently operates a long distance train over the same route.” The Flying Scotsman Running between King's Cross station in London and Edinburgh, Scotland, the Flying Scotsman was a luxury express train full of amenities. It featured a hairdressing salon, a Louis the XVI–style restaurant and bar, and, for a short time, a cinema coach. Peruvian Central Railway The highest railway in the world, the Peruvian Central Railway is an engineering marvel, climbing 13,000 ft on its trip from La Oroya to Lima, Peru. The railroad, which features 66 tunnels and 59 bridges, zigzags across valleys in order to minimize the steepness of its climb. There is an onboard doctor who administers oxygen to passengers who get altitude sickness. Bullet Train The Japanese Shinkansen, or Bullet Train, runs at speeds of more than 100 mph over special tracks with minimal curves. In 1997, a newer version of the Bullet Train became the fastest scheduled train in the world, regularly reaching speeds of up to 186 mph. —Mike Rozett


Who is said to have committed suicide via an asp bite?

Poison, not snake, killed Cleopatra, scholar says - CNN.com Poison, not snake, killed Cleopatra, scholar says By Melissa Gray, CNN Cleopatra died after drinking poisons and not snake bite, German scholar says Scholar worked with toxicologist to arrive at theory Findings to be presented on German television program Ancient writings show Cleopatra was familiar with poison, had tested some RELATED TOPICS Africa (CNN) -- Cleopatra, the queen of Egypt, died from drinking a mixture of poisons and not from a snake bite, a German historian said Wednesday. The theory by Christoph Schaefer, a professor of ancient history at Trier University, challenges the common, centuries-old belief that Cleopatra committed suicide with the bite of an asp. "It is certain that there was no cobra," Schaefer told CNN by phone Wednesday. An asp is a small venomous snake also called the Egyptian cobra. Schaefer said he studied historic writings and consulted a toxicologist to develop the theory, which is due to be featured Wednesday on the German channel ZDF as part of a program on the Egyptian queen. He also deduced that Cleopatra wouldn't have chosen to die by a snake bite because she was intent on suicide -- and a cobra, he said, is not always fatal. When a person does die from a cobra bite, he said, "it doesn't go quickly -- it is a horrible death," in which it takes hours to die and the victim suffers paralysis to parts of their body, including the eyes. Cleopatra died a "quiet and pain-free death," according to the Roman historian Cassius Dio, writing about 200 years after she died, Schaefer said. Ancient texts also say Cleopatra's two assistants died with her, but that would be unlikely if she had died of a snake bite, the historian said. Also, temperatures in August -- when Cleopatra committed suicide in 30 B.C. -- would have been so high that a snake probably wouldn't have stayed still enough to bite, he said. Ancient papyri show that Cleopatra knew about poisons, and one papyrus says she actually tested them, Schaefer said. Death by poison would make sense given the way in which Cleopatra wanted to die, and the fact that she died at the same time as her two handmaidens, he said. Schaefer said he worked with German toxicologist Dietrich Mebs to determine which poisons Cleopatra might have used. They decided it was hemlock, mixed with wolfsbane and opium. "Opium is quiet and with it, one can really fall into a deadly sleep," Schaefer said. Asked why the tale of the asp has lingered for more than 2,000 years, he said most people simply believed the common story. A cobra can be fatal, and Cleopatra has historically been pictured with one, "so it makes sense" for people to believe that version, he said. Many of the ancient depictions of Cleopatra with a cobra, however, were simply showing her reception in the afterlife, he said. It was only in the 15th century that painters first started showing Cleopatra with an asp on her arm, and later, they painted the snake on her breast. In Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra, she dies in the final scene from the bite of two asps -- one to her breast and one to her arm. Cleopatra ruled Egypt from 51 to 30 B.C. and was the last pharaoh before Egypt became a Roman province. She was Julius Caesar's mistress in Rome and, after he was assassinated, she returned to Egypt and began a relationship with Mark Antony, one of the three leaders of Rome after Caesar's death. Cleopatra joined Antony at the Battle of Actium in Greece. He committed suicide when his forces were defeated, and Cleopatra then returned to Egypt to do the same. Share this on:


The Mystery of Louis XVII - HistoryWiz more           information about this book The           fate of the “lost dauphin,” Louis XVII, has been           a subject of mystery for over 200 years. Did he die in prison? Did he escape and become a famous American           naturalist, or a German clockmaker, or an Episcopal minister           raised by Native Americans? All of these solutions, and more,           still have loyal supporters. The issue was laid to rest by           DNA testing in 2000. But this is a mystery that just won’t           die. There           is no question that Louis XVI and his wife Marie Antoinette           died under the guillotine during the French Revolution. It           is the fate of their 10 year old son, Louis Charles, who disappeared           in 1795, that is the mystery. After           the death of his father, Louis Charles was the uncrowned King           of France, Louis XVII. He and his sister were imprisoned with           their mother until July 3, 1793 when guards came in the dead           of night to remove the 8-year-old Louis from her arms. Marie           Antoinette resisted, clutching the child for nearly an hour,           arguing and pleading. Finally she bowed to the inevitable           and gave him up. As Marie Therese (Louis' sister) later recalled, "they threatened the lives of both him and me, and my           mother's maternal tenderness at length forced her to this           sacrifice." Louis was imprisoned alone in a small windowless           room. What happened next is at the heart of the mystery. The           official record states that Louis died in the Temple prison           at the age of 10 on June 8, 1795 from tuberculosis. But few           accepted the official verdict. Some said that he died of neglect,           some that he was murdered, and others that he did not die           at all, but was spirited away to safety and another child           put in his place. A doctor who had been summoned to treat           the dauphin died mysteriously the week before the boy's death.           His widow hinted that he had refused to take part in some           irregular practice on the patient. Rumors           flew. At first, it was widely believed both in France and           Britain that the Committee of Public Safety (the radical governing           body of the revolution) had murdered the child. Later public           opinion came to favor the escape theory. In 1814 the historian           of the newly restored French monarchy announced that Louis           Charles had escaped and was still alive. He would not reveal           his location however. The most common rumor was that royalists           substituted another child in his place and spirited him to           America where he would be safe. The           rumors did not fade with the passage of time. In 1846 authorities           exhumed the mass grave where the child was buried. Only one           showed evidence of tuberculosis. But he wasn't a perfect fit.           The body appeared to be that of a slightly older child, in           his middle to late teens. Of particular interest was the fact           that the boy had already cut a wisdom tooth. In the years           that followed, at least a hundred men claimed to be the ill-fated           prince. The           most intriguing candidate was famous naturalist John James           Audubon. Although he never publicly claimed it himself, Audubon           was thought by many to be the real


PBS - Islam: Empire of Faith - Profiles - Muhammad Muhammad, the     prophet of Islam, was born in Mecca around the year 570. Orphaned before     he had reached the age of six, he was raised under the protection of his     uncle Abu Talib. Muhammad began working as a merchant and became known     for his trustworthiness. When he was about     twenty-five, he married Khadija, a wealthy widow whose status elevated     Muhammad's position in Meccan society. Muhammad and Khadija had four daughters     and two sons, both of whom died in infancy. About fifteen or twenty years     after his marriage, he began to have visions and hear mysterious voices.     He sought solitude in a cave on Mount Hira on the outskirts of Mecca.     One night during Ramadan, the traditional month of spiritual retreat,     when Muhammad was about forty years old, an angel appeared to him in the     form of a man and ordered him to; Recite in the     name of thy lord who created, Created man from a clot; Recite in the name of thy lord, Who taught by the pen, Taught man what he knew not. Muhammad, fearing     that he was being attacked by an evil spirit, fled down the mountain in     terror. The voice called after him, "O Muhammad, you are the messenger     of God, and I am the angel Gabriel." This revelation was soon followed     by others about the one true God. Eventually, the angel told Muhammad     to begin proclaiming God's message. Muhammad slowly     began to attract some followers, most of them young and of modest social     standing, including his cousin Ali, the son of his uncle and protector     Abu Talib. When Muhammad began to impugn the traditional polytheism of     his native town, the rich and powerful merchants of Mecca realized that     the religious revolution taking place under their noses might be disastrous     for business, which was protected by the Meccan pantheon of gods and goddesses.     The ruling elite ganged up against Muhammad and his followers, and began     to persecute them. A few Meccans began to accept Muhammad's message, while     other members of his clan came to support their kinsman out of family     loyalty, even if they did not yet believe in his cause. Muhammad's position     in Mecca became hopeless when his wife Khadija and uncle Abu Talib died     in quick succession. In 622 the local rulers of Mecca forced Muhammad     and his small band of followers to leave the city. Muhammad accepted an     invitation to settle in the oasis of Yathrib, located some eleven days     (280 miles) north by camel, for the oasis had been nearly torn apart by     wars between the clans, of which many were Jewish. Muhammad's hegira from Mecca marks the beginning of a new polity. For the first time in     Arabia members of a community were bound together not by the traditional     ties of clan and tribe but by their shared belief in the one true God.     Later believers, looking back on this event, recognized its seminal importance     by designating it as the first year of their new era. In further recognition     of this great event, the oasis of Yathrib came to be called Medina, "the     city [of the Prophet]." Muhammad, surrounded     by his followers, lived in Medina for ten years, slowly winning over converts.     Muhammad made repeated attempts to attract the Jews to his cause, for     example, he directed that believers worship like the Jews in the direction     of Jerusalem. Ultimately these attempts failed, and henceforth Muslims     prayed in the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca. Muhammad's native town,     which had long been a center of paganism, thereby became the center of     the true religion, the focal point of the believers' daily prayer, and     eventually the object of their annual pilgrimage. Raiding and warfare     were the primary economic activities of the new co


What paper-like writing material was used by the ancient Egyptians?

WRITING - Scribes, Hieroglyphs, and Papyri - A New Look at Ancient Egypt @ UPMAA Demotic stela      from Dendereh ( E2983 ), Greco-Roman Period      (332-30 B.C.). Gallery         Tour WRITING Scribes, Hieroglyphs,         and Papyri The University of Pennsylvania Museum     (UPM) has a comprehensive collection of material relating to writing and literacy in ancient Egypt and Nubia .     As a complex historical society, ancient Egypt made extensive use of writing     and the written record has played a central role in the modern reconstruction     of Egyptian civilization. Papyrus The ancient Egyptians invented of type of paper called papyrus, which      was made from the river plant of the same name. Papyrus was a very strong      and durable paper-like material that was used in Egypt for over 3000      years. It is the precursor to modern paper, the name of which is derived      from the word "papyrus." Documents written on papyrus were      often sealed wtih a mud sealing embossed with a stamp from a scarab      seal, much in the same way that wax seals were later used. Hieroglyphs The ancient Egyptians used the distinctive script known today as hieroglyphs      (Greek for "sacred words") for almost 4,000 years. Hieroglyphs      were written on papyrus, carved in stone on tomb and temple walls, and      used to decorate many objects of cultic and daily      life use. Altogether there are over 700 different hieroglyphs, some      of which represent sounds or syllables; others that serve as determinatives      to clarify the meaning of a word. The hieroglyphic script originated      shortly before 3100 B.C., at the very onset of pharaonic civilization.      The last hieroglyphic inscription in Egypt was written in the 5th century      A.D., some 3500 years later. For almost 1500 years after that, the language      was unable to be read. In 1799, the Rosetta Stone was discovered in      Egypt by Napoleon's troops. The Rosetta Stone is a trilingual decree      (written in hieroglyphs, Greek, and Demotic) dating to the time of Ptolemy      V (205-180 B.C.). Its discovery proved to be a crucial link in unlocking      the mysteries of Egyptian hieroglyphs and in 1822, enabling Jean-François      Champollion to re-decipher the hieroglyphic signs, thereby allowing      the modern study of Egyptian language to begin. Hieratic While hieroglyphs are quite beautiful, they must have been very time      consuming for scribes to write. The Egyptians invented a cursive form      of hieroglyphs known as hieratic, which was used primarily for writing      with reed brushes, and later reed pens, on papyri and ostraca (fragments      of pottery or stone used as writing surfaces). This system of writing      was used alongside hieroglyphs for most of Egyptian history. Demotic An even more cursive form of script was invented during the 26th Dynasty      (664-525 B.C.). Known as Demotic, this form of writing was used at first      primarily for administrative documents, letters, and tax records. Eventually      it came to be used for literary and religious texts as well. Coptic Late in Egyptian history, the language known as Coptic, the final phase      of development of the ancient Egyptian language, came into being. Using      grammar that was very similar to its Demotic predecessor, Coptic used      the Greek alphabet plus a few signs derived from Demotic to form its      alphabet. Like the earlier Egyptian scripts, Coptic did not show breaks      between the words. Although it is no longer spoken, a dialect of Coptic      is still used in services of the Coptic church much in the same way      Latin was long used by the Roman Catholic Church. Meroitic The writing system for the Meroitic language of Nubia appeared around the 2nd century B.C. The alphabet consisted of a co


"On what famous statue is it written ""Give me your tired, your poor, your huddled masses""?"

EMMA LAZARUS; FAMOUS POEM :"THE NEW COLOSSUS" Statue of Liberty National Monument Emma Lazarus Famous Poem A poem by Emma Lazarus is graven on a tablet within the pedestal on which the statue stands.   Not like the brazen giant of     Greek fame, With conquering limbs astride     from land to land; Here at our sea-washed, sunset     gates shall stand A mighty woman with a torch,     whose flame Is the imprisoned lightning, and     her name Mother of Exiles. From her     beacon-hand Glows world-wide welcome; her     mild eyes command The air-bridged harbor that twin     cities frame. "Keep ancient lands, your     storied pomp!" cries she With silent lips. "Give me     your tired, your poor, Your huddled masses yearning to     breathe free, The wretched refuse of your     teeming shore. Send these, the homeless,     tempest-tost to me, I lift my lamp beside the golden     door!"     History of Liberty State Park   The Statue of Liberty and Ellis Island Photos On the New York Harbor, less than 2,000 feet from the Statue of Liberty, Liberty State Park has served a vital role in the development of New Jersey's metropolitan region and the history of the nation. During the 19th and early 20th centuries the area that is now Liberty State Park was a major waterfront industrial area with an extensive freight and passenger transportation network. This network became the lifeline of New York City and the harbor area. The heart of this transportation network was the Central Railroad of New Jersey Terminal (CRRNJ), located in the northern portion of the park. The CRRNJ Terminal stands with the Statue of Liberty and Ellis Island to unfold one of this nation's most dramatic stories: the immigration of northern, southern, and eastern Europeans into the United States. After being greeted by the Statue of Liberty and processed at Ellis Island, these immigrants purchased tickets and boarded trains, at the CRRNJ Terminal, that took them to their new homes throughout the United States. The Terminal served these immigrants as the gateway to the realization of their hopes and dreams of a new life in America. Today, Liberty State Park continues to serve a vital role in the New York Harbor area. As the railroads and industry declined, the land was abandoned and became a desolate dump site. With the development of Liberty State Park came a renaissance of the waterfront. Land with decaying buildings, overgrown tracks and piles of debris was transformed into a modern urban state park. The park was formerly opened on Flag Day, June 14, 1976, as New Jersey's bicentennial gift to the nation. Most of this 1,122 acre park is open space with approximately 300 acres developed for public recreation.


In what country is chess thought to have originated?

Chess is evil, says Saudi Arabia’s grand mufti | New York Post Chess is evil, says Saudi Arabia’s grand mufti Men playing chess on the seafront in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Getty Images More On: World Chess Championship pits model against Putin's puppet Chess makes people hate each other, according to the grand mufti of Saudi Arabia. “The game of chess is a waste of time and an opportunity to squander money,” said Sheikh Abdulaziz Bin Abdullah, according to Middleeasteye.net . “It causes enmity and hatred between people,” he declared. He compared the game to the pre-Islamic Arabian game of maisir – which is forbidden by the Koran – in which players shoot arrows to win camel meat. Abdullah, who is considered the most powerful Sunni religious figure in Saudi Arabia, was answering a question during his show, “With His Eminence the Mufti.” The clip gained traction Thursday, but is believed to have been first broadcast in 2014. Saudi Grand Mufti Sheikh Abdulaziz Bin AbdullahGetty Images Chess has not been banned in the country because the mufti’s pronouncements, though authoritative, do not carry the force of law. The ancient game is thought to have originated in India in the 6th century. British chess grandmaster Nigel Short told the BBC that forbidding chess in Saudi Arabia would be a “great tragedy.” “I don’t consider chess to be a threat to society. It is not something that is so depraved as to corrupt morals,” he said. “Even Ayatollah Khomeini came to the conclusion that he’d gone too far and repealed his own ban,” he said, referring to Iran’s then supreme leader. Share this:


What city marked the easternmost point of Napoleon's conquests?

Europe and the Church, Part 10: Napoleon's Dream of European Conquest | United Church of God United Church of God Europe and the Church, Part 10: Napoleon's Dream of European Conquest You are here UCG.org / World News and Prophecy / Europe and the Church, Part 10: Napoleon's Dream... Europe and the Church, Part 10 Napoleon's Dream of European Conquest Posted on Jul 1, 2009 by Melvin Rhodes Estimated reading time: 10 minutes Login or Create an Account With a UCG.org account you will be able to save items to read and study later! Sign In | Sign Up × More books have been written on Napoleon than almost any other world leader. His period of glory is still remembered in his capital city of Paris, where the Arc de Triomphe commemorates the First Empire and Les Invalides is his final resting place. But Napoleon's dream of European unity failed as did those of others before him. At the height of his power, he had 70 million subjects across the continent of Europe. “Not since the ancient Caesars had one man held so much power” ( Napoleon, PBS). He was the emperor of France, but “not a drop of French blood flowed through his veins” ( The Book of Knowledge, Vol. V, The Rise and Fall of Napoleon, 1955, p. 318). His wife, the empress, wasn't French either. But 25 years after he died in exile thousands of miles away from France, the French wanted his remains returned to Paris where he was finally laid to rest in a grand mausoleum, Les Invalides. Two centuries after his reign, Napoleon Bonaparte is remembered as one of the most significant men in history. More books have been written about him than almost any other historical figure. Born in August 1769 on the Mediterranean island of Corsica, Napoleon as a young man was very anti-French. His home island had been conquered by France only one year before his birth, and he held nothing but contempt for France and its people. However, his father was employed in French government service and adopted French manners and ways. Consequently, Napoleon was given a free military education in France. He was commissioned second lieutenant of artillery in 1785, just four years before the start of the French Revolution. On the outbreak of the revolution in July 1789, Napoleon returned to his native Corsica to attempt to organize revolution there. “Coming into conflict with the monarchist faction on the island, he was forced to escape to France, with the rest of his family, in 1793” (ibid). Napoleon came to prominence when he defended the republican government against a serious royalist uprising in Paris in October 1795. The government rewarded him by appointing him commander of the French army in Italy against the Austrians and their allies. Two days before his departure for Italy he married Josephine, widow of a French general who had been executed during the terror that followed the revolution. Josephine originally came from the French Caribbean island of Martinique. Military genius Italy brought out Napoleon's great military genius and stirred a deep ambition in him. In 1796 he defeated the Sardinians five times in 11 days, forcing a peace on them. He followed this with battles against the Austrians. “He defeated them at Lodi on May 10th, and his bravery was shown when he forced his way across the bridge at Lodi—an exploit that won from his troops the affectionate nickname of 'Little Corporal'” (ibid.). Following a number of victories over the Austrians, the Habsburgs sued for peace when Napoleon advanced to within 80 miles of the Austrian capital, Vienna. Next, Bonaparte persuaded the French government to let him invade Egypt, thereby striking a devastating blow against France's traditional enemy, Great Britain, by opening a route to India. Having taken control of Alexandria, Napoleon then fought the Battle of the Pyramids near Cairo, defeating the elite forces of the Ottoman Empire. The British hit back by sinking the French fleet, and Napoleon was stranded in Egypt, cut off from reinforcements. After further conflict in Palestine and Egypt, bad news from France reached him, and he secretly left,


"What ""stick-thin"" model became a symbol of Swingin' Sixties London?"

Swinging Sixties London | Sotheby's Swinging Sixties London Print LONDON  - In March of 1964, a new exhibition opened at the Whitechapel Gallery in east London. Its title, “The New Generation,” promised youth and excitement, and today the cast of painters – including David Hockney, Bridget Riley, John Hoyland, Paul Huxley and Derek Boshier – sounds like a roll-call of the best and brightest of 1960s London. Twiggy modelling her first fashion line. The young satirist, journalist and author Jonathan Miller, reviewing it in the New Statesman, thought the exhibition perfectly captured the essence of the age: the spirit of London at an extraordinary moment in its recent history. “Mod, of course, is the word one is groping for,” he wrote. “There is now a curious cultural community, breathlessly à la Mod, where Lord Snowdon and the other desperadoes of the grainy layout jostle with commercial art-school Mersey stars, window dressers and Carnaby Street pants-peddlers. Style is the thing here—Taste 64—a cool line and the witty insolence of youth. Tradition has little bearing on any of these individual talents and age can go stuff itself.” A couple hanging around Carnaby Street in pearly king and queen costumes. London in the 1960s – the London of Mods and mini, Terence Conran and Mary Quant, Carnaby Street, Abbey Road and the 1966 World Cup – has become one of the most mythologised landscapes in recent British history. In reality, a time traveller from the 21st century, having read about it in innumerable breathless accounts, would probably be deeply disappointed if his time machine deposited him at Piccadilly Circus in the age of Harold Wilson. For the most part, Britain’s capital was a tired, shabby city in the mid-1960s, its streets battered and careworn, its skyline disfigured by glass and concrete. The shops closed on Sundays; the pubs closed at eleven o’clock. And yet even at the time, the myths were being written. In April 1966 the “Swinging City” became an unexpected Time cover star, but the American magazine had actually been slow off the mark. A year earlier, the Telegraph had already hailed London as “the most exciting city in the world,” its journalist John Crosby singling out the West End’s Ad Lib club as the epicentre of this stylish scene. There, he wrote, a visitor would see “models, au pair girls or just ordinary English girls, a gleam of pure joy on their pretty faces, dancing with the young bloods, the scruffy very hotshot photographers like David Bailey or Terence Donovan, or a new pop singer – all vibrating with youth.” But this, he thought, was merely a symptom of a wider change, even a revolution. For in the 1960s, “youth captured this ancient island and took command in a country when youth had always been kept properly in its place. Suddenly, the young own the town.” Half a century on, those words look mildly ridiculous. Even John Lennon, one of the stars of the supposedly swinging scene, later admitted that nothing changed, “but we all dressed up.” Still, it would be hard to deny that there was something in the water in London in the mid-1960s, even if it was confined to a few square miles of the West End, Chelsea and Kensington. A small boutique that had just opened in South Kensington. Most young people were richer, better educated and more mobile than any generation before. Fashion, photography, pop music and film were offering opportunities to those with drive and talent. A good example was a handsome young man called Maurice Micklewhite, who had been born in Rotherhithe to a Billingsgate fish porter and a charlady. Renaming himself Michael Caine, Micklewhite had become one of the most bankable film stars in the world. He too subscribed to the cult of youth. “The only resources we’ve got in this country,” he said, “are the brains of our young people.” And his flatmate, Terence Stamp—another working-class Londoner—went even further. “People like me, we’re the moderns,” he told an interviewer. “We wear elastic-sided boots and smoke Gauloises, we work hard and we play hard. We have no class and no prejud


What ancient language was the first to develop a sound-based alphabet?

What Was the First Alphabet? What Was the First Alphabet? Question: What Was the First Alphabet? Answer: A slightly different question from " what was the world's first writing system ?" is "what was the world's first alphabet?" Barry B. Powell in his 2009 publication Writing: Theory and History of the Technology of Civilization provides invaluable insight into this question. The Word Alphabet West Semitic people from the eastern coast of the Mediterranean (where Phoenician and Hebrew groups lived) are usually credited with developing the world's first alphabet. It was a short, 22-character list with (1)names and (2)a fixed order for characters that could (3)easily be memorized. This "alphabet" was spread by Phoenician traders and then modified by the inclusion of vowels, by the Greeks, whose first 2 letters, alpha and beta were put together to form the name "alphabet." In Hebrew, the first two letters of the abecedary (as in A-B-C) are, likewise, aleph and bet, but unlike the Greek letters, the Semitic "alphabet" lacked vowels: Aleph wasn't an /a/. continue reading below our video 10 Best Universities in the United States In Egypt, too, writing has been found that uses only consonants. Egypt could be named as the nation with the first alphabet were the provision of vowels considered unnecessary. Barry B. Powell says it is a misnomer to refer to the Semitic abecedary as an alphabet. Instead, he says the first alphabet is the Greek revision of Semitic syllabic writing. That is, an alphabet requires symbols for vowels. Without vowels, consonants can't be pronounced, so only partial information on how to read a passage is provided by just the consonants. Poetry as Inspiration for the Alphabet If the vowels are dropped from English sentences, while the consonants remain in their correct position with respect to the other consonants, literate, native English speakers can usually still understand. For example, the following sentence: Mst ppl wlk. should be understood as: Most people walk. This may be opaque to someone not raised on English, perhaps especially if his native language is written without an alphabet. The first line of the Iliad in the same abbreviated form is unrecognizable: MNN D T PLD KLS MENIN AEIDE THEA PELEIADEO AKHILEOS Powell attributes the Greek invention of the first real alphabet to the need for vowels to transcribe the meter ( dactylic hexameters ) of the great epics , Iliad and Odyssey, attributed to Homer, and the works of Hesiod. Greek Modification of the Phoenician Symbols Although it is conventional to refer to the introduction of the vowels by the Greeks as an "addition" to the 22 consonants, Powell explains that some unknown Greek reinterpreted 5 of the Semitic signs as vowels, whose presence were required, in conjunction with any of the other, consonantal signs. Thus, the unknown Greek created the first alphabet. Powell says this was not a gradual process, but the invention of an individual. Powell is a Classical scholar with publications in Homer and mythology. From this background, he posits that it's even possible the legendary Palamedes really did invent the (Greek) alphabet. The Greek alphabet originally had only 5 vowels; the additional, long ones were added over time. The Semitic Letters That Became Vowels The aleph, he, heth (originally an /h/, but later long /e/), yod, 'ayin, and waw became the Greek vowels alpha, epsilon, eta, iota, omicron, and upsilon. Waw was also kept as a consonant called wau or digamma, and located in the alphabet's order between epsilon and zeta.


What Russian princess, murdered in 1918, did many imposters claim to be?

7 People Who Pretended to be Royals - History Lists History Lists May 21, 2013 By Evan Andrews Share Did the Romanovs survive? Get the full story. Share this: 7 People Who Pretended to be Royals Author 7 People Who Pretended to be Royals URL Google History is filled with examples of ambitious swindlers who took on the identities of kings, queens and other royals—and it’s not always as easy as one might think to distinguish a king from a con artist. Some of these impostors sought to gain political power and wealth by masquerading as real monarchs, but others went so far as to invent fraudulent titles and even fake countries. Find out more about seven royal impostors who managed to con their way into the history books. Anna Anderson as Anastasia Romanov Anna Anderson and Grand Duchess Anastasia (Credit: Getty Images) In 1918, Bolshevik revolutionaries murdered the Russian princess Anastasia, along with the rest of her family. However, rumors persisted of her alleged survival for decades and, over the years, several different impostors claimed to be Anastasia Romanova. None gained as much fame as Anna Anderson. The would-be royal first surfaced in the early 1920s in a Berlin mental asylum, where she announced that she was Grand Duchess Anastasia, the youngest daughter of the deceased Czar Nicholas II. Although most of the surviving Romanovs dismissed her as a fraud, the girl bore a striking resemblance to the princess and even knew many personal details of her life. She soon won the support of a coterie of wealthy Russian emigrants, many of whom believed she was the legitimate heir to the throne. The supposed princess eventually moved to America in 1968 and took the name Anna Anderson. But while her story inspired several books and even a Hollywood movie, she failed to win recognition in court due to a lack of evidence. Her story remained the source of much debate until 1994, when a posthumous DNA test finally proved she was not related to the Romanov family. Anderson likely a Polish factory worker who disappeared in 1920, but her true identity has never been confirmed. Gregor MacGregor as the “Cazique of Poyais” Dollar Bill from "Bank of Poyais" In the early 1820s, a dashing Scotsman named Gregor MacGregor rose to the top of London’s high society on the basis of a most unusual claim. A former soldier and mercenary who had fought in South America, MacGregor presented himself as the “cazique,” or prince, of a small Central American country he called Poyais. As evidence, the faux royal produced several maps, drawings and even a book, all of which described the mysterious country as a fertile paradise with a working government and friendly native population. MacGregor’s tiny principality seemed the perfect destination for European settlers, except for one small detail: It didn’t exist. Far from being a “cazique,” MacGregor was actually a con man who had cooked up a fairy tale country as a way of bilking investors out of huge sums of money. He eventually sold thousands of pounds worth of land rights for his phantom nation, and in 1822 the first would-be “Poyers” set sail across the Atlantic Ocean. Arriving in Central America and finding only unsettled jungle, the pioneers—many of whom had converted their life savings into phony Poyais currency—soon realized they had been swindled. The stranded colonists were eventually rescued, but not before some 180 people perished from disease. Not surprisingly, MacGregor fled the country soon after the news reached England. He later resurfaced in France, but was arrested after he tried to set up a second Poyais-related scheme. False Dmitry I Capture of False Dmitry The man known as False Dmitry I not only successfully posed as a prince, he managed to con his way onto the royal throne of Russia. The pretender first became known to history in the early 1600s, when he appeared in Poland declaring himself to be Dmitry, the youngest son of the deceased Ivan the Terrible. The real Dmitry had supposedly been assassinated as a boy, but the imposter claimed he had escaped his would-be murderers and


What name is given to the Japanese suicide pilots of WWII?

Kamikaze Blog Kamikaze Transcend life and death. When you eliminate all thoughts about life and death, you will be able to totally disregard your earthly life. This will also enable you to concentrate your attention on eradicating the enemy with unwavering determination, meanwhile reinforcing your excellence in flight skills. - A paragraph from the Kamikaze pilot's manual, located in their cockpits. In the year 1281, Japan was under attack by a Mongol invasion  led by the powerful Kublai Khan. However, just as it appeared that the invading Mongols were about to overwhelm the Japanese, a catastrophic typhoon swept through the land, eliminating the entire Mongol army. From that point on, the typhoon that saved Japan became known as the Kamikaze or Divine Wind. Background After the defeat at the Battle of Midway , and the fall of Saipan in July 1944, the Japanese revived the name Kamikaze and ascribed it to the suicide missions of their air force. Japanese Vice Admiral Takashiro Ohnishi, commander of the First Air Fleet in the Philippines, had noted that the most effective way to inflict damage upon Allied warships was to crash planes into them. He noted that one accidental crash could do more damage than 10 planes firing machine guns. It was decided then that pilots would purposely crash their planes  with half a ton of explosives  into American warships. The Kamikaze pilot Generally, Kamikaze pilots were university students motivated by obligation, and loyalty to family and country. A typical pilot was a science student in his twenties. He prepared for his fiery destiny by writing farewell letters and poems to loved ones, receiving a "thousand-stitch sash*," and by holding a ceremony  a drink of water that gave him a "spiritual lifting" before wedging himself between 550-pound bombs. It was adamantly believed that, because they were fighting for their Emperor God, the Kamikaze would bring them deliverance at the darkest hour, just as it had in the 13th century. In fact, the call for Kamikaze pilots drew a staggering response. Three times as many applied for suicide flights as the number of planes available. Experienced pilots were turned down. They were needed to train the younger men how to fly to their deaths. The fact that they were to go on suicide missions was accepted without question by the Japanese pilots. All inductees into the Japanese armed forces were indoctrinated with the following five-point oath: A soldier must make loyalty his obligation. A soldier must make propriety his way of life. A soldier must highly esteem military valor. A soldier must have a high regard for righteousness. A soldier must live a simple life. The Mitsubishi A6M2 Nicknamed the "Zero," the Mitsubishi A6M2 was the Kamikaze pilot's personal "flying coffin." It had a maximum speed of 332 mph and a range of 1,930 miles. The A6M2 was 29 feet nine inches long, with a wingspan of about 39 feet. The aircraft was armed with two machine guns and could carry 264 pounds of bombs; however, the Japanese modified its structure to accommodate a heavier arsenal. The Zero was the main strike aircraft used at Pearl Harbor  dominating the skies during the early stages of World War II . A large number were shot down during the Battle of Midway, and it eventually became outperformed by the latest allied aircraft, such as the P-51 Mustang. First attacks Beginning with the Pearl Harbor Attack, Japanese suicide bombers sporadically crashed their planes into the enemy as a spur-of-the-moment decision. On October 21, 1944, the flagship of the Royal Australian Navy, the heavy cruiser HMAS Australia, was hit by a Japanese plane carrying a 441-pound bomb, off Leyte Island . Although the bomb did not explode, the damage was devastating  killing at least 30 crew members. On October 25, the Australia was hit again and was forced to retire to the New Hebrides for repairs. That same day, five Zeros attacked a U.S. escort carrier, the USS St. Lo off the Philippines coast, although only one Kamikaze actually hit the ship. Its bomb caused massiv


What was the last name of power couple Eva and Juan?

Eva Perón - Biography of Evita, First Lady of Argentina Eva Perón Eva Perón First Lady of Argentina Promotional headshot portrait of Argentinean singer, actress, and first lady, Eva Duarte Peron. (circa 1940s).  (Photo by Hulton Archive/Getty Images) By Patricia Daniels, Contributing Writer Updated July 01, 2016. Who Was Eva Perón? Eva Perón, wife of Argentine president Juan Perón , was the first lady of Argentina from 1946 until her death in 1952. As first lady, Eva Perón, fondly called “Evita” by many, played a major role in her husband's administration. She is widely remembered for her efforts to help the poor and for her role in getting women the vote. Although Eva Perón was adored by the masses, some Argentines intensely disliked her, believing Eva's actions were driven by a ruthless ambition to succeed at all costs. Eva Perón's life was cut short when she died of cancer at the age of 33. Dates: May 7, 1919 – July 26, 1952 Also Known As: Maria Eva Duarte (born as), Eva Duarte de Perón, Evita Famous Quote: "One cannot accomplish anything without fanaticism." Eva's Childhood Maria Eva Duarte was born in Los Toldos, Argentina on May 7, 1919 to Juan Duarte and Juana Ibarguren, an unmarried couple. The youngest of five children, Eva, as she came to be known, had three older sisters and a brother. continue reading below our video Test Your General Science Knowledge Juan Duarte worked as the estate manager of a large, successful farm and the family lived in a house on the main street of their small town. However, Juana and the children shared Juan Duarte's income with his "first family," a wife and three daughters who lived in the nearby town of Chivilcoy. Not long after Eva's birth, the central government, which had previously been run by wealthy and corrupt landowners, came under the control of the Radical Party, made up of middle-class citizens who favored reform. Juan Duarte, who had benefited greatly from his friendships with those landowners, soon found himself without a job. He returned to his hometown of Chivilcoy to join his other family. When he left, Juan turned his back on Juana and their five children. Eva was not yet a year old. Juana and her children were forced to leave their home and move into a tiny house near the railroad tracks, where Juana made a meager living from sewing clothes for the townspeople. Eva and her siblings had few friends; they were ostracized because their illegitimacy was considered scandalous. In 1926, when Eva was six years old, her father was killed in a car accident. Juana and the children traveled to Chivilcoy for his funeral and were treated like outcasts by Juan's "first family." Dreams of Being a Star Juana moved her family to a larger town, Junin, in 1930, seeking more opportunities for her children. The older siblings found jobs and Eva and her sister enrolled in school. As was the case in Los Toldos, other children were warned to stay away from the Duartes, whose mother was deemed less than respectable. As a teenager, young Eva became fascinated with the world of movies; in particular, she loved American movie stars. Eva made it her mission to one day leave her small town and life of poverty and move to Buenos Aires , the capital of Argentina, to become a famous actress. Against her mother's wishes, Eva made the move to Buenos Aires in 1935 when she was only 15 years old. The actual details of her departure remain cloaked in mystery. In one version of the story, Eva traveled to the capital on a train with her mother, ostensibly to audition for a radio station. When Eva succeeded in finding a job in radio, her angry mother then returned to Junin without her. In the other version, Eva met a popular male singer in Junin and convinced him to take her with him to Buenos Aires. In either case, Eva's move to Buenos Aires was permanent. She only returned to Junin for short visits to her family. Older brother Juan, who had already moved to the capital city, was charged with keeping an eye on his sister. (When Eva later became famous, many of the details of her early years were diffic


What African-American athlete defied Hitler's theories of racial superiority by winning four gold medals at the Berlin Olympics?

Nazi Olympics Tangled Politics and Sport : NPR Nazi Olympics Tangled Politics and Sport Embed Embed Nazi Olympics Tangled Politics and Sport Nazi Olympics Tangled Politics and Sport Embed Embed A look back at the historic 1936 Olympics This summer's Beijing Olympics are already steeped in politics, but the atmosphere now is nothing like the politically charged 1936 Olympic Games hosted by Adolf Hitler in Nazi Germany. Boycotts, racial and religious strife, and international intrigue plagued the world's most prominent festival of sport. The Berlin Games became a powerful propaganda tool for Nazi Germany as it tried to make its brutal treatment of Jews, political opponents and others seem benign. The Nazi Olympics also helped Germany cultivate an atmosphere of appeasement from the rest of the world as Hitler prepared for conquest and war. The Games as Political Capital Hitler "inherited" the 1936 games from the Weimar Republic he supplanted. "Berlin was awarded the summer games before Hitler took power," notes Susan Bachrach, curator of special exhibitions at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, D.C. The museum has revived its 1996 exhibition called "The Nazi Olympics: Berlin 1936." "The big question was whether the Nazis under Hitler would want to host the games," Bachrach adds. "They weren't known for their internationalism." Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels recognized the benefits: celebrating the Aryan ideal and shaping the Nazi image — for Germans and for the world. Article continues after sponsorship "One must govern well, and good government needs good propaganda," Goebbels declared in a 1933 speech. "This was still a relatively young regime," Bachrach says. "And even though it was a dictatorship, it was very important to build popular support, especially among young people who had been so important to the growth of the Nazi movement. Of course, sports and the Olympics were good ways to do that." Asserting Aryan Supremacy The Olympics originated in Greece, and the Nazis viewed themselves as inheritors of Greek culture, especially notions of physical prowess and beauty. Hitler evoked that image at a 1934 Youth Day rally in Nuremberg: "In our eyes, the ideal German boy should be slim and trim, quick as a greyhound, tough as leather, and as hard as Krupp steel." Krupp steel figured into a Nazi invention: the Olympic torch relay. The long run with the flame is now a staple of the games, but the relay didn't exist before 1936. "It was actually a non-Nazi, Carl Diem, who conceived of this idea based on some of his readings of Greek history," Bachrach says. "And the Propaganda Ministry under Joseph Goebbels thought this was a wonderful way to publicize the games." The first Olympic torch was made by Krupp, the German steel company that produced weapons for the Nazis in defiance of the Versailles Treaty. Then as now, the relay attracted controversy. The route from Olympia, Greece, to Berlin touched seven countries that would later be occupied by Germany or its allies. Fights broke out in Vienna between Nazi sympathizers and opponents. And maps distributed along the relay route erroneously showed a region of Czechoslovakia as part of Germany. Mass murder was still years away, but mass mayhem already targeted Jews and others in Germany. Brown-shirted Hitler Youth marched in the streets, chanting, "Germans, defend yourselves. Don't buy from the Jews." Jewish books were burned. Intermarriage was banned. Concentration camps held political prisoners and Gypsies. And Jewish athletes were purged from German sports. "In the spring of 1933 ... I got a letter from my sports club," recalled Margaret Lambert, who was Germany's best high jumper and was known at the time as Gretel Bergmann. Lambert was interviewed for the Holocaust museum's Nazi Olympics exhibition in 1996. She said the letter stated, "You are no longer welcome here because you're Jewish. Heil Hitler." Lambert then said, "They just threw me out of the club. And that was the end of my sports career as far as that was concerned." She and ot


King Charles I executed for treason - Jan 30, 1649 - HISTORY.com King Charles I executed for treason Share this: King Charles I executed for treason Author King Charles I executed for treason URL A+E Networks In London, King Charles I is beheaded for treason on January 30, 1649. Charles ascended to the English throne in 1625 following the death of his father, King James I. In the first year of his reign, Charles offended his Protestant subjects by marrying Henrietta Maria, a Catholic French princess. He later responded to political opposition to his rule by dissolving Parliament on several occasions and in 1629 decided to rule entirely without Parliament. In 1642, the bitter struggle between king and Parliament for supremacy led to the outbreak of the first English civil war. The Parliamentarians were led by Oliver Cromwell, whose formidable Ironsides force won an important victory against the king’s Royalist forces at Marston Moor in 1644 and at Naseby in 1645. As a leader of the New Model Army in the second English civil war, Cromwell helped repel the Royalist invasion of Scotland, and in 1646 Charles surrendered to a Scottish army. In 1648, Charles was forced to appear before a high court controlled by his enemies, where he was convicted of treason and sentenced to death. Early in the next year, he was beheaded. The monarchy was abolished, and Cromwell assumed control of the new English Commonwealth. In 1658, Cromwell died and was succeeded by his eldest son, Richard, who was forced to flee to France in the next year with the restoration of the monarchy and the crowning of Charles II, the son of Charles I. Oliver Cromwell was posthumously convicted of treason, and his body was disinterred from its tomb in Westminster Abbey and hanged from the gallows at Tyburn. Related Videos


"In what city did Muhammad Ali and Joe Frazier have a ""thrilling"" fight?"

ESPN Classic - Frazier battled Ali in timeless trilogy Frazier battled Ali in timeless trilogy By Mike Sielski Special to ESPN.com "Joe Frazier would come out smoking. If you hit him, he liked it. If you knocked him down, you only made him mad," says George Foreman on ESPN Classic's SportsCentury series. In the ring, Joe Frazier was a bull who didn't need a red cape. Provocation or prodding wasn't necessary for him to come charging after the man in front of him, his head down, his fists acting as sharp horns and inflicting similar damage. Joe Frazier won the first of his three epic battles with Muhammad Ali. It was that relentlessness -- the near-total abandonment of duck-and-cover, the philosophy that one must absorb punishment before one can properly distribute it -- that defined Frazier's boxing career and has defined his life. It carried him to an Olympic gold medal and to the heavyweight championship of the world. And it was that relentlessness that made him the perfect foil for his nemesis, Muhammad Ali. Discussing Frazier's boxing career without bringing up Ali is like talking about Neil Armstrong without mentioning the moon. The two are forever linked, thanks to their three timeless bouts -- Frazier won only the first, and the third was a near-death experience for both of them -- the contrasting styles with which they fought, and the vitriol they hurled at each other for so long. For years, Frazier has voiced his bitterness over the way Ali had insulted him, over how Ali had called him "ugly," "a gorilla," and an "Uncle Tom." His anger was never in fuller view than when Ali, stricken with Parkinson's disease, lit the Olympic flame at the 1996 Games in Atlanta, and Frazier said he would have liked to have "pushed him in." "Technically the loser of two of the three fights, [Frazier] seems not to understand that they ennobled him as much as they did Ali," wrote Pulitzer Prize-winning author David Halberstam, "that the only way we know of Ali's greatness is because of Frazier's equivalent greatness, that in the end there was no real difference between the two of them as fighters, and when sports fans and historians think back, they will think of the fights as classics, with no identifiable winner or loser. These are men who, like it or not, have become prisoners of each other and those three nights." Born on Jan. 12, 1944, in Beaufort County, S.C., Joe was the 11th child of Rubin and Dolly Frazier. The Fraziers had a 12th child, David, who died of diphtheria at nine months old. Rubin was a sharecropper, who, according to Frazier's 1996 autobiography, "Smokin' Joe," ran a moonshine still and grew "this musk, which I figure now must've been tobacco or marijuana." By 1959, Joe was on his own, and that year, at 15, he moved to New York to live with an older brother, Tommy, and Tommy's wife, Ollie. He had a difficult time finding work, so difficult that he began stealing cars and selling them to a Brooklyn junkyard for $50 apiece. "It got to a point, finally, where I was just too embarrassed to keep leaning on my brother," Frazier wrote. "I decided to head to Philadelphia, where I had relatives that would put me up, and see if my luck would change." Did it ever. While working at a slaughterhouse, he punched sides of beef in a refrigerated room (giving Sylvester Stallone some inspiration for "Rocky") and took up bona-fide boxing in December 1961 when, 30 pounds overweight at 220, he entered a Police Athletic League gym in the city. Joe Frazier lands one of his trademark left hooks. A few months later, he met Yank Durham, a trainer at the gym. Durham turned Frazier into a champion, shortening his punches, improving his leverage, adding speed and power to what would become Frazier's signature weapon -- his famous left hook. Frazier began traveling around the country, boxing regularly. He was the Middle Atlantic Golden Gloves heavyweight champ for three straight years but lost to Buster Mathis in the finals of the 1964 U.S. Olympic Trials. However, during a subsequent exhibition bout between the two, Mathis injured his hand,


What became the 50th U.S. state in 1959?

Hawaii becomes 50th state - Aug 21, 1959 - HISTORY.com Hawaii becomes 50th state Publisher A+E Networks The modern United States receives its crowning star when President Dwight D. Eisenhower signs a proclamation admitting Hawaii into the Union as the 50th state. The president also issued an order for an American flag featuring 50 stars arranged in staggered rows: five six-star rows and four five-star rows. The new flag became official July 4, 1960. The first known settlers of the Hawaiian Islands were Polynesian voyagers who arrived sometime in the eighth century. In the early 18th century, American traders came to Hawaii to exploit the islands’ sandalwood, which was much valued in China at the time. In the 1830s, the sugar industry was introduced to Hawaii and by the mid 19th century had become well established. American missionaries and planters brought about great changes in Hawaiian political, cultural, economic, and religious life. In 1840, a constitutional monarchy was established, stripping the Hawaiian monarch of much of his authority. In 1893, a group of American expatriates and sugar planters supported by a division of U.S. Marines deposed Queen Liliuokalani, the last reigning monarch of Hawaii. One year later, the Republic of Hawaii was established as a U.S. protectorate with Hawaiian-born Sanford B. Dole as president. Many in Congress opposed the formal annexation of Hawaii, and it was not until 1898, following the use of the naval base at Pearl Harbor during the Spanish-American War, that Hawaii’s strategic importance became evident and formal annexation was approved. Two years later, Hawaii was organized into a formal U.S. territory. During World War II, Hawaii became firmly ensconced in the American national identity following the surprise Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941. In March 1959, the U.S. government approved statehood for Hawaii, and in June the Hawaiian people voted by a wide majority to accept admittance into the United States. Two months later, Hawaii officially became the 50th state. Related Videos


Whose advisors included Sir Thomas More, Cardinal Wolsey, and Thomas Cromwell?

CROMWELL,  Thomas (by 1485-1540), of London. | History of Parliament Online History of Parliament Online Home Research > Members > 1509-1558 > CROMWELL, Thomas (by 1485-1540) Go To Section 1820-1832 INDEX CROMWELL,  Thomas (by 1485-1540), of London. Published in The History of Parliament: the House of Commons 1509-1558, ed. S.T. Bindoff, 1982 View image  (will open as a pop-up window) Biography Detail 1536 Family and Education b. by 1485, o.s. of Walter Cromwell alias Smith of Putney, Surr. m. by 1516, Elizabeth, da. of Henry Wykes of Putney, wid. of Thomas Williams, 1s. Gregory 2da.; 1da. illegit. Kntd. 18 July 1536; KG nom. 5 Aug., inst. 26 Aug. 1537; cr. Baron Cromwell 9 July 1536, Earl of Essex 17 Apr. 1540. 3 Offices Held Member, household of Cardinal Wolsey c.1516-30, of his council by 1519, sec. by 1529; commr. subsidy, London 1524, Kent 1534, for printing of Bible 1539, for sale of crown lands 1539, 1540; Councillor by Jan. 1531; master of King’s jewels 14 Apr. 1532, jt. (with Sir John Williams ) c.1535-d.; clerk of the hanaper 16 July 1532, jt. (with Ralph Sadler ) Apr. 1535-d.; chancellor, the Exchequer 12 Apr. 1533- d. ; recorder, Bristol 1533-d., steward, Westminster abbey 12 Sept. 1533, jt. (with Robert Wroth ) 14 Feb. 1534-May 1535, lordships of Edmonton and Sayesbery, Mdx. May 1535, of Havering-atte-Bower, Essex Dec. 1537, manor of Writtle, Essex June 1536, honor of Rayleigh, Essex Sept. 1539; jt. (with Sir William Paulet ) surveyor, the King’s woods by 1533; principal sec. c. Apr. 1534-Apr. 1540; master of the rolls 8 Oct. 1534-10 July 1536; jt. (with Richard Cromwell alias Williams *) constable, Hertford castle, Herts. 1534-d., Berkeley castle, Glos. 1535-d., sole, Leeds castle, Kent 4 Jan. 1539-d.; visitor-gen. monasteries 21 Jan. 1535; steward, duchy of Lancaster, Essex, Herts. and Mdx. 12 May 1535-d., steward, Savoy manor May 1535-d.; chancellor, high steward and visitor, Camb. univ. 1535-d.; j.p. Bristol, Kent, Mdx., Surr. 1535-d.; Essex 1536-d., Derbys., Westmld. 1537-d., all counties 1538-d.; prebendary, Salisbury May 1536-d.; receiver of petitions in the Lords, Parlt. of 1536, trier, Parlt. of 1539; ld. privy seal 2 July 1536-d.; vicar-gen. and vicegerent of the King in spirituals 18 July 1536; dean, Wells 1537-d.; warden and c.j. in eyre, N. of Trent 30 Dec. 1537-d.; gov. I.o.W. 2 Nov. 1538-d.; gt. chamberlain 17 Apr. 1540; numerous minor offices. 4 Biography Thomas Cromwell was the son of a Putney cloth-worker and alehouse keeper but the obscurity of his early life owes less to his humble origin than to the varied and exotic character of his pursuits. While still in his teens he was compelled, in circumstances which remain unknown, to leave the country. Passing through the Netherlands, he is said to have found employment in Italy, first as a soldier (he is reputed to have fought at the Garigliano in 1503) and then with the Venetian banking house of Frescobaldi. He was in Rome early in 1514 but in the course of that year he returned to the Netherlands and soon afterwards came back to England, where he married a widow and settled in London. He was to go to Italy again in 1517-18 to help the town of Boston obtain a bull of indulgence from Pope Leo X. On this journey he is supposed to have learned by heart Erasmus’s translation of the New Testament. His earlier travels had made him fluent in Italian and probably in French; he also knew Latin and perhaps had some Greek. 5 Cromwell followed a business career in London, dealing in cloth and lending money, but he also picked up enough law to establish the successful practice which is first glimpsed about 1518. Although by then a servant of Wolsey he continued to have other clients throughout his years with the cardinal and even after he entered the royal service. Who or what brought him to Wolsey’s notice is not known. The intermediary could have been the 2nd Marquess of Dorset, although the only surviving evidence of Cromwell’s connexion with the Grey family dates from 1522, and the dowager marchioness’s description of him as her son’s servant may


On what ship did English sailors mutiny against Captain Bligh?

6 Famous Naval Mutinies - History Lists History Lists November 6, 2012 By Evan Andrews Share this: Google Few accusations in maritime history were more serious than the charge of mutiny. Yet that didn’t stop countless sailors from attempting open rebellions on the high seas. Most of these mutinies were violent outbursts provoked by poor morale or mistreatment, but others helped inspire revolutions and even toppled governments. Get the facts on six of history’s most ferocious naval rebellions. The Mutiny on the Bounty The 1789 mutiny on the Bounty saw a rebellious crew hijack their ship and build their own island community. Commanded by William Bligh, HMS Bounty left England in December 1787 on a mission to collect breadfruit saplings in the South Pacific. During a five-month layover in Tahiti, many of the ship’s crew became enamored with island life and even married the local women. They also became increasingly dissatisfied with Bligh, who often flogged his men for dereliction of duty. Shortly after the Bounty left Tahiti in April 1789, a group of disgruntled crewmembers revolted and took their commander prisoner. Led by master’s mate Fletcher Christian, the mutineers forced Bligh and 18 loyalists into a small launch and abandoned them at sea. Amazingly, Bligh eventually led this dinghy on a 3,600-mile voyage to a safe port in Timor. He would go on to weather two more mutinies during his long naval career. Now in command of the Bounty, the mutineers sailed for the island of Tubuai before returning to Tahiti. Some of the men remained on the island and were later captured by the Royal Navy, but Christian and a small band of followers continued sailing in search of a safe place to hide. Along with a group of Tahitians, in January 1790 the men settled on Pitcairn, an isolated island in the South Pacific. The last of the rebels died on Pitcairn in 1829, but descendants of Bounty mutineers still live on the island to this day. The Potemkin Mutiny Although it was initially sparked by a mundane argument over food, the Potemkin mutiny became one of the pivotal events in the 1905 Russian Revolution. The revolt occurred during the Russo-Japanese War when the 700 crewmen of the battleship Potemkin were given rations of borscht made from maggot-ridden meat. Told to eat the tainted broth or face extreme punishment, the sailors rebelled. Under the leadership of a revolutionary mariner named Afanasy Matyushenko, the crew killed nearly half the ship’s officers in a bloody shootout before commandeering Potemkin and the torpedo boat Ismail. Russia’s Black Sea fleet was soon mobilized to crush the mutineers, but their crews were sympathetic to the plight of the Potemkin sailors and refused to fire on them. Matyushenko and his triumphant rebels would go on to sail for a total of 11 days before finally surrendering the battleship in Romania. Most of the crewmen remained in exile there, but some—including Matyushenko—later returned to Russia only to be arrested and executed. The Potemkin mutiny was later immortalized in the 1925 silent film “Battleship Potemkin,” and was a significant influence on the 1917 revolution that led to the Soviet Union’s creation. The Hermione Mutiny On the night of September 21, 1797, the Royal Navy vessel Hermione was trawling the Caribbean when the crew initiated the bloodiest mutiny in British naval history. Furious at the draconian punishments meted out by their captain, Hugh Pigot, roughly 30 men split into groups and launched a coordinated attack on their superiors. The rebels—many drunk on rum—stabbed Pigot to death in his cabin and then proceeded to brutally slaughter several officers with cutlasses and tomahawks. Once in control of the ship, they dragged the rest of the officers to the main deck. Those whom the crew approved of were spared, but the rest were simply tossed overboard. In total, 10 officers were murdered during the uprising. Knowing they could never return to England, the mutineers sailed for La Guaira in modern-day Venezuela. Claiming they had merely marooned their officers in a dinghy, they


What started on October 29, 1929 and lasted for a decade?

The Great Depression | World Economic Crisis Between Two World Wars The Great Depression   The Great Depression was the biggest economic crisis in history. It started in the United States in 1929 and lasted for about a decade. It led to poverty, hunger and unemployment all over the world.   Causes The decade after World War I was called the “ Roaring Twenties”. It was a time of rebuilding after a great war. Many European countries didn’t have enough money. They had to pay a lot back to the USA because the Americans helped to win the war. Above all, Germany was weak because it had lost the war. At the same time industries started producing many goods. People bought new inventions , like automobiles, radios and other household goods, but the normal worker didn’t have more money than before. Consumers had to take out loans so that they could buy the things that they didn’t have the money for.   Stock market crash Many people also bought stocks. For a few years the value of stocks went up quickly. This made people invest even more money because they thought they would become rich very quickly. However, in September 1929 stock prices began to fall and on October 29, 1929 they completely collapsed. This day is known as Black Tuesday, the day the stock market crashed. After this day stocks were worth very little, sometimes even nothing at all. Many Americans lost all the money they had. Banks collapsed too because the people who had borrowed money were not able to pay it back. Factories and companies had to close because a large part of the population could not buy goods any more. They had to send most of their workers home. By 1932 about 13 million Americans, one fourth of all workers, were out of work. Those who kept their jobs had to work for little pay. At that time the USA had no system to help the poor. There was no money for the unemployed and most of them had to wait in breadlines to get food.   Unemployed march during the Great Depression   Global effects of the economic crisis The crisis in the USA quickly spread to other countries around the world. Many European countries that traded with America tried to protect their own economy. They put taxes on imports which made foreign goods more expensive. They wanted people to buy the goods that their own country produced.   New Deal In 1932 the Americans elected a new president , Franklin D. Roosevelt , a Democrat. He created a new programme to help America and called it The New Deal. The government started creating jobs and brought many people back to work.   End of the Depression The end of the depression came with the beginning of World War II . In Europe the people of many countries were also looking for new leaders. In Germany a large part of the population supported Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party . They promised people work and gave them jobs, especially by making more and more weapons. The depression in Germany ended by 1936. After the attack on Pearl Harbour in 1941 , America entered the war. This ended the Great Depression in the USA.   attack =to use weapons against someone in a war breadline =to wait in lines to get some food borrow = to take money from someone and then give it back to him collapse = to become lower very quickly completely =totally consumer = person who buys something create = make crash = to lose value very fast decade = ten years depression = time when factories close down and many people are poor and out of work economic =financial, about money and business elect = to vote for factory = a building in which machines and other things are produced foreign = from another country household goods = everything that can be used in the house industry = large companies invention = a new useful machine pay = the money you get for working population = the people who live in a country poverty = the situation of being poor produce = make protect =guard, defend roaring = loud and noisy ; the Roaring Twenties were a period in which life was very exciting and interesting spread =to move form one place to another stock = when you buy a very small part of a com