On a standard dartboard, what is immediately to the right of the number 20?

The Dartboard Sequence The Dartboard Sequence The arrangement of the numbers around the circumference of a standard dart board is as shown below     20 1 18 4 13 6 10 15 2 17 3 19 7 16 8 11 14 9 12 5  Oddly enough, no one seems to know for sure how this particular arrangement was selected. It evidently dates back at least 100 years. Some say the pattern was devised by a carpenter named Brian Gamlin in 1896, while others attribute it to someone named Thomas William Buckle in 1913, but both of these attributions are relatively recent, and neither can be traced back to a contemporary source. Also, although it's clear that the numbers are ordered to mix the large and small together, and possibly to separate numerically close values as far as possible (e.g., 20 is far from 19), no one seems to know of any simple criterion that uniquely singles out this particular arrangement as the best possible in any quantitative sense.  It may be just an accident of history that this particular arrangement has been adopted as the standard dart board format.  It's interesting to consider various possible criteria for choosing a circular arrangement of the first n positive integers. In order to get as "flat" a distribution as possible, we might try to minimize the sum of the squares of each k consecutive terms. For example, setting k = 3, the standard dard board sequence gives  (20+1+18)^2 + (1+18+4)^2 + (18+4+13)^2 + ... + (5+20+1)^2 = 20478  Apparently the standard board layout described above is called the "London" dart board, and there is another, less common, version called the "Manchester" dart board, which has the sequence    20 1 16 6 17 8 12 9 14 5 19 2 15 3 18 7 11 10 13 4 for which the sum of squares of each set of three consecutive numbers is 20454, just slightly less than the London arrangement. In contrast, if we were to arrange the numbers by just inter-weaving the largest and smallest numbers like this     20 1 19 2 18 3 17 4 16 5 15 6 14 7 13 8 12 9 11 10   the resulting sum of squares of each 3 consecutive elements is 20510, so the standard dart boards are, in this sense, more flat distributions.  Needless to say, all of these arrangements are much more flat than the natural monotonic sequence     1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20  which has a sum of 24350.  By the way, note that if the sum of the squares of every sum of three consecutive numbers for a given arrangement is S, then we can form another arrangement with the same sum simply by taking the "21-complement", i.e., subtracting each number from 21. For example, the complement of the standard London arrangement is    1 20 3 17 8 15 11 6 19 4 18 2 14 5 13 10 7 12 9 16 which has the same sum (20478) as the London arrangement. This works because if we begin with an arrangement a,b,c,d,... having the sum   S = (a+b+c)^2 + (b+c+d)^2 + (c+d+e)^2 + ... and replace each of the numbers a,b,c,... with 21-a, 21-b, 21-c,... respectively, the sum S' of this complementary arrangement is   S' = [(21-a)+(21-b)+(21-c)]^2 + [(21-b)+(21-c)+(21-d)]^2 + ...    = [63-(a+b+c)]^2 + [63-(b+c+d)]^2 + ...    = S + 20(63)^2 - 2(63)[(a+b+c)+(b+c+d)+...] Each of the numbers from 1 to 20 appears three times in the summation inside the square brackets in the last term, so that summation equals 630, and hence S' = S. (The same identity applies to the N+1 complement for sums of squares of every sum of k consecutive terms of a circular arrangement of the first N integers.) How would we go about finding the circular arrangement of the integers 1 to 20 that gives the smallest sum of squares of every sum of three consecutive numbers? One possible approach would be to begin with the monotonic arrangement and then check each possible transposition of two numbers to see which one gives the lowest result. Then make that change and repeat the process, at each stage always choosing the transposition that gives the steepest reduction in the sum. This "greedy algorithm" produces arrangements with the following sum


What Italian film, released in 1999, told the story of a Jewish family sent to a concentration camp in World War II?

Screen Junkies 10 Holocaust Films something here If you love films about the Holocaust , you'll love reading this list of 10 Holocaust films. Holocaust films are not always easy to find even though many have been made, but this should help you out and you may even see a few movies you have missed in the past. "Schindler's List" This movie was released in 1993 by director Steven Spielberg and starred Ben Kingsley , Liam Neeson and Ralph Fiennes. It was a haunting story about Oskar Schindler and how he saved hundreds of his Jews during WWII. This movie won numerous awards and accolades. "Holocaust" This television movie appeared in 1978 starring Meryl Streep and James Woods and is about a Jewish family during the Holocaust. It won a Golden Globe award and is highly praised. "The Boy in the Striped Pajamas" This 2008 movie stars David Thewlis and Vera Farmiga and is about a young German boy who befriends a Jewish boy in the concentration camp his father oversees. With a heartbreaking ending, this movie is one of the most haunting. "Sophie's Choice" Starring Meryl Streep and Kevin Kline, this 1982 movie told the story of Sophie's choice during the Nazi regime and its effects on her life long after the war is over. It shows how a person can be affected for many years after an experience. "The Devil's Arithmetic" This 1999 television movie featured Kirsten Dunst as a Jewish teen. She experiences a concentration camp when she is sent back in time during a Jewish dinner with her family. "Life is Beautiful" This 1997 film won three Oscars at the Academy Awards . It tells the story of a Jewish man who uses laughter and jokes to get his son through every day life of the death camps. "The Pianist" This movie starred Adrien Brody, who won an Oscar for his performance, as a Polish-Jewish pianist during the destruction of the Warsaw Ghetto during WWII. It was written by Roman Polanski whose own parents were in the Holocaust. "The Reader" Based on a book, this film starred Kate Winslet and Ralph Fiennes and debuted in 2008. It told the relationship of a young boy and his older lover and how he later defends her against war crimes during the Holocaust. Kate Winslet won an Oscar for her portrayal in the movie. "Defiance" "Defiance" was released in 2008 and starred Daniel Craig and Liev Schreiber as Jewish brothers . The brothers join Russian fighters to protect Jewish non-combatant citizens during the Holocaust. "Sunshine" This 1999 movie starred Ralph Fiennes and Rachel Weisz. It's about a Hungarian Jewish family during the Holocaust. It spanned over three generations and Ralph Fiennes played a character in all three. Although the topic is harsh, these Holocaust films are some of the best there are and while you may have seen some of them, hopefully there's a new movie that you haven't come across and can add to your watch list.


"Who wrote the plays ""The Cherry Orchard"", ""Three Sisters"", ""The Seagull"" and ""Uncle Vanya""?"

SparkNotes: The Cherry Orchard: Context The Cherry Orchard Table of Contents Plot Overview Anton Pavlevich Chekhov was born on January 17th, 1860, in Taganrog, Russia. His father Pavel was a shopkeeper the town, which was small, provincial, and on the Sea of Azov in the south of Russia, and his grandfather was Egor Chekhov, a serf. Serfs were the legal property of the landowners who owned the property on which they resided; it was thus a form of slavery. In 1841, Egor bought freedom for himself and his family at the price of 875 rubles. Russia had been changing ever since the early 18th century, when Tsar Peter the Great carried out a series of reforms with the intent of modernizing Russia in Western Europe's image. European styles in fashion and art were imported, the Western canon was widely read among the nobility, and French was adopted as the language of cultured discourse. A large government bureaucracy was created; the achievement of rank became an obsession of Russian life. During Chekhov's childhood, in the time of Tsar Alexander II, a second wave of reforms was underway, reforms that further liberalized the country and its economy. The most important of these was the Emancipation Declaration of 1861, which freed the serfs from bondage. These reforms caused great controversy, as they introduced what was, in effect, the beginning of a free-market economy, undermining the power of the nobility, and sometimes even impoverishing them. The situation displayed in The Cherry Orchard, of a wealthy landowning family forced to sell their estate in order to pay their debts, was thus a familiar one in the Russian society of Chekhov's day. Chekhov himself had a relatively quiet childhood. He attended the local Russian grammar school, worked in his father's store and occasionally wrote small pieces for the amusement of his family. Taganrog was not a typical provincial town; it was a multicultural port, with Italians, Greeks, and Turks residing in the wealthier sections of town and Russians such as the Chekhovs living in comparatively poor suburbs. It had a theater, which the young Chekhov would often visit. When Chekhov was sixteen, Pavel's store failed, and the entire family had to move to Moscow—the entire family, that is, except for Anton. A merchant (and friend of the family) had helped the Chekhovs with a loan, but insisted on keeping Anton with him in the house as a kind of collateral. As soon as he could, he left Taganrog in order to pursue medical studies in Moscow in 1879 at the age of 19. That year, Chekhov began to write comic stories in order to pay his medical school tuition. By the time he was twenty, he was employed by The Spectator magazine as their regular humorist. Over ninety percent of Chekhov's published work appeared in magazines before he was twenty-eight, and, by this age, he had already established himself as a premier writer of short stories. As he developed as a writer, his stories began to take on deeper and more profound themes, as he moved away from his comic roots. To this day, Chekhov's literary reputation primarily rests with his short stories, and Chekhov's early plays, written primarily in his early 20s, are not well-remembered. It was only in 1896 that he began to turn his attention back to drama; in the eight remaining years before his death, he managed to complete four plays: The Seagull, Uncle Vanya, The Three Sisters, and The Cherry Orchard. The first performance of The Seagull was nearly laughed off the stage; it was criticized as dull, unimaginative, and lacking any sort of dramatic tension (a critical undercurrent that has survived in Russia to this day). Only gradually did Chekhov's new form of drama, emphasizing characterization, detail and symbolism instead of plot development and incident, gain acceptance. Chekhov was the in-house playwright for the Moscow Arts Theatre, which had been founded by his friend Vladimir Nemirovich-Davchenko. During this time, he fell in love with one of the Theatre's leading actresses, Olga Knipper, and would marry her in 1901. Chekhov wrote his last


Which forces were defeated by Ho Chi Minh's forces at the battle of Dien Bien Phu in Vietnam in May 1954?

French defeated at Dien Bien Phu - May 07, 1954 - HISTORY.com French defeated at Dien Bien Phu Share this: French defeated at Dien Bien Phu Author French defeated at Dien Bien Phu URL Publisher A+E Networks In northwest Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh’s Viet Minh forces decisively defeat the French at Dien Bien Phu, a French stronghold besieged by the Vietnamese communists for 57 days. The Viet Minh victory at Dien Bien Phu signaled the end of French colonial influence in Indochina and cleared the way for the division of Vietnam along the 17th parallel at the conference of Geneva. On September 2, 1945, hours after the Japanese signed their unconditional surrender in World War II, communist leader Ho Chi Minh proclaimed the independent Democratic Republic of Vietnam, hoping to prevent the French from reclaiming their former colonial possession. In 1946, he hesitantly accepted a French proposal that allowed Vietnam to exist as an autonomous state within the French Union, but fighting broke out when the French tried to reestablish colonial rule. Beginning in 1949, the Viet Minh fought an increasingly effective guerrilla war against France with military and economic assistance from newly Communist China. France received military aid from the United States. In November 1953, the French, weary of jungle warfare, occupied Dien Bien Phu, a small mountain outpost on the Vietnamese border near Laos. Although the Vietnamese rapidly cut off all roads to the fort, the French were confident that they could be supplied by air. The fort was also out in the open, and the French believed that their superior artillery would keep the position safe. In 1954, the Viet Minh army, under General Vo Nguyen Giap, moved against Dien Bien Phu and in March encircled it with 40,000 Communist troops and heavy artillery. The first Viet Minh assault against the 13,000 entrenched French troops came on March 12, and despite massive air support, the French held only two square miles by late April. On May 7, after 57 days of siege, the French positions collapsed. Although the defeat brought an end to French colonial efforts in Indochina, the United States soon stepped up to fill the vacuum, increasing military aid to South Vietnam and sending the first U.S. military advisers to the country in 1959. Related Videos


What is the capital of the province of New Brunswick, Canada?

The Province of New Brunswick Canada     Seal Cove, Grand Manan   Island     New Brunswick, the gateway to Atlantic Canada.   From whale-watching to the kitchen. See whales and sharks of the Bay of Fundy.    We have general travel, regional maps, detailed   information on: the City of Saint John; the capital city, Fredericton;   beautiful Grand Manan Island; world-renowned St. Andrews; the northern   community of Grand Falls; Miramichi and the area of Restigouche, just to name a   few. For the educationally inclined - an Historical Facts page for New   Brunswick.    Distinctive Maritime cuisine and recipes   abound for food lovers. Images of New Brunswick are found on almost every page   within the site. We hope you enjoy your virtual tour of New Brunswick


Cambodia is better known in Asia as, and its official name was changed in 1975 temporarily to, what?

The Day of Reckoning in Cambodia? --- Asia Pacific Media Service The Day of Reckoning in Cambodia? by Bertil Lintner Posted March, 2009 No one will ever know exactly how many people died from executions, starvation and disease during the Khmer Rouge’s reign of terror, which lasted for three years, eight months, and 20 days, from April 1975 to January 1979. Estimates vary between 1.4 million and more than two million. There is hardly a person in the country who did not lose at least one family member during that time. Now, as five of the Khmer Rouge’s former leaders are being tried in Cambodia, the day of reckoning is finally here for one of the most murderous regimes in modern history. Or is it? Many survivors of Cambodia’s “killing fields” remain skeptical. A 46-year-old man, who was 12 when he and his family were marched out of Phnom Penh when the Khmer Rouge took over and emptied the capital on April 17, 1975, says that it is not a genuine tribunal because “the Extraordinary Chambers in the Courts of Cambodia”—its official name—is a mixed court with Cambodian as well as international judges. “And everyone here knows how inept and corrupt the Cambodian judiciary is,” says the man, who wants to remain anonymous because of his painful memories—and the fact that speaking out against the country’s legal authorities is still risky. Son Chhay, party whip of the opposition Sam Rainsy Party, argues that the government is trying to control the proceedings to avoid any embarrassing disclosures about present cabinet members who were once also members of the Khmer Rouge: “The Khmer Rouge is everywhere, I see the killers running around freely.” Former Khmer Rouge cadres who are now in power include Prime Minister Hun Sen, though according to most sources he was a low-ranking Khmer Rouge military commander and in a capacity not responsible for atrocities. But there are others in positions of prominence in Cambodia’s current ruling establishment who could be vulnerable and exposed during the trial, particularly if those accused began to talk or call in witnesses. The bitter reality is that too many in Cambodia have too much hide—and it is hardly surprising that almost nothing is taught about the Khmer Rouge in Cambodian schools. The first-ever textbook on that era was published in April 2007, and only by the Documentation Center of Cambodia, a private NGO. Copies were distributed to schools, libraries and government ministries. But even so, according to a recent survey conducted in Cambodia by the Human Rights Center at the University of California, Berkeley, 80% of younger respondents said they knew very little or nothing about the Khmer Rouge regime. Patrick Vinck, director of the Initiative on Vulnerable Populations at UC Berkeley, told the Voice of America on Jan. 21: “And whatever they know, they only learned, or they mostly learned, from their family and from their friends. Only 6% told us that they had learned about it from school. And 9% told us that they learned through media, radio and television.” Against this background, the number of accused has been limited to five—and the tribunal will look into only what happened during the Khmer Rouge’s time in power. A defender of the Khmer Rouge, Benson Samay, who represented one of the leaders, Ta Mok, made headlines in January 2000 when he said that he would subpoena Henry Kissinger and several others to testify on their role in the aerial bombardment of Cambodia which led to the Khmer Rouge’s rise to power in 1975. At the time, Mr. Benson said that Ta Mok’s own testimony would not spare any of his former comrades, many of whom are now in government or living in quiet retirement in Cambodia. But Ta Mok died in prison from natural causes in July 2006 and took whatever secrets he had with him to the grave. But a wild card is still Kaing Guek Eav, alias Duch, who in the 1970s was in charge of the S-21 Prison in Phnom Penh, better known as Tuol Sleng—and who now has become a born-again Christian. He is the first to stand trial and is expected to speak his mind. That could be embarras


What is someone who makes or repairs stringed instruments called?

What does luthier mean? Definitions for luthierˈlu ti ər This page provides all possible meanings and translations of the word luthier Princeton's WordNet(0.00 / 0 votes)Rate this definition: luthier(noun) a craftsman who makes stringed instruments (as lutes or guitars or violins) Wiktionary(0.00 / 0 votes)Rate this definition: luthier(Noun) A person who, or a business which, makes or repairs stringed wooden musical instruments, such as lutes, violins, and guitars. Origin: From luthier, from luth. Freebase(0.00 / 0 votes)Rate this definition: Luthier A luthier is someone who makes or repairs lutes and other string instruments. In the United States, the term is used interchangeably with any term that refers to a specific, or specialty type of stringed instrument, such as violin maker, guitar maker, lute maker, etc. The word luthier comes from the French word luth, which means lute. The craft of making string instruments, or lutherie, is commonly divided into two main categories: makers of stringed instruments that are plucked or strummed and makers of stringed instruments that are bowed. Since bowed instruments require a bow, the second category includes a subtype known as a bow maker or archetier. Numerology The numerical value of luthier in Chaldean Numerology is: 8 Pythagorean Numerology


Who was Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers during the occupation of Japan immediately following World War II?

Japanese History/The American Occupation of Japan - Wikibooks, open books for an open world Japanese History/The American Occupation of Japan From Wikibooks, open books for an open world Jump to: navigation , search General MacArthur and Emperor Hirohito At the end of World War II, Japan was occupied by the Allied Powers, led by the United States with contributions from Australia, India, New Zealand and the United Kingdom. This foreign presence marked the first time in its history that the island nation had been occupied by a foreign power. The San Francisco Peace Treaty, signed on September 8, 1951, marked the end of the Allied occupation, and subsequent to its coming into force on April 28, 1952, Japan was once again an independent country. Contents Post-Surrender[ edit ] On V-J Day, United States President Harry Truman appointed General Douglas MacArthur as Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers (SCAP), to supervise the occupation of Japan. During the war, the Allied Powers had planned to divide Japan amongst themselves for the purposes of occupation, as was done for the occupation of Germany. Under the final plan, however, SCAP was given direct control over the main islands of Japan (Honshū, Hokkaidō, Shikoku and Kyūshū) and the immediately surrounding islands, while outlying possessions were divided between the Allied Powers as follows: Soviet Union: North Korea (not a full occupation), Sakhalin, and the Kuril Islands. United States: South Korea (not a full occupation), Okinawa, the Amami Islands, the Ogasawara Islands and Japanese possessions in Micronesia. China: Taiwan and Penghu. It is unclear why the occupation plan was changed. Common theories include the increased power of the United States following development of the atomic bomb, Truman's greater distrust of the Soviet Union when compared with Roosevelt, and an increased desire to contain Soviet expansion in the Far East after the Yalta Conference. The Soviet Union had some intentions of occupying Hokkaidō. Had this occurred, there might have been the foundation of a communist "Democratic People's Republic of Japan" in the Soviet zone of occupation. However, unlike the Soviet occupations of East Germany and North Korea, these plans were frustrated by the opposition of President Truman. The Far Eastern Commission and Allied Council For Japan were also established to supervise the occupation of Japan. Japanese officials left for Manila on August 19 to meet MacArthur and to be briefed on his plans for the occupation. On August 28, 150 U.S. personnel flew to Atsugi, Kanagawa Prefecture. They were followed by The "USS Missouri, whose accompanying vessels landed the US 4th Marine Division on the southern coast of Kanagawa. Other Allied personnel followed. MacArthur arrived in Tokyo on August 30, and immediately decreed several laws: No Allied personnel were to assault Japanese people. No Allied personnel were to eat the scarce Japanese food. Flying the Hinomaru or "Rising Sun" flag was initially severely restricted (although individuals and prefectural offices could apply for permission to fly it). The restriction was partially lifted in 1948 and completely lifted the following year. The Hinomaru was the de facto albeit not de jure flag throughout World war II and the occupation period. On September 2, Japan formally surrendered with the signing of the Japanese Instrument of Surrender. On September 6, US President Harry S. Truman approved a document titled "US Initial Post-Surrender Policy for Japan". The document set two main objectives for the occupation: (1) eliminating Japan's war potential and (2) turning Japan into a western style nation with pro-American orientation. Allied (primarily American) forces were set up to supervise the country, and "for eighty months following its surrender in 1945, Japan was at the mercy of an army of occupation, its people subject to foreign military control." At the head of the Occupation administration was General MacArthur who was technically supposed to defer to an advisory council set up by the Allied powers, but in pract


What is the main protein of connective tissue in animals and the most abundant protein in mammals, making up about 25% of the total protein content?

What is Collagen? What is Collagen? By Dr Ananya Mandal, MD Collagen is a protein made up of amino-acids, which are in turn built of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. Collagen contains specific amino acids – Glycine, Proline, Hydroxyproline and Arginine.  Collagen makes up approximately 30% of the proteins within the body. These are tough and strong structures found all over the body: in bones, tendons and ligaments. Where is collagen found? In nature, collagen is found exclusively in animals, especially in the flesh and connective tissues of mammals. Collagen is a part of the connective tissue that in the skin helps in firmness, suppleness and constant renewal of skin cells. Collagen is vital for skin elasticity. Ligaments are another type of connective tissue that attach two bones and consequently hold the joints together. Tendons are similar but different type of tissue that attach the muscles to the bones. All of these tissues, the bones, ligaments, tendons and the skeletal muscles themselves, are made up of proteins. One of the most predominant proteins is called collagen. Collagen is the main component of connective tissue, and is the most abundant protein in mammals, making up about 25% to 35% of the whole-body protein content.  An atomic-force-microscopy image of collagen fibrils in a collagen fiber. Image Credit: UChicago Argonne LLC What does collagen do? Collagen helps to give strength to various structures of the body and also protects structures like the skin by preventing absorption and spreading of pathogenic substances, environmental toxins, micro - organisms and cancerous cells. Collagen protein is the cement that holds everything together.  Collagen is also present in all the smooth muscle tissues, blood vessels digestive tract, heart, gallbladder, kidneys and bladder holding the cells and tissues together. Collagen is even the major component of the hair and nails. Aging and collagen With age, collagen production slows and the cells structures weaken. The skin gets thinner and is easier to damage, hair gets lifeless, skin sags and wrinkles, tendons and ligaments become less elastic, joints get stiff etc. Structure of collagen Collagen microscopically occurs in elongated fibrils. It is mostly found in fibrous tissues such as tendon, ligament and skin, and is also abundant in cornea, bone, blood vessels, cartilage, intervertebral disc and the digestive tract. In muscle tissue, collagen serves as a major component of endomysium. 1 to 2% of the muscles are formed of collagen and around 6% of the total weight of muscles is formed of collagen. Gelatin used in food is collagen that has been irreversibly hydrolyzed. Molecular structure of collagen In the mid-1930’s collagen was first discovered to have a molecular structure. Nobel laureates Crick, Pauling, Rich and Yonath and others including Brodsky, Berman, and Ramachandran have been researching the structure of collagen and their possible functions. After several speculations of individual peptide chain, the final model that has been developed is the "Madras" model which provided an essentially correct model of the molecule's quaternary structure although this model still required some refinement. It is a triple-helical structure. Collagen is further packed into fibrillar collagen types with hexagional or quasi hexagonal shapes. The packing may be 'sheet-like' or microfibrillar. The microfibrillar structure of collagen fibrils in tendon, cornea and cartilage has been directly imaged by electron microscopy.  The microfibrillar structure of adult tendon was confirmed in 2006 by Fraser, Miller and Wess (amongst others). They found the D-periodic pentameric arrangement and termed it microfibril. Reviewed by April Cashin-Garbutt , BA Hons (Cantab)


Who, in 1948 at London, equalled the record of winning 4 gold medals at one Olympics, set at the previous Games by Jesse Owens?

BBC - History -   British History in depth: The 1948 London Olympics Gallery The 1948 London Olympics Gallery By Stan Greenberg Print this page Fanny Blankers-Koen Francina Koen started her athletic career in Holland as an 800m runner aged 13. Five years later she competed in the 1936 Olympic high jump in Berlin, placed sixth, and ran on the fifth-placed sprint relay. By the time the London Olympics came round she was married to Jan Blankers, her coach, and had two children. At the time, the 30-year-old ‘Fanny’ held six world records, including the high jump and long jump. When the Games were over she was a national heroine, having set a new female standard of four Olympic gold medals at one celebration – 100m, 200m, 80m hurdles, and 4 x 100m relay (shown here). This success matched the male record of four golds, set originally by Alvin Kraenzlein (USA) in 1900, and famously equalled by Jesse Owens at Berlin. Fanny said that one of her greatest moments was obtaining his autograph there. There is little doubt that she could also have taken the long jump in London, but, she was apprehensive that she had taken on too much already. Prior to the semi-finals of her third event, the 200m, she felt under so much pressure that she almost had a nervous breakdown. However, she recovered and went on to win the final by 0.7sec, the largest winning margin ever in the event.


Jacqueline Lee Bouvier became better known as who?

Lee Radziwill: Sister, Princess & Fashion Icon | Lee Radziwill with Mick & Bianca Jagger Rudolf Nureyev & lee Radziwill Andy Warhol & Lee Radziwill . For some years, Lee was a public relations executive for Giorgio Armani and on September 23, 1988, she became the second wife of American film director and choreographer Herbert Ross. They divorced in 2001, shortly before his death. She was listed as one of the fifty best-dressed over 50s by the Guardian in March 2013. A longtime lover of fashion, Lee is still a front-row fixture, turning up from Marc Jacobs in New York to Giambattista Valli in Paris. She’s still beautifully kitted out in simple shapes with theatrical flourishes, armed with cigarettes and sunglasses.   Lee Radziwill by Mario Sorrenti . Unauthorized Biography After reading all about the glamorous side of Lee Radziwill’s life, it was quiet a shock to read the unauthorized biography In Her Sister’s Shadow: An Intimate Biography of Lee Radziwill!  Lee’s life seemed perfect, exiting and a success, but in fact she was very frustrated, living in enormous debts and in her relationships she always had an agenda…….. Known as the “Whispering Sisters” to everyone in their social circle who knew them because of their tendency for sneaking off in corners and whispering to one another in private, Caroline Lee did indeed grow up in the shadow of her older sister Jacqueline Lee Bouvier. Lee Radziwill . The prologue of In Her Sister’s Shadow begins with the story of Jackie dropping Lee off at an AA meeting at an Episcopal church in East Hampton in the summer of 1981. Jackie escorted her sister into the meeting and waited in her limo out in the church parking lot to make sure Lee stayed for the whole meeting. Such was the essence of their bond. About Lee’s first marriage to Michael Canfield: “There was a lack of intimacy in the marriage and Lee’s personality was paramount in that lack of intimacy. Her agenda precluded real intimacy with Michael because she was always saying things for a reason. This was something you always felt about Lee, that she had an objective, an agenda, and it was more important than anything else.” (page 76) Lee & Stass Radziwill . About Lee’s second husband Stanislas Radziwill: Prince Radziwill, as he referred to himself, had settled in London after WWII, which had ended with his family losing not only all their wealth–namely landholdings–but their royal titles as well. For whatever reason, Stas Radziwill chose to hold on to his Polish title, and though everyone knew it to be an empty title, they humoured him and his jovial attitude by addressing him as Prince Radziwill and introducing him as such at social occasions. Immediately smitten with the man 19 years her senior–and the empty title of “Princess” which would surely come with marrying him–Lee set her plans in motion for leaving alcoholic Michael for the man many say resembled her father, Black Jack Bouvier. Lest one think Lee wasn’t happy with Stas, she was…for awhile. They had two beautiful children together, Anthony and Tina, and had two beautiful homes: a townhouse in London and a manor house about an hour outside of London, both of which Lee decorated lavishly with money Stas gladly gave her in the name of entertaining their house guests. After all, they were “royalty” (big quotes), and had to appear as such at all times. Another side note: Stas died in 1976 at age 62–two years after their divorce became final–owing the equivalent of $30 million USD to creditors. With their father’s estate bankrupt and Lee barely supporting her own lifestyle, Jackie stepped in and set up trust funds for Anthony and Tina. Lee was supposedly shocked that Stas had “mismanaged” his finances so much over the years; the reality was, he had been living well above his means for many years, especially the years in which he was married to her. His princely title and his connections gave him access to plenty of loans which–in the end–were never called in. Truman Capote & Lee Radziwill . About the friendship with Truman Capote: Lee and Truman had a special relationship


What event took place at Yasgur's farm, New York, on 15 to 18 August 1969?

History of the Woodstock Music Festival of 1969 Updated August 29, 2016. What Was Woodstock? The Woodstock Festival was a three-day concert (which rolled into a fourth day) that involved lots of sex, drugs, and rock 'n roll - plus a lot of mud. The Woodstock Music Festival of 1969 has become an icon of the 1960s hippie counterculture. Dates: August 15-18, 1969 Location: Max Yasgur's dairy farm in the town of Bethel (outside of White Lake, New York) Also Known As: Woodstock Music Festival; An Aquarian Exposition: Three Days of Peace and Music The Organizers of Woodstock The organizers of the Woodstock Festival were four young men: John Roberts, Joel Rosenman, Artie Kornfeld, and Mike Lang. The oldest of the four was only 27 years old at the time of the Woodstock Festival. Roberts, an heir to a pharmaceutical fortune, and his friend Rosenman were looking for a way to use Roberts' money to invest in an idea that would make them even more money. After placing an ad in The New York Times that stated: "Young men with unlimited capital looking for interesting, legitimate investment opportunities and business propositions," they met Kornfeld and Lang. continue reading below our video 4 Tips for Improving Test Performance The Plan for the Woodstock Festival Kornfeld and Lang's original proposal was to build a recording studio and a retreat for rock musicians up in Woodstock, New York (where Bob Dylan and other musicians already lived). The idea morphed into creating a two-day rock concert for 50,000 people with the hope that the concert would raise enough money to pay for the studio. The four young men then got to work on organizing a large music festival. They found a location for the event up in an industrial park in nearby Wallkill, New York. They printed tickets ($7 for one day, $13 for two days, and $18 for three days), which could be purchased in select stores or via mail order. The men also worked on organizing food, signing musicians, and hiring security. Things Go Very Wrong The first of many things to go wrong with the Woodstock Festival was the location. No matter how the young men and their lawyers spun it, the citizens of Wallkill did not want a bunch of drugged-out hippies descending on their town. After much wrangling, the town of Wallkill passed a law on July 2, 1969 that effectively banned the concert from their vicinity. Everyone involved with the Woodstock Festival panicked. Stores refused to sell any more tickets and the negotiations with the musicians got shaky. Only a month-and-a half before the Woodstock Festival was to begin, a new location had to be found. Luckily, in mid-July, before too many people began demanding refunds for their pre-purchased tickets, Max Yasgur offered up his 600-acre dairy farm in Bethel, New York for the location for the Woodstock Festival. As lucky as they were to have found a new location, the last minute change of venue seriously set back the Festival timeline. New contracts to rent the dairy farm and surrounding areas had to be drawn up and permits to allow the Woodstock Festival in the town had to be acquired. Construction of the stage, a performers' pavilion, parking lots, concession stands, and a children's playground all got a late start and barely got finished in time for the event. Some things, like ticket booths and gates, did not get finished in time. As the date got closer, more problems sprung up. It soon appeared that their 50,000 people estimate was way too low and the new estimate jumped to upwards of 200,000 people. The young men then tried to bring in more toilets, more water, and more food. However, the food concessionaires kept threatening to cancel at the last minute (the organizers had accidentally hired people who had no experience in concessions) so they had to worry about whether or not they could airlift in rice as a backup food supply. Also troublesome was the last-minute ban on off-duty police officers from working at the Woodstock Festival. Hundreds of Thousands Arrive at the Woodstock Festival On Wednesday, August 13 (two days before the Festival was


What word best describes a triangle where all sides are different lengths?

Classifying Three Types of Triangles - dummies Classifying Three Types of Triangles Classifying Three Types of Triangles Classifying Three Types of Triangles By Mark Ryan Triangles are classified according to the length of their sides or the measure of their angles. These classifications come in threes, just like the sides and angles themselves. That is, a triangle has three sides, and three terms describe triangles based on their sides; a triangle also has three angles, and three classifications of triangles are based on their angles. The following are triangle classifications based on sides: Scalene triangle: A triangle with no congruent sides Isosceles triangle: A triangle with at least two congruent sides Equilateral triangle: A triangle with three congruent sides Because an equilateral triangle is also isosceles, all triangles are either scalene or isosceles. But when people call a triangle isosceles, they’re usually referring to a triangle with only two equal sides, because if the triangle had three equal sides, they’d call it equilateral. However, you can’t always assume this when you’re doing tricky geometry homework. Scalene triangles In addition to having three unequal sides, scalene triangles have three unequal angles. The shortest side is across from the smallest angle, the middle-length side is across from the mid-sized angle, and — surprise, surprise — the longest side is across from the largest angle. The ratio of sides doesn’t equal the ratio of angles. Don’t assume that if one side of a triangle is, say, twice as long as another side that the angles opposite those sides are also in a 2:1 ratio. The ratio of the sides may be close to the ratio of the angles, but, for a scalene triangle, these ratios are never exactly equal. Isosceles triangles An isosceles triangle has two equal sides and two equal angles. The equal sides are called legs, and the third side is the base. The two angles touching the base (which are congruent, or equal) are called base angles. The angle between the two legs is called the vertex angle. Equilateral triangles An equilateral triangle has three equal sides and three equal angles (which are each 60°). Its equal angles make it equiangular as well as equilateral. You don’t often hear the expression equiangular triangle, however, because the only triangle that’s equiangular is the equilateral triangle, and everyone calls this triangle equilateral. (With quadrilaterals and other polygons, however, you need both terms, because an equiangular figure, such as a rectangle, can have sides of different lengths, and an equilateral figure, such as a rhombus, can have angles of different sizes.) If you cut an equilateral triangle in half right down the middle, you get two 30°- 60°- 90° right triangles, which figure very heavily in geometry and trigonometry work.


"Before Ron Howard became a film director, and before he starred in ""Happy Days"", he appeared in a long-running US TV series set in Mayberry. What was the name of the show?"

Ron Howard - IMDb IMDb Actor | Producer | Director Academy Award-winning filmmaker Ron Howard is one of this generation's most popular directors. From the critically acclaimed dramas A Beautiful Mind and Apollo 13 to the hit comedies Parenthood and Splash, he has created some of Hollywood's most memorable films. Howard directed and produced "Cinderella Man" starring Oscar winner Russell Crowe, with... See full bio » Born: Famous Directors: From Sundance to Prominence From Christopher Nolan to Quentin Tarantino and every Coen brother in between, many of today's most popular directors got their start at the Sundance Film Festival . Here's a list of some of the biggest names to go from Sundance to Hollywood prominence. a list of 40 people created 23 Jun 2011 a list of 27 people created 06 Jul 2014 a list of 35 people created 01 Apr 2015 a list of 42 people created 11 Nov 2015 a list of 35 people created 5 months ago Do you have a demo reel? Add it to your IMDbPage How much of Ron Howard's work have you seen? User Polls Won     2     Oscars. Another    38 wins & 68 nominations. See more awards  » Known For The Andy Griffith Show Opie Taylor / Opie Taylor (as Ronny Howard) (1960-1968) Happy Days Richie Cunningham / Asst. DA Cecil Cunningham (1974-1984) A Beautiful Mind Man at Governors' Ball (2001)  2016 The Odd Couple (TV Series) Stanley  2016 Nightmare Next Door (TV Series documentary) Dan Short - Off the Hook (2013) ... Narrator (voice, uncredited) - Señoritis (2013) ... Narrator (voice, uncredited)  1981 Saturday Night Live (TV Series) Contestant #2  1981 Bitter Harvest (TV Movie) Ned De Vries  1980 Act of Love (TV Movie) Leon Cybulkowski  1977 I'm a Fool (TV Movie) Andy - A Boy Called Nuthin': Part 1 (1967) ... Richie 'Nuthin'' Caldwell (as Ronny Howard)  1974 Locusts (TV Movie)  1974 The Migrants (TV Movie) Lyle Barlow  1974 The Waltons (TV Series) Seth Turner - Sometimes You Hear the Bullet (1973) ... Wendell (as Ronny Howard)  1970-1972 Bonanza (TV Series) Ted Hoag / Young boy with Griffin (son) - The Initiation (1972) ... Ted Hoag (as Ronny Howard) Virgil Tanner (as Ronny Howard)  1970 Lassie (TV Series)  1967-1969 Gentle Ben (TV Series) Jerry / Jody Cutler - The Bully (1969) ... Jerry (as Ronny Howard) - Green-Eyed Bear (1967) ... Jody Cutler (as Ronny Howard)  1968-1969 Lancer (TV Series) - The Measure of a Man (1969) ... Turk Caudle (as Ronny Howard) - Jelly (1968) ... Willy (as Ronny Howard)  1969 Daniel Boone (TV Series) Luke  1968 The F.B.I. (TV Series) Jess Orkin  1967 The Monroes (TV Series) Timothy Prescott  1966 I Spy (TV Series) Alan Loden  1965 The Big Valley (TV Series) Tommy  1964 The Fugitive (TV Series) Gus  1964 Valentine's Day (TV Series) Jack  1964 Dr. Kildare (TV Series) Jerry Prentice  1964 The Great Adventure (TV Series) Daniel Waterhouse  1963 The Eleventh Hour (TV Series) Barry Stewart  1962 Route 66 (TV Series) Chet Duncan  1962 The New Breed (TV Series) Tommy Simms  1959-1961 General Electric Theater (TV Series) Randy / Barnaby Baxter - Tippy-Top (1961) ... Randy (as Ronny Howard) - Mr. O'Malley (1959) ... Barnaby Baxter (as Ronny Howard) - Take Me to Your Leader (1961) ... Little Boy with Ray Gun (as Ronnie Howard) - Where There's a Will (1960) ... Little Boy Eating Candy Bar (as Ronny Howard)  1960 Pete and Gladys (TV Series) Tommy  1959 The Twilight Zone (TV Series) Wilcox Boy  1959 Johnny Ringo (TV Series) Ricky Parrott  2016 Mars (TV Mini-Series) (executive producer - 6 episodes) - Crossroads (2016) ... (executive producer) - Darkest Days (2016) ... (executive producer) - Power (2016) ... (executive producer) - Pressure Drop (2016) ... (executive producer) - Grounded (2016) ... (executive producer)  2015 Clan of the Cave Bear (TV Movie) (executive producer)  2015 Breakthrough (TV Series documentary) (executive producer - 6 episodes)  2013 Curious George Swings Into Spring (Video) (executive producer)  2012 The Great Escape (TV Series) (executive producer - 8 episodes) - Tough Love (2012) ... (executive producer) - Politics (2012) ... (executive producer) - Skin and Bone (2006


In standard tuning for a 6 string guitar, two strings are tuned to the same note, two octaves apart. What is the note?

Standard Guitar Tuning – How To Tune Your Guitar To The Right Notes 2nd String = B 1st String (highest-sounding & thinnest string) = E (2 octaves higher that the 6th string) In standard guitar tuning, the lowest (6th) string is tuned to an E. The highest-sounding string (1st string), is also an E, but two octaves higher. The other strings are tuned as shown above. Using A Guitar Tuner We strongly recommend that you get hold of a guitar tuner. Rather than hindering your progress, we believe that using a guitar tuner from the outset will help your ear develop faster. Being able to tune up quickly also means that you can practice for longer! Virtually all modern guitar tuners are reliable and inexpensive. Either the Fender FT-004 or Korg GA1 will earn their place in your gear bag (follow links to view at Amazon). Standard Guitar Tuning – Reference Pitches If you are not using an electric guitar tuner, the guitar can be tuned in two ways: the first is by using reference notes from a piano or other musical instrument, the second is by getting the guitar strings in tune relative to themselves, without using a reference pitch. If using the first way, the guitar strings will be at the ‘right’ pitch, and your playing will be in tune with all other instruments tuned to the standard pitch frequencies. If using the second way, your guitar will sound fine when played by itself, but will not be in tune with other instruments (unless they are all tuned to the same, ‘incorrect’ pitches). This isn’t a problem if you are playing solo, or accompanying yourself singing. However, if you are joined by other musicians, their instruments may not be in tune with your guitar. How To Tune Your Guitar Using Standard Guitar Tuning Follow the steps below to tune your guitar to standard guitar tuning. If you don’t have another instrument to provide a reference pitch, you can skip the first step and go directly to step 2. Of course, if you have an electronic guitar tuner, you can simply play the individual strings and the device will tell you if you need to raise or lower the pitch to get them in tune. Step 1. Play the reference pitch. Play the low E note on the piano or keyboard, or have another musician play the note on their instrument. Using the tuners on your guitar, vary the pitch of the low E string either up or down until it is at the same note as the reference pitch. You can either play the reference note first, then adjust your tuning, or play them both at the same time (or a mixture of both). It doesn’t matter if you overshoot the correct note, just tune back the other way until it sounds right. Take your time. People who hurry this are just showing off – experienced musicians will want to get their instrument sounding just right. Step 2. Tune The A String Once your low E string is at the correct pitch, you can find the pitch that the A string should be tuned to by playing the low E string at the 5th fret. If you haven’t got a reference instrument, just tune the A string to whatever pitch the E string happens to be (providing it is somewhere in the vicinity of the correct note). Because of the way a standard guitar works, playing the low E string at the 5th fret produces an A note; the very same note that the A string needs to be tuned to. Tuning The A String Use the machine heads to alter the pitch of the A (5th) string until it is the same as the low E (6th) string played at the 5th fret. You can either play the low string first, then play and adjust the A string, or play them both together until they sound right – or use a mixture of both. At any stage of tuning the guitar, you can go back one or more steps if you feel that the tuning could be better, or if the strings have slipped out of tune. Step 3. Tune The D String Tuning The D String The D string is the next string up. Find the pitch that the D string should be tuned to by playing the A string at the 5th fret – this produces the same D note that the D string should be tuned to. Adjust the tuning of the D string until it the pitches are the same. Step 4. Tune The G String Tuning The


In which city did General Jodl, the German Chief of Staff, sign the surrender document on 7 May 1945, ending World War II in Europe?

Germany surrenders unconditionally to the Allies at Reims - May 07, 1945 - HISTORY.com Germany surrenders unconditionally to the Allies at Reims Share this: Germany surrenders unconditionally to the Allies at Reims Author Germany surrenders unconditionally to the Allies at Reims URL Publisher A+E Networks On this day in 1945, the German High Command, in the person of General Alfred Jodl, signs the unconditional surrender of all German forces, East and West, at Reims, in northwestern France. At first, General Jodl hoped to limit the terms of German surrender to only those forces still fighting the Western Allies. But General Dwight Eisenhower demanded complete surrender of all German forces, those fighting in the East as well as in the West. If this demand was not met, Eisenhower was prepared to seal off the Western front, preventing Germans from fleeing to the West in order to surrender, thereby leaving them in the hands of the enveloping Soviet forces. Jodl radioed Grand Admiral Karl Donitz, Hitler’s successor, with the terms. Donitz ordered him to sign. So with Russian General Ivan Susloparov and French General Francois Sevez signing as witnesses, and General Walter Bedell Smith, Ike’s chief of staff, signing for the Allied Expeditionary Force, Germany was-at least on paper-defeated. Fighting would still go on in the East for almost another day. But the war in the West was over. Since General Susloparov did not have explicit permission from Soviet Premier Stalin to sign the surrender papers, even as a witness, he was quickly hustled back East-into the hands of the Soviet secret police, never to be heard from again. Alfred Jodl, who was wounded in the assassination attempt on Hitler on July 20, 1944, would be found guilty of war crimes (which included the shooting of hostages) at Nuremberg and hanged on October 16, 1946-then granted a pardon, posthumously, in 1953, after a German appeals court found Jodl not guilty of breaking international law. Related Videos


What is the longest named river in North America, which runs from Montana to near St Louis, Missouri?

How did the Missouri River get its name? | Reference.com How did the Missouri River get its name? A: Quick Answer The Missouri River got its name from a Sioux Indian tribe called the Missouris. This tribe gave both the state and the river their names. According to the Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology, "Missouri" is translated as "town of the large canoes." Full Answer Other authorities have stated the translation is "he of the big canoe" or "wooden canoe people." The Missouri River flows down from the Rocky Mountains in Montana for 2,341 miles and then enters the Mississippi River north of St. Louis. It is the longest river in the United States, and in fact in all of North America.


"Of whom, when told he intended to return to private life and retire to his plantation, did King George III say, ""If he does that, he will be the greatest man in the world""?"

The Greatness of George Washington | VQR Online The Greatness of George Washington [clock] 31-MINUTE READ ISSUE:   Spring 1992 George Washington may still be first in war and first in peace, but he no longer seems to be first in the hearts of his countrymen. Or at least in the hearts of American historians. A recent poll of 900 American historians shows that Washington has dropped to third place in presidential greatness behind Lincoln and FDR. Which only goes to show how little American historians know about American history. Polls of historians about presidential greatness are probably silly things, but, if they are to be taken seriously, then Washington fully deserved the first place he has traditionally held. He certainly deserved the accolades his contemporaries gave him. And as long as this republic endures he ought to be first in the hearts of his countrymen. Washington was truly a great man and the greatest president we have ever had. But he was a great man who is not easy to understand. He became very quickly, as has often been pointed out, more a monument than a man, statuesque and impenetrable. Even his contemporaries realized that he was not an ordinary accessible human being. He was deified in his own lifetime. “O Washington,” declared Ezra Stiles, president of Yale, in 1783. “How I do love thy name! How have I often adored and blessed thy God, for creating and forming thee, the great ornament of human kind! . . . Thy fame is of sweeter perfume than Arabian spices. Listening angels shall catch the odor, waft it to heaven and perfume the universe!” One scholar has said that Washington has been “the object of the most intense display of hero worship this nation has ever seen.” Which helps explain the continuing efforts to humanize him—even at the beginning of our history. Parson Mason Weems, his most famous biographer, was less of a churchman than he was a hustling entrepreneur. He was ready when Washington died in 1799: “I’ve something to whisper in your lug,” Weems wrote to his publisher Matthew Carey a month after the great man’s death. “Washington you know, is gone! Millions are gaping to read something about him. I am very nearly primed and cocked for ‘em.” Weems had his book out within the year. The most famous anecdotes about Washington’s early life come from Weems. He wanted to capture the inner private man—to show the early events that shaped Washington’s character, even if he had to make them up. Weems presumed that the source of Washington’s reputation for truthfulness lay in his youth. He tells a story that he said he had heard from Washington’s nurse. It was, he says, “too valuable to be lost, too true to be doubted.” This was, of course, the story of the cherry tree about whose chopping down Washington could not tell a lie. Despite the continued popularity of Parson Weems’ attempt to humanize him, Washington remained distant and unapproachable, almost unreal and unhuman. There have been periodic efforts to bring him down to earth, to expose his foibles, to debunk his fame, but he remained, and remains, massively monumental. By our time in the late 20th century he seems so far removed from us as to be virtually incomprehensible. He seems to come from another time and another place—from another world. And that’s the whole point about him: he does come from another world. And his countrymen realized it even before he died in 1799. He is the only truly classical hero we have ever had. He acquired at once a world-wide reputation as a great patriot-hero. And he knew it. He was well aware of his reputation and his fame earned as the commander-in-chief of the American revolutionary forces. That awareness of his heroic stature and his character as a republican leader was crucial to Washington. It affected nearly everything he did for the rest of his life. Washington was a thoroughly 18th-century figure. So much so, that he quickly became an anachronism. He belonged to the pre-democratic and pre-egalitarian world of the 18th century, to a world very different from the world that would follow. No wonder the


In which city did Popes officially reside from 1309 to 1378?

Avignon Papacy - When the Popes Resided in France By Melissa Snell Definition of the Avignon Papacy: The term "Avignon Papacy" refers to the Catholic papacy during the period 1309-1377, when the popes lived in and operated out of Avignon, France, instead of their traditional home in Rome. The Avignon Papacy was also known as: The Babylon Captivity (a reference to the forced detention of Jews in Babylonia c. 598 B.C.E.) Origins of the Avignon Papacy: Philip IV of France was instrumental in securing the election of Clement V, a Frenchman, to the papacy in 1305. This was an unpopular outcome in Rome, where factionalism made Clement's life as pope stressful. To escape the oppressive atmosphere, in 1309 Clement chose to move the papal capital to Avignon, which was the property of papal vassals at that time. The French Nature of the Avignon Papacy: The majority of the men that Clement V appointed as cardinals were French; and since the cardinals elected the pope, this meant that future popes were likely to be French, as well. continue reading below our video 10 Best Universities in the United States All seven of the Avignonese popes and 111 of the 134 cardinals created during the Avignon papacy were French. Although the Avignonese popes were able to maintain a measure of independence, the French kings did exert some influence from time to time, and the appearance of French influence on the papacy, whether real or not, was undeniable. The Avignonese Popes: 1370-1378: Gregory XI Achievements of the Avignon Papacy: The popes were not idle during their time in France. Some of them made sincere efforts to improve the situation of the Catholic Church and to achieve peace in Christendom. Among their achievements: The administrative offices and other agencies of the papacy were extensively, and effectively, reorganized and centralized. Missionary enterprises were expanded; ultimately, they would reach as far as China. University education was promoted. The College of Cardinals began to strengthen their role in the government of church affairs. Attempts were made to settle secular conflicts. The Avignon Papacy's Poor Reputation: The Avignon popes were not as much under the control of the French kings as it has been charged (or as the kings would have liked). However, some popes did bow to royal pressure, as Clement V did to a degree in the matter of the Templars . And although Avignon belonged to the papacy (it was purchased from papal vassals in 1348), there was nevertheless the perception that it belonged to France, and that the popes were therefore beholden to the French Crown for their livelihoods. In addition, the Papal States in Italy now had to answer to French authorities. Italian interests in the papacy had in past centuries resulted in just as much corruption as in Avignon, if not more so, but this did not stop Italians from attacking the Avignon popes with fervor. One particularly vociferous critic was Petrarch , who had spent spent most of his childhood in Avignon and, after taking minor orders, was to spend more time there in clerical service. In a famous letter to a friend, he described Avignon as the "Babylon of the West," a sentiment that took hold in the imagination of future scholars. The End of the Avignon Papacy: Both Catherine of Siena and St. Bridget of Sweden are credited with persuading Pope Gregory XI to return the See to Rome. This he did on Jan. 17, 1377. But Gregory's stay in Rome was plagued with hostilities, and he seriously considered returning to Avignon. Before he could make any move, however, he died in March, 1378. The Avignon Papacy had officially ended. Repercussions of the Avignon Papacy: When Gregory XI moved the See back to Rome, he did so over the objections of the cardinals in France. The man elected to succeed him, Urban VI, was so hostile to the cardinals that 13 of them met to choose another pope, who, far from replacing Urban, could only stand in opposition to him. Thus began the Western Schism (a.k.a. the Great Schism), in which two popes and two papal curias existed simultaneously for ano


Western nations allied with the United States to intervene between warring countries and defend the border at the 38th Parallel in which country?

Outline of American History - Chapter 11: Postwar America CHAPTER 11: Postwar America An Outline of American History "We must build a new world, a far better world -- one in which the eternal dignity of man is respected." -- President Harry S. Truman, 1945 CONSENSUS AND CHANGE The United States dominated global affairs in the years immediately after World War II. Victorious in that great struggle, its homeland undamaged from the ravages of war, the nation was confident of its mission at home and abroad. U.S. leaders wanted to maintain the democratic structure they had defended at tremendous cost and to share the benefits of prosperity as widely as possible. For them, as for publisher Henry Luce of Time magazine, this was the "American Century." For 20 years, most Americans remained sure of this confident approach. They accepted the need for a strong stance against the Soviet Union in the Cold War that unfolded after 1945. They endorsed the growth of government authority and accepted the outlines of the welfare state, first formulated during the New Deal. They enjoyed the postwar prosperity that created new levels of affluence in the United States. But gradually some Americans began to question dominant assumptions about American life. Challenges on a variety of fronts shattered the consensus. In the 1950s, African Americans launched a crusade, joined later by other minority groups and women, for a larger share of the American dream. In the 1960s, politically active students protested the nation's role abroad, particularly in the corrosive war in Vietnam, and a youth counterculture challenged the status quo of American values. Americans from many walks of life sought to establish a new equilibrium in the United States. COLD WAR AIMS The Cold War was the most important political issue of the early postwar period. It grew out of longstanding disagreements between the Soviet Union and the United States. In 1918 American troops participated in the Allied intervention in Russia on behalf of  anti-Bolshevik forces. American diplomatic recognition of the Bolshevik regime did not come until 1933. Even then, suspicions persisted. During World War II, however, the two countries found themselves allied and thus ignored their differences to counter the Nazi threat. At the war's end, antagonisms surfaced again. The United States hoped to share with other countries its conception of liberty, equality and democracy. With the rest of the world in turmoil, struggling with civil wars and disintegrating empires, the nation hoped to provide the stability to make peaceful reconstruction possible. Unable to forget the specter of the Great Depression (1929-1940), America now fostered its familiar position of free trade, and sought to eliminate trade barriers both to create markets for American agricultural and industrial products, and to ensure the ability of West European nations to export as a means to generate economic growth and rebuild their economies. Reduced trade barriers, it was believed, would  promote economic growth at home and abroad, and bolster stability with U.S. friends and allies. The Soviet Union had its own agenda. The Russian historical tradition of centralized, autocratic government contrasted with the American emphasis on democracy. Marxist-Leninist ideology had been downplayed during the war but still guided Soviet policy. Devastated by the struggle in which 20 million Soviet citizens had died, the Soviet Union was intent on rebuilding and on protecting itself from another such terrible conflict. The Soviets were particularly concerned about another invasion of their territory from the west. Having repelled Hitler's thrust, they were determined to preclude another such attack. The Soviet Union now demanded "defensible" borders and regimes sympathetic to its aims in Eastern Europe. But the United States had  declared the restoration of independence and self-government to  Poland, Czechoslovakia and the other countries of Centra


Who won the Formula One Championship for drivers in 2000?

Top 10 F1 Drivers All Time - Most Grand Prix Wins in History Top Formula 1 Drivers Who Won Most Grand Prix Titles History by Sameer Arshad | Posted on Sunday, June 2nd, 2013 | 0 Who has won the most Grand Prixs in the history of Formula 1 Championships ? well you are about to know all the details going further in the post. One name which comes to mind is Michael Schumacher who have won 7 Formula 1 World Championships, but how many grand prix wins it took for him to win those 7 World Championship title in formula 1, thats and alot more historical states for F1 here. Lets start with Most F1 World title by a driver. Michael Schumacher have won 7 titles starting with 1994, 1995 than after 5 years who won 5 consecutive titles (2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004) with Ferrari and he is leading F1 driver with most titles in hte history, but who is second ? lets take a look. Michael Schumacher – Title F1 World Titles – 7 Juan Manuel Fangio – F1 World Titles – 5 Alain Prost – F1 World Titles – 4 Jack Brabham – F1 World Titles – 3 Jackie Stewart – F1 World Titles – 3 Niki Lauda – F1 World Titles – 3 Nelson Piquet – F1 World Titles – 3 Ayrton Senna – F1 World Titles – 3 Sebastian Vettel – F1 World Titles – 3 HERE IS THE TOP DRIVERS WITH MOST F1 WORLD TITLE WINS: Driver


Who was the Venetian who made a number of journeys to China and India in the 13th century and was later taken prisoner by the Genoese?

Marco Polo Biography Share By Kallie Szczepanski Marco Polo was an inmate in the Genoese prison at the Palazzo di San Giorgio from 1296 to 1299, arrested for commanding a Venetian galley in a war against Genoa. While there, he told tales of his travels through Asia to his fellow prisoners and the guards alike, and his cellmate Rustichello da Pisa wrote them down. Once the two were released from prison, copies of the manuscript, titled The Travels of Marco Polo, captivated Europe. Polo told tales of fabulous Asian courts, black stones that would catch on fire (coal), and Chinese money made out of paper . Ever since, people have debated the question: Did Marco Polo really go to China , and see all of the things he claims to have seen? Early Life: Marco Polo was probably born in Venice, although there is no proof of his place of birth, around 1254 CE. His father Niccolo and uncle Maffeo were Venetian merchants who traded on the Silk Road ; little Marco's father left for Asia before the child was born, and would return when the boy was a teenager. continue reading below our video Profile of Marco Polo He may not have even realized that his wife was pregnant when he left. Thanks to enterprising merchants such as the Polo brothers, Venice flourished at this time as the major trading hub for imports from the fabulous oasis cities of Central Asia , exotic India , and far-off, wondrous Cathay (China). With the exception of India, the whole expanse of Silk Road Asia was under the control of the Mongol Empire at this time. Genghis Khan had died, but his grandson Kublai Khan was Great Khan of the Mongols as well as the founder of the Yuan Dynasty in China. Pope Alexander IV announced to Christian Europe in a 1260 papal bull that they faced "wars of universal destruction wherewith the scourge of Heaven's wrath in the hands of the inhuman Tartars [Europe's name for the Mongols], erupting as it were from the secret confines of Hell, oppresses and crushes the earth." For men such as the Polos, however, the now stable and peaceful Mongol Empire was a source of wealth, rather than of hell-fire. Young Marco Goes to Asia: When the elder Polos returned to Venice in 1269, they found that Niccolo's wife had died and left behind a 15-year-old son named Marco. The boy must have been surprised to learn that he was not an orphan, as well. Two years later, the teenager, his father and his uncle would embark eastward on another great journey. The Polos made their way to Acre, now in Israel, and then rode camels north to Hormuz, Persia. On their first visit to Kublai Khan's court, the Khan had asked the Polo brothers to bring him oil from the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem, which Armenian Orthodox priests sold in that city, so the Polos went to the Holy City to buy the consecrated oil. Marco's travel account mentions various other interesting peoples along the way, including Kurds and marsh Arabs in Iraq. Young Marco was put off by the Armenians, considering their Orthodox Christianity a heresy, puzzled by Nestorian Christianity , and even more alarmed by the Muslim Turks (or "Saracens"). He admired the beautiful Turkish carpets with the instincts of a merchant, however. The naive young traveler would have to learn to be open-minded about new peoples and their beliefs. On to China: The Polos crossed into Persia , through Savah and the carpet-weaving center of Kerman. They had planned to sail to China via India, but found that the ships available in Persia were too rickety to be trusted. Instead, they would join a trade caravan of two-humped Bactrian camels. Before they departed from Persia, however, the Polos passed by the Eagle's Nest, scene of Hulagu Khan's 1256 siege against the Assassins or Hashshashin. Marco Polo's account, taken from local tales, may have vastly exaggerated the fanaticism of the Assassins. Nevertheless, he was very happy to descend the mountains and take the road toward Balkh, in northern Afghanistan , famed as the ancient home of Zoroaster or Zarathustra. One of the oldest cities on earth, Balkh did not live up to Marco's expecta


The Kalahari Desert is on which continent?

Kalahari Fun Facts | Stretching around 360,000 square miles across Botswana, Namibia and South Africa, the Kalahari Desert is not a desert in the strictest sense of the word. It receives too much rainfall – between 5 and 10 inches annually. Only its vast expanses of sand, through which precipitation filters rapidly, leaving nothing on the surface, have made the Kalahari into the “thirstland” that early European settlers described. The desert is part of the 970,000-square-mile Kalahari Basin, which includes the Okavango River Delta and other wetter areas. The basin encompasses virtually all of Botswana and more than half of Namibia. The video game Mario Kart 64 includes a track called ‘Kalimari Desert’, a reference to the Kalahari Desert which is in Southern Africa.   The Kalahari Desert covers about 350, 000 square miles from the southern part of the African continent. It includes some parts of South Africa, Namibia and big part of Botswana.   The Kalahari’s desert name comes from the local word ‘waterless place’. However, for the reason that the Kalahari’s sand retains water greater than some other deserts, there’s a variety of plant life in this desert.   The Kalahari is generally known as a semi-desert or savannah, as it receives some rainfall has more plants and animals than the usual dry desert.   From the 1965 film, Sands of the Kalahari several grouped plane crash survivors make an effort to survive in the desert. The Kalahari also features in the movies The Lion king and The Gods Must be Crazy.   Some of the world’s largest diamond mines can be found in the Kalahari Desert. The vast area is also a rich source of nickel, copper and coal and it is also home to several huge game reserves.   During summer time, temperatures can reach around 100 degrees, while winter weather temperatures can reach very cold ones. The Okavango Delta is the Only one permanent river that flows within the Kalahari Desert.   The desert houses many different species involving birds, including the smaller weaver bird. The weaver bird creates huge nests from twigs and grass at the top of poles and trees.   Several of the world’s most dangerous big cats can be found in the Kalahari Desert, like cheetah, lion and leopard. The large antelope generally known as the Eland is also found here and this animal weights almost 910 kg.   One of the world’s most well-known cultures, the San Bushmen, has lived in this desert for over 2 decades (20, 000 years). The primitive tribes still live here like they did before.   Several years ago, the Kalahari Desert had more plants and animals than it does today, and it had hundreds of large lakes. As the seas evaporated, they left huge salt pans, or craters, which could still be seen these days.   The British television line “Meerkat Manor” was made in the Kalahari Desert.   The Taa language, spoken by lower than 5, 000 people in this Kalahari Desert is the language with more vowels and consonants than any other language.   The name Kalahari means “large thirst” in Tswana language.   The temperatures from the desert are extreme, summer being incredibly hot; while in winter temperatures can go even under 0 degrees.   The Kalahari is the southernmost desert in the African continent.   It is the 6 biggest deserts by area on earth and the second biggest in Africa after the Sahara.   There is a population of Bushmen in this desert. They are mostly hunters-gatherers.   Thousands of years ago, the Kalahari Desert has been blooming with life because there were many lakes. Nowadays, in the place where the lakes were, large salt pans remain, such as Makgadikgadi Pan, the remains on the once huge Lake Makgadikgadi. Another big pan in this area is the Nxan pan.   Once a very big irrigation plan was proposed to make parts of the Kalahari Desert suited for agriculture, but nothing happened with that.   In 1885, the explorer Guillermo Farini published a book about some rock formations that he assumed were ruins of a city. Then other explorers wanted to visit Farini’s ruins, thus a quest to find the Lost City of Kalahari started


Who, in 1831, first demonstrated that the motion of a conductor in a magnetic field generates an electric current?

Molecular Expressions: Electricity and Magnetism - Inductance Movie Gallery Inductance Inductance is a property of an electric circuit by which a changing magnetic field creates an electromotive force, or voltage, in that circuit or in a nearby circuit. Inductance is also defined as the property of an electric circuit that opposes any change in current. In 1831, Michael Faraday, an English scientist, discovered that a changing magnetic field in a circuit induced a current in a nearby circuit. Joseph Henry, an American scientist, independently made this discovery at about the same time. The generation of an electromotive force and current by a changing magnetic field is called electromagnetic induction. The operation of electric generators is based on the principal of inductance. Magnetic Field Lines In order to better understand inductance, it is helpful to have an understanding of magnetic field lines. All magnets are surrounded by a magnetic field, also called magnetic flux. A magnetic field can be thought of consisting of lines of force, or flux lines. The forces of magnetic attraction and repulsion move along the lines of force. The pattern of magnetic field lines can be observed in our Magnetic Field Lines Interactive Java Tutorial. Interactive Java Tutorial Observe the pattern of magnetic field lines.   Faraday's Discoveries Faraday made his discovery of electromagnetic induction with an experiment using two coils of wire wound around opposite sides of a ring of soft iron similar to the experiment setup in Figure 1 below. The first coil on the right is attached to a battery. The second coil contains a compass, which acts as a galvanometer to detect current flow. When the switch is closed, a current passes through the first coil and the iron ring becomes magnetized. When the switch is first closed, the compass in the second coil deflects momentarily and returns immediately to its original position. The deflection of the compass is an indication that an electromotive force was induced causing current to flow momentarily in the second coil. Faraday also observed that when the switch is opened, the compass again deflects momentarily, but in the opposite direction. Faraday was aware that that a coil of wire with an electric current flowing through it generates a magnetic field. Therefore, he hypothesized that a changing magnetic field induces a current in the second coil. The closing and opening of the switch cause a magnetic field to change: to expand and collapse respectively. You can conduct Faraday's experiment at our Faraday's Experiment Interactive Java Tutorial. Interactive Java Tutorial Conduct Faraday's 2nd electromagnetic induction experiment.   Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction The relationship between changing magnetic flux and induced electromotive force is known as Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction: The magnitude of an electromagnetic force induced in a circuit is proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux that cuts across the circuit. Mathematically, Faraday's law is written as: E = - (DF/Dt) where E is the induced electromotive force in volts, DF is the change in magnetic force in webers, and Dt is the amount of time in seconds in which the change in magnetic force takes place. From the above formula we see that the amount of induced voltage is determined by two factors: The amount of magnetic flux The greater the number of magnetic field lines cutting across the conductor, the greater the induced voltage. The rate at which the magnetic field lines cut across the conductor The faster the field lines cut across a conductor, or the conductor cuts across the field lines, the greater the induced voltage. You can observe this by varying the speed at which you move the magnet in our Faraday's 2nd Experiment Interactive Java Tutorial. Lenz's Law The minus sign in Faraday's law refers to the direction, or polarity, of the induced voltage. In 1833, the Russian physicist Heinrich Lenz discovered the directional relationships among the forces, voltages, and currents of


Who was the king of England who succeeded James I?

King James I | Britroyals Born: June 19, 1566 at Edinburgh Castle, Scotland Parents: Mary, Queen of Scots, and Henry Stewart, Lord Darnley Relation to Elizabeth II: 9th great-grandfather House of: Stuart Ascended to the throne: March 24, 1603 aged 36 years Crowned: July 25, 1603 at Westminster Abbey, also as James VI of Scotland at Stirling Castle on July 29, 1567 Married: Anne, Daughter of Frederick II of Denmark and Norway Children: Three sons and five daughters, of whom three survived infancy; Henry, Elizabeth and Charles Died: March 27, 1625 at Theobalds Park, Hertfordshire, aged 58 years, 9 months, and 7 days Buried at: Westminster Reigned for: 22 years, and 3 days, King of Scotland for 57 years 1567-1625 Succeeded by: his son Charles James was the son of Mary Queen of Scots and her second husband Henry Stewart, Lord Darnley. He was descended through the Scottish kings from Robert the Bruce, and the English Tudors through his great grandmother Margaret Tudor sister of Henry VIII. His parent�s marriage was short-lived and Darnley was found murdered 8 months after James was born in June 1566. His mother married again, but in 1567 was forced to renounce the throne of Scotland in favour of her infant son. James became King James VI of Scotland aged 13 months in July 1567, and was crowned at Stirling. Mary fled to England where she was eventually executed following Catholic plots against Elizabeth I in 1587. His childhood and adolescence were unhappy, abnormal, and precarious; he had various guardians, whose treatment of him differed widely. His education, although thorough, was weighted with strong Presbyterian and Calvinist political doctrine, and his character � highly intelligent and sensitive, but also fundamentally shallow, vain, and exhibitionist � reacted violently to this. He also sought solace with extravagant and unsavoury male favourites who, in later years, were to have a damaging effect on his prestige and state affairs. A suitable Queen was found for him in Anne of Denmark and they were married in 1589. As King of Scotland, he curbed the power of the nobility, although his attempts to limit the authority of the Kirk (Church of Scotland) were less successful. When Elizabeth I of England died in 1603 unmarried, James moved to London and was crowned King James I of England the first of the Stuart Kings of the combined crowns of England and Scotland. The English courtiers were wary of his Scottish favourites, affairs with male courtiers and uncouth ways. He was however a supporter of literature and arts. William Shakespeare was among the �Kings Men� troupe of actors who performed plays for their patron James. He commissioned the King James Authorized Version of the Bible, published in 1611, which remains one of the most important English translations of the Bible. He initially acted mainly upon the advice of Robert Cecil, Earl of Salisbury, but on Salisbury�s death all restraint vanished. His religious policy consisted of asserting the supreme authority and divine right of the crown and suppressing both Puritans and Catholics who objected. Guy Fawkes' attempt to blow up Parliament in 1605 produced an anti-Catholic reaction, which gave James a temporary popularity which soon dissipated. His foreign policy aimed primarily at achieving closer relations with Spain was not liked by Parliament who saw Spain as the Old Catholic enemy of the Armada and competitor for world trade. During his reign the East India Company expanded trade bringing spices from the East, and Jamestown was founded in Virginia. His willingness to compromise politically, even while continuing to talk in terms of absolutism, largely accounts for the superficial stability of his reign. However, the effects of many of his actions were long term, becoming fully obvious only after his death. James and Anne had 8 children only three of whom survived infancy. Their eldest son Henry died aged 18 of typhoid, and their 2nd son Charles became King Charles I. The marriage of their daughter Elizabeth to Frederic V, Elector Palatine and King of Bohem


What instrument was designed to measure variations in temperature by the expansion or contraction of a liquid or gas?

Museo Galileo - In depth - Thermometer In-depth Index The thermometer is an instrument for measuring temperature whose development began in the early seventeenth century. Thermometers are based on the property of gases, liquids, and solids to expand or contract with changes in temperature. Other thermometer designs are based on electrical phenomena. Thermoscope Instrument to measure heat and cold invented by Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) during his stay in Padua. Santorio Santorio (1561-1636) made a similar instrument in Venice in 1612. A precursor of the modern thermometer, the thermoscope consists of a glass vessel with a long neck. The vessel was heated with the hands and partially immersed, in an upright position, in a container full of water. When the heat of the hands was taken away, the water was observed to rise in the thermoscope neck. The experiment showed the changes in air density produced by variations in temperature. Liquid thermometer Thermometer in which temperature variations are indicated by changes in the volume of a liquid. The latter is placed in a bulb, and expands (or contracts) in a capillary tube. The liquid—alcohol, mercury, toluol, etc.—was chosen in accordance with the range of temperatures to be measured. Metal thermometer Thermometer in which temperature variations are generally indicated by the changes in length of one or more metal rods. Bimetal thermometer Thermometer in which temperature variations are indicated by the changes in the shape of a bar consisting of two metals with different expansion coefficients soldered together. Flat bimetallic plates curl when they experience temperature variations; coiled bimetallic plates unfold or fold tighter. Recording thermometer One of several kinds of thermometer (liquid, metal, etc.) whose readings are recorded by a pen on a clockwork-driven drum carrying a ribbon of graduated paper. Also called self-registering thermometer. Maximum and minimum thermometer Thermometer in which the maximum and minimum temperatures reached in a given time interval are memorized by means of various devices, such as a quantity of liquid poured into a vessel, or the displacement of tiny cursors in the capillary tubes. Gas thermometer Thermometer in which temperature variations are indicated by the expansion and contraction of a gas. Laboratories use this type of apparatus for precision measurement. Electrical thermometer Thermometer indicating temperature variations by means of electrical current flowing through a circuit in which a galvanometer is inserted. The sensitive element can be an electrical resistance whose value changes with temperature, or a thermocouple (formed by two soldered metals), which also generates specific quantities of current at different temperatures. Differential thermometers Thermometers capable of measuring or indicating the (generally small) difference between two temperatures. Often called thermoscopes, they were commonly used to study thermal radiation. They consist of a capillary U-tube closed at both ends by two glass bulbs. In the tube is inserted a drop of liquid serving as an indicator. When one of the two bulbs (which is often blackened) is exposed to a source of thermal radiation, the air in the bulb expands, pushing the drop along the capillary tube toward the second bulb. Related objects


At the 1968 Olympic Games held at Mexico City, what was the now-universal style introduced to the high jump?

1968 Olympic Games in Mexico City Overview By Jennifer Rosenberg The 1968 Olympic Games in Mexico City, Mexico Only ten days before the 1968 Olympic Games were to open, the Mexican army surrounded a group of students who were protesting against the Mexican government at the Plaza of Three Cultures and opened fire into the crowd. It is estimated that 267 were killed and over 1,000 were wounded. During the Olympic Games, political statements were also made. Tommie Smith and John Carlos (both from the U.S.) won the gold and bronze medals , respectively, in the 200-meter race. When they stood (barefoot) upon the victory platform, during the playing of the " Star Spangled Banner ," they each raised one hand, covered by a black glove, in a Black Power salute (picture). Their gesture was meant to bring attention to the conditions of blacks in the United States. This act, since it went against the ideals of the Olympic Games, caused the two athletes to be expelled from the Games. The IOC stated, "The basic principle of the Olympic Games is that politics plays no part whatsoever in them. continue reading below our video What are the Seven Wonders of the World U.S. athletes violated this universally accepted principle . . . to advertise domestic political views."* Dick Fosbury (United States) drew attention not because of any political statement, but because of his unorthodox jumping technique. Though there had been several techniques previously used to get over the high jump bar, Fosbury jumped over the bar backwards and head first. This form of jumping became known as the "Fosbury flop." Bob Beamon (United States) made headlines by an amazing long jump. Known as an erratic jumper because he often took off with the wrong foot, Beamon tore down the runway, jumped with the correct foot, cycled through the air with his legs, and landed at 8.90 meters (making a world record 63 centimeters beyond the old record). Many athletes felt that the high altitude of Mexico City affected the events, helping some athletes and hindering others. In response to complaints about the high altitude, Avery Brundage, the IOC president, stated, "The Olympic Games belong to all the world, not the part of it at sea level ."** It was at the 1968 Olympic Games that drug testing debuted. Though these Games were filled with political statements, they were very popular Games. Approximately 5,500 athletes participated, representing 112 countries. * John Durant, Highlights of the Olympics: From Ancient Times to the Present (New York: Hastings House Publishers, 1973) 185. ** Avery Brundage as quoted in Allen Guttmann, The Olympics: A History of the Modern Games (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1992) 133. For More Information:


What Indian people drove out the Toltecs and were conquered by Spain in the 16th century?

Lonely Planet Travel Guides and Travel Information Mexico under the PAN The ancient civilizations From nomadic hunter-gatherer beginnings, early Mexicans first developed agriculture, then villages, then cities with advanced civilizations, then great empires. The political map shifted constantly as one city or state sought domination over another, and a sequence of powerful states rose and fell through invasion, internal dissension or environmental disasters. But the diverse cultures of ancient Mexico had much in common, as religion, forms of social organization and economic basics were transmitted from lords to masters and from one generation to the next. Human sacrifice, to appease ferocious gods, was practiced by many societies; observation of the heavens was developed to predict the future and determine propitious times for important events like harvests; society was heavily stratified and dominated by priestly ruling classes; women were restricted to domestic and child-bearing roles; versions of a ritual ball game were played almost everywhere on specially built courts. Most Mexicans today are, at least in part, descended from the country’s original inhabitants, and varied aspects of modern Mexico – from spirituality and artistry to the country’s continued domination by elites – owe a great deal to the pre-Hispanic heritage. There are many ways of analyzing the pre-Hispanic eras, but one common (if oversimplified) framework divides into three main periods: Preclassic, before AD 250; Classic, AD 250–900; and Postclassic, AD 900–1521. The Classic period saw the flourishing of some of the most advanced cultures, including the Maya and the empire of Teotihuacán . ^ Back to top Beginnings It’s accepted that, barring a few Vikings in the north and some possible direct transpacific contact with Southeast Asia, the pre-Hispanic inhabitants of the Americas arrived from Siberia . They came in several migrations during the last ice age, between perhaps 60, 000 and 8000 BC, crossing land now submerged beneath the Bering Strait. The first Mexicans hunted big animal herds in the grasslands of the highland valleys. When temperatures rose at the end of the Ice Age, the valleys became drier, ceasing to support such animal life and forcing the people to derive more food from plants. In central Mexico’s Tehuacán Valley, archaeologists have traced the slow beginnings of agriculture between 7000 and 3000 BC, leading to a sufficiently dependable supply of food for people to be able to settle in fixed villages. Pottery appeared by 2000 BC. ^ Back to top The Olmecs Mexico’s ‘mother culture’ was the mysterious Olmec civilization, which appeared near the Gulf coast in the humid lowlands of southern Veracruz and neighboring Tabasco . The name Olmec – ‘People from the Region of Rubber’ – was coined by archaeologists in the 1920s. The evidence of the masterly stone sculptures they left behind indicates that Olmec civilization was well organized and able to support talented artisans, but lived in thrall to fearsome deities. Its best-known artifacts are the awesome ‘Olmec heads, ’ stone sculptures up to 3m high with grim, pug-nosed faces and wearing curious helmets. Ten Olmec heads were found at the first great Olmec center, San Lorenzo, and at least seven at the second great site, La Venta. The Olmecs were obviously capable of a high degree of social organization, as the stone from which the heads and many other stone monuments were carved was probably dragged, rolled or rafted to San Lorenzo and La Venta from hills 60km to 100km away. They were also involved in trade over large regions. Olmec sites found in central and western Mexico, far from the Gulf coast, may well have been trading posts or garrisons to ensure the supply of jade, obsidian and other luxuries for the Olmec elite. In the end, both San Lorenzo and La Venta were destroyed violently, but Olmec art, religion and society had a profound influence on later Mexican civilizations. Olmec gods, such as the feathered serpent and their fire and corn deities, persisted right through the pre-


What is the name for a nutritional disease caused by a lack of vitamin c?

4 Diseases Caused by a Lack of Essential Vitamins and Minerals | Mental Floss 4 Diseases Caused by a Lack of Essential Vitamins and Minerals Retronaut.com Like us on Facebook Companies pushing products with added vitamins and minerals can fool people into thinking that they’re eating a “healthy” food when they’re not—but it’s not like those vitamins and minerals are there for no reason. For much of human history, diseases of nutrient deficiency were the norm, and in some parts of the world, they still persist. Even into the 20th century, conditions caused by a lack of certain vitamins or minerals were endemic to North America and Europe. Artificially added nutrients may not make a food “healthy,” but they do stave off several debilitating, and sometimes fatal, diseases of malnutrition. Here are a few of those maladies. 1. Scurvy Courtesy of The Diseases of Infancy and Childhood The disease of pirates: the grey-death. Scurvy is caused by a lack of vitamin C, whose chemical name, ascorbic acid, is derived from the Latin term for scurvy, scorbutus. Even though the disease was known since ancient times (described by Hippocrates around 400 BCE), it was not a scourge to those who were largely land-bound. Even though its causes were unknown, many cultures realized that eating certain herbs could reverse the symptoms, and as long as there was access to fresh food, it was generally kept under control. Scurvy didn’t become a significant problem until the Age of Discovery (beginning in the 15th century), when people at sea were not able to access that much-needed fresh food for months at a time. Preserved meats and carbohydrates contained no vitamin C, and unlike most animals, the human body is not able to create vitamin C on its own. The early symptoms of scurvy include spongy gums, pain in the joints, and blood spots appearing under the skin. As the disease progressed, the teeth would become loose, extreme halitosis (bad breath) would develop, the afflicted would become too weak to walk or work, be in too much pain to eat, and would die “mid-sentence,” often from a burst blood vessel. Many of the early explorers lost great numbers of men to scurvy : Vasco de Gama lost 116 out of 170 men in 1499, and in 1520, Magellan lost 208 out of 230. A few deaths were attributable to other causes, but the vast majority were due to scurvy. Courtesy of TaussMarine.com Despite not being able to pinpoint the exact cause of scurvy, in the 18th century, Naval physician James Lind was able to prove , in what’s considered to be the first controlled scientific experiment, that scurvy could be prevented (and cured) by incorporating citrus fruits such as limes and oranges into the diet of sailors. Although his findings weren’t widely accepted at first, the British Navy eventually began issuing standard rations of lemon juice, and later, limes, to their sailors—which gave rise to the term “limey” in reference to the British. These days, scurvy is an extremely rare condition, almost exclusively caused by someone eating a completely unvaried diet . In most cases, high levels of oral supplementation of vitamin C are enough to reverse the condition in a matter of weeks, and death by scurvy is almost unheard of. 2. Rickets Courtesy of Blatner.com This condition is brought on by a lack of vitamin D, which causes the body to be unable to absorb or deposit calcium. Less commonly, it can also be caused by a lack of calcium or phosphorus, but vitamin D deficiency is by far the most common cause. Unlike vitamin C, the human body is able to produce vitamin D, but only if it has the metabolic precursors available to it. When the skin is exposed to ultraviolet light (such as from the sun), cholesterol in the skin reacts and forms cholecalciferol, which is then processed in the liver and kidneys to create the active form of vitamin D. Even with a nominally healthy diet, without enough sun exposure, the body can’t produce the vitamin D precursors on its own. This is actually re-emerging as a health concern among some increasingly-indoor groups of people, and is one of t