In 1120 the sinking of what vessel, called the Titanic of the Middle Ages, caused the death of the legitimate heir to the throne of England and led to a period known as the Anarchy?

White Ship : definition of White Ship and synonyms of White Ship (English) 7 External links   Shipwreck This section needs additional citations for verification . Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources . Unsourced material may be challenged and removed . (November 2011) The White Ship was a new vessel owned by Thomas FitzStephen , whose father Airard FitzStephen had been captain of the ship "The Mora" for William the Conqueror when he invaded England in 1066 . He offered to let Henry I of England use it to return to England from Barfleur in north-western France . Henry had already made travelling arrangements, but suggested that his son William Adelin travel on it instead. But when the White Ship set off in the dark, its port side struck a submerged rock (this rock can still be seen from the cliffs of Barfleur ), and the ship quickly capsized. The only known survivor was a butcher from Rouen . He was wearing thick ramskins that saved him from exposure , and was picked up by fishermen the next morning. In his account of the disaster, chronicler Orderic Vitalis claimed that when Thomas FitzStephen came to the surface after the sinking and learned that William Adelin had not survived, he let himself drown rather than face the King. The cause of the shipwreck remains uncertain and various stories surround its loss. The most frequently aired version of events is that of a drinking binge by the crew and passengers. When seabound the captain became reckless and dared to try to overtake the King's ship once outside the harbour walls. It is also told that priests were not allowed on board to bless the ship in the customary manner. William of Nangis wrote that the White Ship sank because all the men aboard were sodomites , [4] which reflects the medieval belief that sin caused pestilence and disaster. [5]   Repercussions Main article: The Anarchy A direct result of William Adelin's death was the period known as the Anarchy , enabling Stephen of Blois to usurp the English throne. The White Ship disaster had left Henry I with only one legitimate child, a daughter named Matilda . Although Henry I had forced his barons to swear an oath to support Matilda as his heir on several occasions, a woman had never ruled in England in her own right. Matilda was also unpopular because she was married to Geoffrey V, Count of Anjou , a traditional enemy of England's Norman nobles. Upon Henry's death in 1135, the English barons were reluctant to accept Matilda as queen Regnant . One of Henry I's male relatives, Stephen of Blois , the king's nephew by his sister Adela, usurped Matilda as well as his older brothers William and Theobald to become king. Stephen had allegedly planned to travel on the ship but had disembarked just before it sailed. Orderic Vitalis attributes this to a sudden bout of diarrhea . After Henry I's death, Matilda and her husband Geoffrey of Anjou , the founder of the Plantagenet dynasty, launched a long and devastating war against Stephen and his allies for control of the English throne. Robert Lacey has observed that "The White Ship was the Titanic of the Middle Ages, a much-vaunted high-tech vessel on its maiden voyage, wrecked against a foreseeable natural obstacle in the reckless pursuit of speed." [6]   Historical fiction The sinking of the White Ship is the opening to the prologue of Ken Follett 's novel The Pillars of the Earth (1989). The ship's sinking sets the stage for the entire background of the story, which is based on the subsequent civil war between Matilda (referred to as Maud in the novel) and Stephen . In Follett's novel, it is implied that the ship may have been sabotaged and in the TV adaptation this is directly confirmed even going so far as to reveal that William Adelin was assassinated whilst on a lifeboat. It is also described in detail by Sharon Kay Penman in the historical novel When Christ and His Saints Slept (1994). The sinking of the White Ship is briefly referenced in Glenn Cooper 's novel The Tenth Chamber (2010). The White Ship also sets the stage for the nove


What major 1915 campaign of the First World War is also called as the Battle of Çanakkale and is credited with shaping the consciousness of more than one country?

Gallipoli Campaign 1915 Gallipoli Campaign 1915 See also: Timeline of the Battle of Gallipoli Gallipoli Campaign Part of World War I Gallipoli Campaign, April 1915. Date 25 April 1915 – 9 January 1916 (8 months, 2 weeks and 1 day) Location Gallipoli peninsula, Ottoman Empire Result Decisive Ottoman victory  Lord Birdwood Otto Liman von Sanders  Mustafa Kemal 16 divisions (final) Ottoman Empire: 315,500[4] 220,000, 59% casualty rate[5] 251,000, 60% casualty rate[6] [show] v t e [show] v t e Theatres of World War I The Gallipoli Campaign, also known as the Dardanelles Campaign or the Battle of Gallipoli or the Battle of Çanakkale (Turkish: Çanakkale Savaşı),[7][8][9][10][11][12] took place at the peninsula of Gallipoli in the Ottoman Empire (now Gelibolu in modern day Turkey) between 25 April 1915 and 9 January 1916, during the First World War. A joint British and French operation was mounted to capture the Ottoman capital of Istanbul (then still referred to as 'Constantinople' by Western nations) and secure a sea route to Russia.[13] The attempt failed, with heavy casualties on both sides. The campaign was considered one of the greatest victories of the Turks and was reflected on as a major failure by the Allies. The Gallipoli campaign resonated profoundly among all nations involved. In Turkey, the battle is perceived as a defining moment in the history of the Turkish people—a final surge in the defence of the motherland as the aging Ottoman Empire was crumbling. The struggle laid the grounds for the Turkish War of Independence and the foundation of the Republic of Turkey eight years later under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, himself a commander at Gallipoli. The campaign was the first major battle undertaken by the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC), and is often considered to mark the birth of national consciousness in both of these countries.[14][15] [16] Anzac Day, 25 April, remains the most significant commemoration of military casualties and veterans in Australia and New Zealand, surpassing Armistice Day/Remembrance Day. Contents  [hide]  [edit]Decision to attack Sea access to Russia through the Dardanelles The Allies were keen to open an effective supply route to Russia: efforts on the Eastern Front relieved pressure on the Western Front. Germany and Austria-Hungary blocked Russia's land trade routes to Europe, while no easy sea route existed. The White Sea in the north and the Sea of Okhotsk in the Far East were distant from the Eastern Front and often icebound. The Baltic Sea was blocked by the German Kaiserliche Marine. The Black Sea's only entrance was through the Dardanelles and the Bosporus, which were controlled by the Ottoman Empire. When the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in October 1914, Russia could no longer be supplied from the Mediterranean Sea. By late 1914 to early 1915 the Western Front in France and Belgium had effectively become a stalemate. A new front was desperately needed.[citation needed] Also, the Allies hoped that an attack on the Ottomans would draw Bulgaria and Greece into the war on the Allied side. A first proposal to attack the Ottoman Empire had been made by the French Minister of Justice Aristide Briand in November 1914, but it was not supported. The British attempt to bribe the Ottoman Empire to join the Allied side was also not successful; their offer of £4 million was trumped by Germany's £5 million.[17] Later in November 1914, First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill put forward his first plans for a naval attack on the Dardanelles, based at least in part on what turned out to be erroneous reports regarding Ottoman troop strength. He reasoned that the Royal Navy had a large number of obsolete battleships which could not be used against the German High Seas Fleet in the North Sea, but which might well be made useful in another theatre. Initially, the attack was to be made by the Royal Navy alone, with only token forces from the army being required for routine occupation tasks. First Sea Lord John Fisher opposed the campaign and instead preferred a direct naval l


The ultra left-wing group Red Army Faction associated with the names Andreas Baader and Ulrike Meinhof was active in what country in the later part of the 20th century?

Nationalistic Terrorism ETHNO-NATIONALISTIC TERRORISM "A nation's honor is dearer than a nation's comfort." (Woodrow Wilson)     Nationalist terrorism is "traditional" terrorism, also called revolutionary or ideological terrorism. It is practiced by individuals belonging to an identifiable organization with a well-defined command-and-control structure, clear political, social or economic objectives, and a comprehensible ideology or self-interest (Hoffman 1999).  Their target selection is highly selective and mostly discriminate - ambassadors, bankers, dignitaries  - symbols they blame for economic or political repression. They usually issue communiquï¿½s taking credit for, and explaining in great detail, their actions. Only rarely do such groups operate outside their home territory unless it is in their interest to do so or they claim to be representing the oppressed of the Third World or belong to some diaspora .     Nationalism is the driving force behind a love of country so strong that one is willing to die trying to change or overthrow a government seen as corrupt and/or oppressive. It's an Enlightenment notion associated with the thought of Locke, Voltaire, Rousseau, and Montesquieu that the best form of democratic government is based on the natural desire of people to govern themselves as a distinct nation-state.  It has been the underlying justification for the American Revolution, the French Revolution, the Mexican Revolution, and the Cuban Revolution.  The patriotic feeling of loyalty to one's national ties can take different forms depending upon the economic and cultural context.  Most people are familiar with jingoistic nationalism where a common external enemy unites people in a war mentality.  Others, especially Westerners, might be familiar with self-interest nationalism in which a presumed economic superiority permits the export of a civilization in the name of prosperity.  Militaristic nationalism tends to involve fascist or socialist movements that glorify the institutions, icons, and achievements of a state. And finally, there is ethnic nationalism which is rooted in ethnic identity as the basis for a cause.  This last form has become a dominant model of terrorism in the 21st Century, and is called ethno-nationalist terrorism, or more simply, ethnoterrorism.      Ethnic identity has some unique sociological characteristics. First of all, it is egalitarian - the identity of the masses.  Joan of Arc, for example, explained why she continually used familiar names for the French nobility by saying "After all, we're all French."  Secondly, it allows a certain amount of freedom while at the same time reinforcing group solidarity.  A person who says they are French-American-Canadian, for example, has a couple of second-order identities, but they are still French. Thirdly, there are no entry or exit points for ethnic identity. Nobody needs certificates or credentials to prove their ethnicity, and most people can come and go (exit the group and reenter) with relative ease.  The most negative aspects of ethnicity involve stereotyping and de-individualization.  It's easier to gas the Jew, lynch the Black, or shoot the White Man than it is to understand such groups as individuals.  Ethnicity also tends to find its way into public policy, no matter how fair the politicians try to be.       Nationalism, or more precisely, the concept of nation-state, was used by the great European powers to create and administer their colonies. It's easier to govern when the "people" think they're all part of a nation-state with borders. Unfortunately, it turns out in this post-colonial era that there were a diverse number of different ethnic groups within those borders.  That's why scholars such as Horowitz (1985) say ethnic conflict is nationalist conflict. Control of the state, a state, any state becomes the goal of ethnic conflict. That's why nationalist terrorist groups are referred to as subnational organizations, para-states, states within a state, liberationists, separatists, or unifiers. One should never underestimate the


The Wars of the Diadochi were a series of conflicts fought for the control of an empire after whose death?

Diadochi Wars, 323-280 BC Diadochi Wars, 323-280 BC Tweet The Wars of the Diadochi were a series of conflicts that followed the death of Alexander the Great . They were fought between his most important generals, for control of all or part of his empire. The main issues were decided during the first twenty years of the conflict, ending at the battle of Issus in 301 BC. Alexander’s empire was split into three main successor states – Macedonia, Egypt and the Seleucid Empire. Conflict between the surviving successors continued at a less intense layer until the death of the last of the successors, Seleucus I , in 280 BC. The successors can be seen as having fallen into two main camps – those who wanted to maintain Alexander’s empire intact, either for his descendants or for themselves, and those who wanted to establish their own rule over smaller parts of the Empire. Their first task was to establish a framework for the rule of the Empire after Alexander’s death. Their first attempt was made at Babylon in 323 BC . Officially the empire remained intact, to be ruled in the name of Alexander’s son, Alexander IV and his half brother, under the name Philip III. Real power was split between Perdiccas , as regent for the two kings, Antipater as the king’s representative in Macedonia, and the satraps, prominent amongst them Ptolemy , who was given Egypt and Antigonus One-Eye , who retained control of much of Asia Minor. The ranks of the successors were soon thinned. The death of Alexander triggered a revolt in Greece ( Lamian War, 323-321 BC ), which saw the death of Leonnatus, satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia. This revolt overlapped with the First Diadoch War (322-320) , triggered by what may have been the first bid to success Alexander. Perdiccas decided to marry Alexander’s sister Cleopatra, almost certainly with an eye on the Macedonian throne. Alarmed, most of his fellow successors rallied against him. Only Eumenes stayed loyal. Ptolemy made the most dramatic of gestures, seizing the body of Alexander the Great and taking it to his capital of Alexandria. Leaving Eumenes behind in Asia Minor, Perdiccas led what was left of the main Imperial army to Egypt, to deal with Ptolemy. Once in Egypt the expedition went disastrously wrong. Perdiccas’s army failed to cross the eastern branch of the Nile, and Perdiccas was murdered by his own officers. Eumenes had more success. In a major battle somewhere on the border of Cappadocia he defeated an army sent against him, killing Craterus , the third of Alexander’s generals to die in two years. In response the main Macedonian army, now temporarily dominated by Ptolemy, condemned Eumenes to death. This First Diadoch War ended with a second attempted settlement, at Triparadisus in Syria (320) . This time the aging Antipater assumed the regency. Antigonus was made commander of the Macedonian army in Asia, and ordered to deal with Eumenes. Ptolemy of course retained Egypt. A new figure also appears on the scene, Seleucus , another of Alexander’s staff, who was appointed satrap of Babylonia. For the next nineteen years events centred around Antigonus. As the ruler of Asia he was in the best position to reunite Alexander’s empire. He had the ability to do so, and it very soon became clear also had the intention to do so. He was prevented from doing so only by repeated coalitions containing most or all of his rivals. At Triparadisus Antigonus had been given the job of defeating Eumenes. He was engaged in this when Antipater died (319 BC), removing the last source of stability in the Empire. He had appointed a minor general, Polyperchon, to replace him, and this triggered a new round of conflict ( Second Diadoch War, 319-316 ). This ranged Polyperchon against Antipater’s son Cassander in Greece and Antigonus against Eumenes in Asia. By the time it ended, Cassander was virtual king of Macedonia, Alexander’s mother Olympias and his half-brother Philip III Arrhidaeus were both dead, and Antigonus had defeated and killed Eumenes, although only after cha


The Sepoy Mutiny of 1857 that was fought in places like Cawnpore, Lucknow before ending in Gwalior is said to be the first war of independence in the history of which country?

The Sepoy War of 1857 – Mutiny or First Indian War of Independence « Tornos India Curated The Sepoy War of 1857 – Mutiny or First Indian War of Independence The profound hypocrisy and inherent barbarism of bourgeois civilization lies unveiled before our eyes, turning from its home, where it assumes respectable forms, to the colonies, where it goes naked. Did they not, in India, to borrow an expression of that great robber, Lord Clive himself, resort to atrocious extortion, when simple corruption could not keep pace with their rapacity? While they prated in Europe about the inviolable sanctity of the national debt, did they not confiscate in India the dividends of the rajahs, who had invested their private savings in the Company’s own funds? While they combated the French revolution under the pretext of defending “our holy religion,” did they not forbid, at the same time, Christianity to be propagated in India, and did they not, in order to make money out of the pilgrims streaming to the temples of Orissa and Bengal, take up the trade in the murder and prostitution perpetrated in the temple of the Juggernaut? These are the men of “Property, Order, Family, and Religion.” The story of the Sepoy (sepáhí) War of 1857, (an attempt at a compromise between two more controversial titles, ‘the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857’ and ‘the Sepoy Rebellion of 1857,’ though “insurgency” might also fit) began long before March of 1857. The history of the war delves deep into the colonization and conquest of India and the cultural and religious oppression imposed on Indians by British rule. Furthermore, the telling of the history of the war is, to this day, an ongoing battle between two competing narratives, the history belonging to the British that won the war, and the history claimed by the Indians who were defeated. In a time when the history of India is being retold everyday, this web page is an attempt to present a history of the Sepoy War that is derived from various points of view, accounting for the context of the histories related, and the points of view of the historians relating them. The East India Company was a massive export company that was the force behind much of the colonization of India. The power of the East India Company took nearly 150 years to build. As early as 1693, the annual expenditure in political “gifts” to men in power reached nearly 90,000 pounds (Marx 23). In bribing the Government, the East India Company was allowed to operate in overseas markets despite the fact that the cheap imports of South Asian silk, cotton, and other products hurt domestic business. By 1767, the Company was forced into an agreement that is should pay 400,000 pounds into the National Exchequer annually. By 1848, however, the East India Company’s financial difficulties had reached a point where expanding revenue required expanding British territories in South Asia massively. The Government began to set aside adoption rights of native princes and began the process of annexation of more than a dozen independent Rajes between 1848 and 1854 (Marx 51; Kaye 30). In an article published in The New York Daily Tribune on July 28, 1857, Karl Marx notes that “… in 1854 the Raj of Berar, which comprise 80,000 square miles of land, a population from four to five million, and enormous treasures, was forcibly seized” (Marx 51). In order to consolidate and control these new holdings, a well-established army of 200,000 South Asians officered by 40,000 British soldiers dominated India by 1857. The last vestiges of independent Indian states had disappeared and the East India Company exported tons of gold, silk, cotton, and a host of other precious materials back to England every year. Religion Historians like J.A.B. Palmer and John Kaye trace the origins of the soldiers’ rebellion at Meerut, in which South Asian soldiers rose up against their colonial officers, to the Lee-Enfield Rifle. It was developed at the Enfield arsenal by James P. Lee and fired a .303 caliber ammunition that had to manually loaded before firing. Loading involved biting the end of the cartri


What name was given by pilots of the US Air Force to the area of North Korea considered the birthplace of jet fighter combat as it saw numerous dog fights during the Korean War?

MiG Alley - Dog Fight F86 Sabre vs MiG-15 - YouTube MiG Alley - Dog Fight F86 Sabre vs MiG-15 Want to watch this again later? Sign in to add this video to a playlist. Need to report the video? Sign in to report inappropriate content. Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Published on Mar 16, 2012 "MiG Alley" is the name given by U.S. Air Force pilots to the northwestern portion of North Korea, where the Yalu River empties into the Yellow Sea. During the Korean War, it was the site of numerous dogfights between U.S. fighter jets and those of the Communist forces, particularly the Soviet Union, which was confirmed after the fall of the Soviet Union. The North American F-86 Sabre and the Soviet-built Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 were the aircraft used throughout most of the conflict, with the area's nickname derived from the latter. Because it was the site of the first large-scale jet-vs-jet air battles, MiG Alley is considered the birthplace of jet fighter combat. Category


The second most-studied case of genocide (after the Holocaust) is said to have begun on April 24, 1915 when Ottoman authorities arrested 250 intellectuals of what ethnicity?

Armenian Genocide | Abuse Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia File:Marcharmenians.jpg Template:Armenian Genocide The Armenian Genocide ( Template:Lang-hy , translit.: Hayoc’ C’eġaspanout’youn; Template:Lang-tr )—also known as the Armenian Holocaust, the Armenian Massacres and, by Armenians, as the Great Crime ( Մեծ Եղեռն , Mec Yeġeṙn, Template:IPA-hy )—refers to the deliberate and systematic destruction of the Armenian population of the Ottoman Empire during and just after World War I . [1] It was implemented through wholesale massacres and deportations , with the deportations consisting of forced marches under conditions designed to lead to the death of the deportees. The total number of resulting Armenian deaths is generally held to have been between one and one and a half million. [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] Other ethnic groups were similarly attacked by the Ottoman Empire during this period, including Assyrians and Greeks , and some scholars consider those events to be part of the same policy of extermination. [7] [8] [9] It is widely acknowledged to have been one of the first modern genocides , [10] [11] [12] as scholars point to the systematic, organized manner in which the killings were carried out to eliminate the Armenians, [13] and it is the second most-studied case of genocide after the Holocaust . [14] The word genocide [15] was coined in order to describe these events. [16] [17] The starting date of the genocide is conventionally held to be April 24, 1915, the day that Ottoman authorities arrested some 250 Armenian intellectuals and community leaders in Constantinople . [18] [19] Thereafter, the Ottoman military uprooted Armenians from their homes and forced them to march for hundreds of miles, depriving them of food and water, to the desert of what is now Syria . Massacres were indiscriminate of age or gender, with rape and other sexual abuse commonplace. [20] The majority of Armenian diaspora communities were founded as a result of the Armenian genocide. The Republic of Turkey , the successor state of the Ottoman Empire, denies the word genocide is an accurate description of the events (see, Denial of the Armenian Genocide ). [21] In recent years, it has faced repeated calls to accept the events as genocide. To date, twenty countries have officially recognized the events of the period as genocide , and most genocide scholars and historians accept this view. [22] [23] [24] [25] Contents File:Armenian population map 1896.jpg Armenia had largely come under Ottoman rule during the fifteenth and 16th centuries. The vast majority of Armenians, grouped together under the name Armenian millet (community), was concentrated in the eastern provinces of the Ottoman Empire, although significantly large communities were also found in the western provinces, as well as the capital Constantinople . With the exception of the empire's urban centers and the extremely wealthy, Constantinople-based Amira class, a social elite whose members included the Duzians (Directors of the Imperial Mint), the Balyans (Chief Imperial Architects) and the Dadians (Superintendent of the Gunpowder Mills and manager of industrial factories), most Armenians – approximately 70% of the population – lived in poor and dangerous conditions in the rural countryside. [26] There, the Armenians were subject to the whims of their Turkish and Kurdish neighbors, who would regularly overtax them, subject them to brigandage and kidnapping, force them to convert to Islam and otherwise exploit them without any interference from central or local authorities. [27] In the Ottoman Empire, in accordance with the Muslim dhimmi system, they, like all other Christians , were accorded certain limited freedoms (such as the right to worship), but were in essence treated as second-class citizens . Referred to in Turkish as gavours, a pejorative word meaning "infidel" or "unbeliever." [28] In addition to other legal limitations, Christians were not considered equals to Muslims : testimony against Muslims by Christians and Jews was inadmissible in courts of law; they were forbidden to ca


The 1792 Battle of Valmy in which a citizen army defeated the Prussian army is significant for saving/preserving what?

Battle of Valmy : definition of Battle of Valmy and synonyms of Battle of Valmy (English) Anglo-Spanish War The Battle of Valmy was the first major victory by the army of France during the French Revolution . The action took place on 20 September 1792 as Prussian troops commanded by the Duke of Brunswick attempted to march on Paris . Generals François Kellermann and Charles Dumouriez stopped the advance near the northern village of Valmy in Champagne-Ardenne . In this early part of the French Revolutionary Wars known as the War of the First Coalition , the new French government was in most every way unproven, and thus the small, localized victory at Valmy became a huge psychological victory for the Revolution at large. [1] The battle was considered a "miraculous" event and a "decisive defeat" for the vaunted Prussian army. [2] After the battle, the newly-assembled National Convention was emboldened enough to formally declare the end of monarchy in France and the establishment of the First French Republic . Valmy permitted the development of the Revolution and all its resultant ripple effects, and for that it is regarded as one of the most significant battles of all time. [3] [4] Contents 9 Further reading   Background In the war's early encounters, French troops did not distinguish themselves, [5] and enemy forces advanced dangerously deep into France intending to pacify the country, restore the traditional monarchy, and end the Revolution. King Frederick William II of Prussia had the support of Great Britain and the Austrian Empire to send the Duke of Brunswick towards Paris with a large army. Brunswick's allied invasion force of veteran Prussian and Austrian troops was augmented by large complements of Hessians and the French royalist Army of Condé . [6] The French commander Dumouriez, meanwhile, had been marching his army northeast to attack the Austrian Netherlands , but this plan was abandoned because of the more immediate threat to Paris. [7] Just over half of the infantry of Dumouriez's army were regulars of the old Royal Army, as were nearly all of the cavalry and (importantly) the artillery. [8] These provided a professional core to steady the enthusiastic volunteer battalions raised in June and July 1791. [9]   Battle   Map of the battle The invading army handily captured Longwy on 23 August and Verdun on 2 September, then moved on toward Paris through the defiles of the Forest of Argonne . [10] In response, Dumouriez halted his advance to the Netherlands and reversed course, approaching the enemy army from its rear. [7] From Metz , Kellermann moved to his assistance, joining him at the village of Sainte-Menehould on 19 September. [10] The French forces were now east of the Prussians, behind their lines. Theoretically the Prussians could have marched straight towards Paris unopposed, but this course was never seriously considered: the threat to their lines of supply and communication was too great to be ignored. The unfavorable situation was compounded by bad weather and an alarming increase in sickness among the troops. With few other options available, Brunswick turned back and prepared to do battle. [7] Brunswick headed through the northern woods believing he could cut off Dumouriez. At the moment when the Prussian manœuvre was nearly completed, Kellermann advanced his left wing and took up a position on the slopes between Sainte-Menehould and Valmy. [10] His command centered around an old windmill , and his veteran artillerists were well-placed upon its accommodating rise to begin the Cannonade of Valmy. As the Prussians emerged from the woods, a long-range gunnery duel ensued and the French batteries proved superior. The Prussian infantry made a cautious, and fruitless, effort to advance under fire across the open ground. [7] As the Prussians wavered, a pivotal moment was reached when Kellerman raised his hat and made his famous cry of "Vive la Nation". The cry was repeated again and again by all the army, and had a crushing effect upon Prussian morale. [11] To the surprise of nearly everyone, Brunswick br


The 1889 constitution of which country recognized the divine power of its emperor deriving it from a native belief that the imperial family was the offspring of the sun goddess Amaterasu?

Fr. Hardon Archives - Religions of the World - Chapter 9. Shinto Religions of the World Fr. John A. Hardon, S.J. Associate Professor of Comparative Religion at Western Michigan University Shinto The origins of Shinto are lost in the dim past of Japanese history, and over   the centuries its role has been to integrate with other systems, notably Confucianism   from China and Buddhism from India, to give the people of Japan the most complex   religious amalgam in the Orient. At the same time Shinto has served to consolidate the nation and became the   religious expression of patriotism, where the divine right of kings, familiar   in the West, was an object of faith and the emperor a descendant of the gods. Religion and government being one, wrote a modern Shintoist, all the heavenly   functions which the sovereign undertakes and all the works that he performs   as the representative of heaven are means of serving the heavenly forbear.    Therefore that his line should endure as long as heaven endures is a natural   consequence of the order of things. [ 1 ] This divinization of the sovereign was shattered by the events of the Second   World War, which left Shinto in the emancipated position of a free religion,   on a par with other religions, but also deprived the people of Japan of that   religious mooring to which they had been accustomed for generations. It is   not likely that the ancient traditions will be easily abandoned; and although   some are already speaking of a post-Shinto era, the experience of history   suggests rather a new form of syncretism that will build on the best elements   of the past. Native Deities Of the three contributory sources to the religion of Japan---Buddhism, Confucianism   and Shinto---only the latter is indigenous to the country, and most distinctive   of the religious culture of its people. While Shinto has no sacred writings   in the sense of revelation, its origins are rooted in two writings that fairly   describe the spirit which still prevails. Kojiki or Records of   Ancients Matters, and Nihongi or Chronicles of Japan were   both compiled in the early eighth century of our era, when Japanese writers   were already strongly influenced by Chinese traditions. It is difficult to distinguish the pure native traditions in these works.    Many of the events described are anachronistic, and many of the legends are   chosen to confirm the religious or political claims of the ruling dynasty.    Nevertheless certain strains of faith and methods of worship are so close   to what we know of primitive religion that they seem to be authentically Japanese. Shinto mythology begins with the creation of the islands in the archipelago   by two gods, Izanagi (the Male-Who-Invites), and his wife Izanami (the Female-Who-Invites), who were commanded by the deities to make, consolidate,   and give birth to this drifting land. Izanami died in giving birth to the   god of fire (Kagutsuchi). Overcome with grief, her spouse went down   to the nether world to see the Female-Who-Invites, and she consented to return   to him on condition that he did not look at her meanwhile. But in his impatience,   he looked at her and saw the corruption of her body. She was angered by this   impertinence and sent infernal deities to drive him out of Hades, where Izanami   was left to be the great goddess of the land of darkness. Returning to earth, Izanagi purified himself, and from this purification   were born many gods, of whom the most famous are the sun goddess, born as   he was washing his left eye; the moon god when he washed his right eye; and Susa-no-wo, a god of swift impetuosity. Then follows a tedious record   of the birth and copulation of further deities with names descriptive of their   attributes and earthly functions, until finally Jimmu Tenno is born   as the fifth generation descendant of the sun goddess Amaterasu. At   the age of forty-five, on February 11, 667 B.C., acco


The Battle of Coral Sea in WWII in 1942 is notable for the first fleet action of what type of craft that are still in vogue?

The Battle of Coral Sea - History Learning Site History Learning Site   The Battle of Coral Sea Citation: C N Trueman "The Battle of Coral Sea" historylearningsite.co.uk . The History Learning Site , 19 May 2015. 16 Aug 2016. The Battle of Coral Sea took place in May 1942 . If the Japanese had succeeded at Coral Sea, the way would have been open for the Japanese to have captured New Guinea and leave Australia isolated from Allied help and more open to a Japanese attack. The Battle of Coral Sea was fought entirely by planes – no ship on either side made any visual contact with any enemy ship. Rear-Admiral Frank Fletcher The Japanese had made great gains in the Far East by the spring of 1942. By May 1st, the conquest of the Philippines, Burma , Malaya and the Dutch East Indies had cost the Japanese Navy only 23 warships and none had been larger than a destroyer. 67 transport ships had also been lost. The Japanese naval command had expected far greater losses and, buoyed by such success, they looked to expand still further in the Far East. However, the senior officers in the Japanese Navy argued on what was best to do next. One school of thought was for the navy to continue spearheading territorial gains. Admiral Nagano was a keen supporter of this. Others, led by Admiral Yamamoto wanted an all-out attack on America’s aircraft carriers in the Pacific as they feared that these ships were the key to success in the Pacific. Yamamoto believed that the destruction of America’s aircraft carriers would ensure the security of Japan. For this reason, Yamamoto wanted an attack on Midway Island as he believed that such an attack would draw out the American navy into a full-scale battle which he believed the Japanese would win. The Japanese Army’s high command wanted an attack to be centred on isolating Australia and this would include an attack on New Guinea. However, it was the Americans who forced the hand of the Japanese. On April 18th, 1942 , America had launched bombers from two American aircraft carriers (the ‘Enterprise’ and the ‘Hornet’) that had bombed Tokyo. This strengthened Yamamoto’s case against the Americans aircraft carriers and on May 5th, Imperial General Headquarters Navy Order 18 was issued which ordered Yamamoto to carry out an attack on Midway Island and other key points in the Western Aleutians – the operation was to take place in early June 1942. However, the Japanese had decided on a course of action that spilt their forces. The attack on New Guinea had already started and could not be called off as it was too far advanced. Therefore, Yamamoto could not call on all the forces he might have needed for an attack on Midway Island as some Japanese forces were concentrated in the Coral Sea to the south-east of New Guinea. The attack on Port Moresby in New Guinea was considered important by the Japanese as its success would isolate Australia and New Guinea could then be used as a platform to attack Fiji, New Caledonia and Samoa. The Japanese labelled the attack on Port Moresby as ‘Operation MO’ and the force that was to attack it was ‘Task Force MO’. The Japanese force included the aircraft carriers ‘Shokaku’ and the ‘Zuikaku’. These were to sail from Truk Island and were to intercept any ships sent by America to attack the Japanese. The main part of the Japanese plan was for its invading force (the Port Moresby Invasion Force) to move through the Jomard Passage, to the south-east of New Guinea, unhindered by the Americans, allowing it to attack Port Moresby. America treated the attack on Port Moresby very seriously. They believed that any attack would leave Australia vulnerable. Both Chester Nimitz and Douglas MacArthur gave the attack on Port Moresby high priority. The Americans had broken the Japanese naval code and had detailed knowledge of their plans. They believed that an attack on Port Moresby was scheduled for May 3rd and that the Japanese forces would have to make a move through the Coral Sea to carry out this task. The Americans may have known about the Japanese plan but they had one problem themselves. T


Owain Glyndŵr (died c. 1416) who was venerated by the 19th century Cymru Fydd movement is considered the national hero of what ethnicity?

Owain Glyndŵr | Military Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia Owain Glyndŵr ( Welsh pronunciation:  [ˈoʊain ɡlɨ̞nˈduːr] ), or Owain Glyn Dŵr, (c. 1349 or 1359 – c. 1415) was a Welsh ruler and the last native Welshman to hold the title Prince of Wales (Tywysog Cymru). He instigated a fierce and long-running but ultimately unsuccessful revolt against the English rule of Wales . [1] Glyndŵr was a descendant of the Princes of Powys from his father Gruffydd Fychan II , hereditary Tywysog of Powys Fadog and Lord of Glyndyfrdwy , and of those of Deheubarth through his mother Elen ferch Tomas ap Llywelyn. On 16 September 1400, Glyndŵr instigated the Welsh Revolt against the rule of Henry IV of England . Although initially very successful and rapidly gaining control of large areas of Wales, the uprising suffered from key weaknesses – particularly a lack of artillery, which made capturing defended fortresses difficult, and ships, which made their coastlands vulnerable – and was eventually overborne by the superior resources of the English. Glyndŵr was driven from his last strongholds in 1409, but he avoided capture and the last documented sighting of him was in 1412. He twice ignored offers of a pardon from his military nemesis and new king, Henry V of England , and despite the large rewards being offered, Glyndŵr was never betrayed to the English. His death was recorded by a former follower for the year 1415. Glyndŵr is portrayed in William Shakespeare's play Henry IV, Part 1 (anglicised as Owen Glendower) as a wild and exotic man ruled by magic and emotion. [2] In the late 19th century the Cymru Fydd movement recreated him as the father of Welsh nationalism , revising the historical image of him and joining him in popular memory as a national hero on par with King Arthur. Contents Edit This article does not contain any citations or references. Please improve this article by adding a reference. For information about how to add references, see Template:Citation . Banner of Owain Glyndŵr. Arms: Quarterly or and gules, four lions rampant armed and langued azure counterchanged. Crest. A dragon, or wyvern, gules. Mantling. Red lined white. [3] Glyndŵr was born circa 1349 (possibly 1359) to a prosperous landed family, part of the Anglo-Welsh gentry of the Welsh Marches (the border between England and Wales) in northeast Wales. This group moved easily between Welsh and English societies and languages, occupying important offices for the Marcher Lords while maintaining their position as uchelwyr — nobles descended from the pre-conquest Welsh royal dynasties — in traditional Welsh society. His father, Gruffydd Fychan II , hereditary Tywysog of Powys Fadog and Lord of Glyndyfrdwy, died some time before 1370 leaving Glyndŵr's mother Elen ferch Tomas ap Llywelyn of Deheubarth a widow and Owain a young man of maybe 16 years at most. Owain probably had an elder brother called Madog, but he may have died young.[ citation needed ] The young Owain ap Gruffydd was possibly fostered at the home of David Hanmer , a rising lawyer shortly to be a justice of the Kings Bench, or at the home of Richard FitzAlan, 3rd Earl of Arundel. Owain is then thought to have been sent to London to study law at the Inns of Court . He probably studied as a legal apprentice for seven years. He was possibly in London during the Peasants' Revolt of 1381. By 1383, he had returned to Wales, where he married David Hanmer's daughter, Margaret , started his large family and established himself as the Squire of Sycharth and Glyndyfrdwy, with all the responsibilities that entailed. Glyndŵr entered the English king's military service in 1384 when he undertook garrison duty under the renowned 'Welshman' Sir Gregory Sais, or Sir Degory Sais, on the English–Scottish border at Berwick-upon-Tweed. In August 1385, served King Richard under the command of John of Gaunt again in Scotland. On 3 September 1386, he was called to give evidence in the Scrope v. Grosvenor trial at Chester. In March 1387, Owain was in southeast England under Richard Fitzalan, 11th Earl of Arundel in the Channel at


What diplomatic crisis ended with the signing of the Algiers Accords in January, 1981?

Iran Hostage Crisis Ends with the Signing of the Algiers Accords | World History Project Jan 19 1981 Iran Hostage Crisis Ends with the Signing of the Algiers Accords On January 20, 1981, as Ronald Reagan became President, the hostages were flown from Teheran to Europe, and on to New York. The crisis was over. The lasting effects of the crisis were numerous. The failure of Operation Eagle Claw to rescue the hostages, together with the intelligence problems caused by President Carter's cutbacks to the CIA, gave President Reagan political fuel for a major military buildup. Iran began a long war with neighboring Iraq with its economy and military capability severely damaged. Antipathy between the U.S. and Iran was established for years to come. Source: St. Francis Added by: Rob Brent The Algiers Accords of January 19, 1981, were brokered by the Algerian government between the United States and Iran to resolve the Iran hostage crisis. The crisis arose from the takeover of the American embassy in Tehran on November 4, 1979, and the taking hostage of the American staff there. By this accord the 52 American citizens were set free and able to leave Iran. Among its chief provisions are: * The US would not intervene politically or militarily in Iranian internal affairs * The US would remove a freeze on Iranian assets and trade sanctions on Iran * Both countries would end litigation between their respective governments and citizens referring them to international arbitration, namely the Iran-United States Claims Tribunal. * The US would ensure that US court decisions regarding the transfer of any property of the former Shah would be independent from "sovereign immunity principles" and would be enforced * Iranian debts to US institutions would be paid The US chief negotiator was Deputy Secretary of State Warren Christopher. Source: Wikpedia Added by: Rob Brent More information


In May 2011, Queen Elizabeth became the second-longest reigning British monarch in history overtaking which monarch?

Queen to eclipse victoria milestone | Daily Mail Online Queen to eclipse Victoria milestone The Queen is set to become the longest ever reigning monarch in British history next year. On September 9 2015, she will pass the record set by her great-great-grandmother Queen Victoria. Buckingham Palace has calculated that Queen Victoria reigned for 23,226 days, 16 hours and 23 minutes, taking into account 63 years, 15 leap days, additional months and days and the precise timings of her accession and death. On September 9 2015, the Queen will become the longest ever reigning monarch in British history Queen Elizabeth II will enter the history books when she overtakes Victoria during September 9 2015. This takes into account 63 years plus 16 leap days, additional months and days and the timing of George VI's death. It is likely to be business as usual for the Queen when she reaches the landmark date at the age of 89. "The Queen traditionally spends the month of September at Balmoral. Next year is unlikely to be any different," a Buckingham Palace spokesman said. Historian Dr Kate Williams described the length of the Queen's reign as a great source of strength for the monarch. "It's a very significant milestone. The Queen will become the longest reigning British monarch in history. She came to the throne when she was older than Victoria. Victoria was only 18," Dr Williams said. "It shows that our female monarchs last the longest. The Queen's longevity is a great source of her strength and popularity. She has lived through World War Two and throughout the 20th century. "Many people will not have known a different monarch. We saw her huge popularity in the Golden Jubilee and even more so in the Diamond Jubilee. We're very used to her." Queen Victoria came to the throne on June 20 1837. She became the figurehead of a vast empire and her reign spanned the rest of the century amid great industrial, cultural and scientific changes to society. But she mourned the early death of her consort Prince Albert in 1861 for the rest of her life. She died on January 22 1901. Princess Elizabeth became Queen Elizabeth II when she was 25 on the death of her father King George VI, who died in the early hours of February 6 1952. Like Victoria, she has acted as a figure of continuity as the country has modernised. She has served, with the Duke of Edinburgh at her side, through the 20th century, the Millennium and into the 21st century, witnessing new technological advances and a succession of British governments of different political persuasions. The Queen has become accustomed to countless milestones during her decades on the throne. In December 2007, she became the longest living British monarch, overtaking Victoria who died when she was 81, and in May 2011, she became the second-longest reigning monarch in British history, when she overtook George III. According to Guinness World Records, the Queen also holds the world record for most currencies featuring the same individual . Her Diamond Jubilee river pageant in 2012 set a new world record for the number of boats in a parade with more than 1,000 vessels taking part and 670 making the complete trip down the Thames to Tower Bridge. The Queen is also the first British monarch to have sent an email, to have a message put on the moon, have conducted a royal 'walkabout' and to have held a public concert in her back garden. The record of length of time on the throne can be calculated in different ways, but the Palace considers the total number of days plus hours and minutes to be the most accurate. The Queen is also the second longest-serving current head of state in the world after King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand, who took to the throne in 1946 but who is now rarely seen in public. Queen Elizabeth II is also the first British monarch to have sent an email Share or comment on this article Sorry we are not currently accepting comments on this article. Bing     DON'T MISS Kim Woodburn, 74, smoulders in a previously unseen snap of the CBB star wearing a miniskirt and knee-high boots as a 28-year-old


The philosopher Hegel who lived from 1770 to 1831 described which contemporary personality as 'world history on horseback'?

The difficulty with Hegel by Roger Kimball - The New Criterion Philosophy need not trouble itself about ordinary ideas. G. W. F. Hegel, Philosophy of Nature He described what he knew best or had heard most, and felt he had described the universe. George Santayana, on Hegel Philosophers are hardly ever cynical manipulators of their readers minds. They do not produce delusions in others, without first being subject to them themselves. David Stove, Idealism: a Victorian Horror-story (Part One) Hegel, Bertrand Russell observed, is the hardest to understand of the great philosophers. Hegel would not have liked very much that Russell had to say about his philosophy in A History of Western Philosophy (1945). Russells exposition is a classic in the library of philosophical demolition, much despised by Hegels admirers for its vulgar insistence on common sense. (Best line: that Hegels philosophy illustrates an important truth, namely, that the worse your logic, the more interesting the consequences to which it gives rise.) But I am not at all sure that Hegel would have disagreed with Russells comment about the difficulty of understanding him. He knew he was difficult. He was always going on about the labor of the negative, the superficiality of mere common sense, and the long, strenuous effort that genuinely scientific (i.e., Hegelian) philosophy required. It is even said that on his deathbed Hegel declared that there was only one man who had understood himand he had misunderstood him. I first came across that mot in Søren Kierkegaards Concluding Unscientific Postscript (1846), another anti-Hegelian salvo, quite different from Russells. Neither Kierkegaard nor his editors supply a source for the observation, and Terry Pinkard, in his new biography of Hegel, [1] sniffily describes it as an apocryphal story, emblematic of the anti-Hegelian reaction that quickly set in after the philosophers death in 1831. I was sorry to learn that. Like many people who have soldiered through a fair number of Hegels books, I was both awed and depressed by their glittering opacity. With the possible exception of Heidegger, Hegel is far and away the most difficult great philosopher I have ever studied. There was much that I did not understand. I secretly suspected that no onenot even my teachersreally understood him, and it was nice to have that prejudice supported from the masters own lips. Is it worth the effort? I mean, you spend a hundred hours poring over The Phenomenology of Spirit (1807)widely considered to be Hegels masterpieceand what do you have to show for it? The book is supposed to take you from the naïve, immediate (unmittelbar, a favorite Hegelian term of contempt) position of sense certainty to Absolute Knowledge, or Spirit that knows itself as Spirit. [2] That sounds pretty good, especially when you are, say, eighteen and are busy soaking up ideas guaranteed to mystify and alarm your parents. But what do you suppose it means? Mr. Pinkard notes that at Jena in the early 1800s, Hegel seemed to inspire two kinds of reaction: he was either highly admired and even idolized, or he was disparaged. In fact, Hegels work has always inspired these opposite reactions, throughout his lifetime and afterwards. Mr. Pinkard, who teaches philosophy at Georgetown University and who has written several other books about Hegel, is firmly in the admirers camp. I am not. What Mr. Pinkard has given us with his new book on Hegel is partly an intellectual biography, partly an outline of Hegels work. Recognizing that some of his readers will be more interested in Hegels life than in detailed discussions of his ideas (and vice versa), he has done his best to segregate the story of Hegels life and intellectual formation from the book reports. He corrects some misconceptions. For example, I had always thought that Hegel died of cholera when an epidemic of that disease swept through Berlin in 1831. Not so, says Mr. Pinkard. What Hegel really died of was most


Andabatae, bestiarii, equites, hoplomachi, retiarii and sagittarii are some of what belligerent types?

Gladiators Gladiators Spartacus Gladiators           The name Gladiator comes from the Latin word gladius meaning “sword”. They were armed combatants who faced off against exotic beasts, prisoners, or even themselves for the entertainment of the Roman Republic. Although there were many different types of battles and fighting styles, every performance was a violent and gory display of prowess won only by skill, smarts, and cunning. While most of the belligerent competitors were slaves,  many of them displayed great honor during battles along with limitless loyalty to their masters.           Out of all the types of gladiators, there were the four most common that fought in the Coliseum: Thracians , Mirmillones , Retiarii , and Secutores . Even though these were the most common to fight, there were many other types that fought too. Each class generally fought with a different weapon and different armor that distinguished them from others. Some classes also fought different types of enemies such as beasts. Create a free website


The Trưng Sisters who successfully rebelled against the Chinese Han-Dynasty in the 1st century AD are regarded as national heroines in which country?

Trưng Sisters | Military Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia Main articles: Han–Nanyue War and Southward expansion of the Han Dynasty Nanyue (Nam Việt) was a kingdom founded by the former Qin Dynasty commander Zhao Tuo (Triệu Đà). [1] The Han Dynasty Emperor Wu of Han dispatched soldiers against Nanyue, and the kingdom was annexed in 111 BC. Nine commanderies were established to administer the region. [2] Revolts against the Han began in 40 AD, led by the Trưng sisters. [3] Sources Edit The primary historical source for the sisters is the 5th century Book of the Later Han compiled by historian Fan Ye, which covers the history of the Han Dynasty from 6 to 189AD. The secondary source, but primary popular source, is the Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư (Complete Annals of Dai Viet) compiled by Ngô Sĩ Liên under the order of the Emperor Lê Thánh Tông and finished in 1479. Book of the Later Han, 5th century Edit The Chinese traditional historical accounts on the Trưng sisters are remarkably brief. They are found in two different chapters of the Book of the Later Han , the history for the Eastern Han Dynasty, against which the Trưng sisters had carried out their uprising. Chapter eighty six of the Book of the Later Han, entitled Biographies of the Southern and the Southwestern Barbarians, [Note 1] has this short description: “ In the 16th year of Jianwu [40], Jiaozhi (Giao Chỉ) [modern northern Vietnam and extreme western Guangdong and western Guangxi] women Zhēng Cè (Trưng Trắc) and Zhēng Èr (Trưng Nhị) rebelled and attacked the capital. Zhēng Cè was the daughter of the sheriff of Miling (Mê Linh; 麊泠) County, and she married a man named Shi Suo (Thi Sách; 詩索) from ....(Chu Diên) [Note 2] She was a ferocious warrior. Su Ding (蘇定), the governor of Jiaozhi Commandery, curbed her with laws. Cè became angry and rebelled. The barbarian towns of Jiuzhen (Cửu Chân), Rinan (Nhật Nam), and Hepu (Hợp Phố) Commanderies all joined her, and she captured sixty five cities and claimed to be queen. The governors of Jiaozhi Province and the commanderies could only defend themselves. Emperor Guangwu therefore ordered the Changsha, Hepu, and Jiaozhi Commanderies to prepare wagons and boats, to repair the roads and bridges, to open the mountain passes, and to save food supplies. In the 18th year 42, he sent Ma Yuan the General Fubo and Duan Zhi (段志) the General Lochuan to lead ten odd thousands of men from Changsha, Guiyang, Linling, and Cangwu Commanderies against them. In the summer of the next year 43, Ma recaptured Jiaozhi and killed Zhēng Cè, Zhēng Èr, and others in battle, and the rest scattered. He also attacked Du Yang (都陽), a rebel of the Jiuzhen Commandery, and Du surrendered and was moved, along with some 300 of his followers to Lingling Commandery. The border regions were thus pacified. ” Chapter twenty four, the biographies of Ma and some of his notable male descendants, had a parallel description that also added that Ma was able to impress the locals by creating irrigation networks to help the people and also by simplifying and clarifying the Han laws, and was able to get the people to follow Han's laws. The traditional Chinese account therefore does not indicate abuse of the Vietnamese population by the Chinese officials. It implicitly disavows the traditional Vietnamese accounts of massive cruelty and of the Chinese official killing Trưng Trắc's husband. There is no indication in the Chinese account that the Trưng sisters committed suicide, or that other followers followed example and did so. Indeed, Ma, known in Chinese history for his strict military discipline, is not believed by the Chinese to have carried out cruel or unusual tactics. That account is in contrast to the Vietnamese. Excerpts from Complete Annals of Đại Việt, 1479 The third book of Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư (Complete Annals of Dai Viet), [4] published in editions between 1272 and 1697, has the following to say about the Trưng Sisters: “ Queen Trưng ( 徵 Zhēng) reigned for three years. The queen was strong and intelligent. She expelled Tô Định (蘇定 Sū Dìng) and established a


What is the 'avian' code name for the campaigns of political repression implemented in 1975 by the dictatorships of South America?

CIA Support of Death Squads CIA Support of Death Squads by Ralph McGehee Posted on RemarQ, 9 October 1999 The information below is from CIABASE files on Death Squads supported by the CIA. Also given below are details on Watch Lists prepared by the CIA to facilitate the actions of Death Squads.   Death Squads: Miscellaneous CIA set up Ansesal and other networks of terror in El Salvador, Guatemala (Ansegat) and pre-Sandinista Nicaragua (Ansenic). The CIA created, structured and trained secret police in South Korea, Iran, Chile and Uruguay, and elsewhere  organizations responsible for untold thousands of tortures, disappearances, and deaths. Spark, 4/1985, pp. 2-4 1953-94 Sponsorship by CIA of death squad activity covered in summary form. Notes that in Haiti CIA admitted Lt. General Raoul Cedras and other high-ranking officials "were on its payroll and are helping organize violent repression in Haiti. Luis Moreno, an employee of State Department, has bragged he helped Colombian army create a database of subversives, terrorists and drug dealers." His superior in overseeing INS for Southeastern U.S., is Gunther Wagner, former Nazi soldier and a key member of now-defunct Office of Public Safety (OPS), an AID project which helped train counterinsurgents and terrorism in dozens of countries. Wagner worked in Vietnam as part of Operation Phoenix and in Nicaragua where he helped train National Guard. Article also details massacres in Indonesia. Haiti Information, 4/23/1994, pp. 3,4 CIA personnel requested transfers 1960-7 in protest of CIA officer Nestor Sanchez's working so closely with death squads. Marshall, J., Scott P.D., and Hunter, J. (1987). The Iran-Contra Connection, p. 294 CIA. 1994. Mary McGrory op-ed, "Clinton's CIA Chance." Excoriates CIA over Aldrich Ames, support for right-wing killers in El Salvador, Nicaraguan Contras and Haiti's FRAPH and Cedras. Washington Post, 10/16/1994, C1,2 Angola: Death Squads Angola, 1988. Amnesty International reported that UNITA, backed by the U.S., engaged in extra-judicial executions of high-ranking political rivals and ill-treatment of prisoners. Washington Post, 3/14/1989, A20 Bolivia: Death Squads Bolivia. Between October 1966-68 Amnesty International reported between 3,000 and 8,000 people killed by death squads. Blum, W. (1986). The CIA A Forgotten History, p. 264 Bolivia, 1991. A group known as "Black Hand" shot twelve people on 24 November 1991. Killings were part of group's aim to eliminate "undesirable" elements from society. Victims included police officers, prostitutes and homosexuals. Washington Post 11/25/1991, A2 Bolivia: Watch List Bolivia, 1975. CIA hatched plot with interior ministry to harass progressive bishops, and to arrest and expel foreign priests and nuns. CIA was particularly helpful in supplying names of U.S. and other foreign missionaries. The Nation, 5/22/1976, p. 624 Bolivia, 1975. CIA provided government data on priests who progressive. Blum, W. (1986). The CIA A Forgotten History, p. 259 Brazil: Watch List Brazil, 1962-64. Institute of Research and Social Studies (IPES) with assistance from U.S. sources published booklets and pamphlets and distributed hundreds of articles to newspapers. In 1963 alone it distributed 182,144 books. It underwrote lectures, financed students' trips to the U.S., sponsored leadership training programs for 2,600 businessmen, students, and workers, and subsidized organizations of women, students, and workers. In late 1962 IPES member Siekman in Sao Paulo organized vigilante cells to counter leftists. The vigilantes armed themselves, made hand-grenades. IPES hired retired military to exert influence on those in active service. From 1962-64 IPES, by its own estimate, spent between $200,000 and $300,000 on an intelligence net of retired military. The "research group" of retired military circulated a chart that identified communist groups and leaders. Black, J.K. (1977). United States Penetration of Brazil, p. 85 Brazil: Death Squads Brazil, circa 1965. Death squads formed to bolster Brazil'


If Heinrich Schliemann is to Troy, the British archaeologist Leonard Woolley is to what ancient city?

Archaeology - Ancient History Encyclopedia Archaeology by Maisie Jewkes published on 15 July 2013 Archaeology is a wide subject and definitions can vary, but broadly, it is the study of the culture and history of past peoples and their societies by uncovering and studying their material remains, i.e. tools, ruins, and pottery . Archaeology and history are different subjects but have things in common and constantly work with each other. While historians study books, tablets, and other written information to learn about the past, archaeologists uncover, date, and trace the source of such items, and in their turn focus on learning through material culture. As much of human history is prehistoric (before written records), archaeology plays an important role in understanding the past. Different environments and climates help or hinder the survival of materials, e.g. papyri can survive thousands of years in the hot and dry desert but would not survive in damp conditions. Waterlogged conditions, such as bogs, can preserve organic material, like wood, and underwater wrecks are also excavated using diving equipment. Working everywhere from digging in the ground to testing samples in laboratories, archaeology is a wide-ranging discipline and has many sub-sections of expertise. The two rapidly widening areas are experimental archaeology and ethnoarchaeology. Experimental archaeology tries to recreate ancient techniques, such as glass making or Egyptian beer brewing. Ethnoarchaeology is living among modern ethnic communities, with the purpose of understanding how they hunt, work, and live. Using this information, archaeologists hope to better understand ancient communities. Archaeology of the Past The first scientific excavation has been attributed to Thomas Jefferson in Virginia, USA. Archaeology as an academic study, career, and university subject is a fairly recent development. Nevertheless an interest in the past is not new. Humankind has always been interested in its history. Most cultures have a myth or story that explains their foundation and distant ancestors. Ancient rulers have sometimes collected ancient relics or rebuilt monuments and buildings. This can often be seen as political strategy - a leader wanting to be identified with a great figure or civilisation from the past. On the other hand, ancient leaders have also been known for their curiosity and learning. King Nabonidus of Babylon , for example, had a keen interest in the past and investigated many sites and buildings. In one temple he found the foundation stone from 2200 years before. He housed his finds in a kind of museum at his capital of Babylon. The Roman and Greek historians wrote books about the past, and the stories of famous heroes and leaders have come down to us. However, modern archaeology, or at least its theories and practice, stem from the antiquarian tradition.  In the 17th and 18th centuries CE, wealthy gentleman scholars, or antiquarians as they are also known, began to collect classical artefacts. Fuelled by interest they began to make some of the first studies of sites, like Pompeii , and drew ancient monuments in detail. The first scientific excavation has been attributed to Thomas Jefferson (third president of the United States of America) who dug up some of the burial mounds on his property in the state of Virginia, USA. The beginnings of modern field techniques were pioneered by General Augustus Lane-Fox Pitt Rivers, who excavated barrows at Camborne Chase with systematic recording and procedure. In the USA in the 1960s CE, archaeology went through a phase of new theories, often called processual archaeology. This approach has a scientific approach to questions and designs models to suggest answers and test its theories. Famous Archaeologists Archaeology is a time consuming study; it often takes many years of toil before an archaeologist makes a breakthrough or discovers a site. Famous archaeologists are often connected to their most famous find or theory. To name the score of people who worked and made developments in archaeology would t


Which long-serving Italian prime minister of the 20th century was kidnapped and tragically killed by a group called the Red Brigades in 1978?

Curbishley - Who is talking about Curbishley on FLICKR Tags: thatwastheyearthatwas1978    1978 Following on from the oil crisis Japanese car Imports account for half the US import market. The first first ever Cellular Mobile Phone History of Mobile Phones is introduced in Illinois and Space Invaders appears in arcades Launching a Craze for Computer Video Games. Sweden is the first country in the world to recognize the effect of aerosol sprays on the Ozone Layer and bans the sale. The Serial killer David Berkowitz, "Son of Sam," is convicted of murder after terrorizing New York for 12 months. 1978 is also a great year for movies with Grease summer opening on June 16th, Saturday Night Fever and Close Encounters of the Third Kind all showing in Movie Theatres around the world. 'Britain was the Sick Man of Europe'. The unions and inflation were out of control. Our inefficient nationalised industries were an expensive disaster. The Labour governments of 1974-79 were complete flops. The winter of discontent began in private industry before spreading to the public sector. The strikes seriously disrupted everyday life, causing problems including food shortages and widespread and frequent power cuts. Prices Bread (800g loaf): 28p Cigarettes (20): 58p 1978 – the year of over abundance of polyester flares and bouffant hair, Grease and Superman at the cinema and the invention of the Sony Walkman. Worldwide unemployment rises after several decades of near full employment. The US Dollar plunges to record low against many European currencies. The US stops production of the Neutron Bomb. India faces it's longest and worst monsoon season in modern times leaving two million homeless. Due to poor Cold War Relations United States bans sale of latest computer technology to Soviet Union. The first online forum goes online forum - the CBBS - goes online in Chicago. One user at a time can post a message. Argentina captain Daniel Passarella raises the World Cup Trophy as he is carried shoulder high by fans after Argentina had beaten Holland 3-1 in the 1978 World Cup Final. The Vatican has three popes: Pope Paul VI dies at age of 80, Pope John Paul I becomes Pope from August 26th and dies just 33 days later on September 28. Cardinal Karol Wojtyla then became Pope John Paul I shortly after. Sweden became the first nation to ban aerosol sprays that are thought to damage earth's protective ozone layer. Sony built its first prototype Walkman. Grease became the biggest grossing film and 'You're the One that I Want' was number one for nine weeks. The Garfield cartoon strip was published for the first time. In a year with more than its share of notable deaths there was also one very notable birth. A little before midnight on 25 July, Louise Brown, the world's first IVF baby, was born. The 5lb 12oz (2.61 kg) girl ushered in a fertility revolution that continues to this day. The former Italian prime minister Aldo Moro was kidnapped and murdered by the Red Brigades; Pope John Paul, head of the Roman Catholic church for just over a month died, and Carl Bridgewater, a 13-year-old paper boy, was shot dead after disturbing a burglary in Staffordshire. Georgi Markov, a Bulgarian dissident, was murdered in London with an umbrella that carried a poison pellet. In Jones town, Guyana, 918 people died in a mass suicide. The musical world said goodbye to Keith Moon, Jacques Brel, and – most notoriously of all – Nancy Spungen, who was stabbed to death in the Chelsea hotel in New York by Sid Vicious of the Sex Pistols. The Bee Gees continued to dominate the charts thanks to their soundtrack to the previous year's Saturday Night Fever, although Boney M (Rivers of Babylon), Paul McCartney (Mull of Kintyre), and Kate Bush (Wuthering Heights) also found chart success. The Sex Pistols played their last gig together and Rod Stewart asked: Do Ya Think I'm Sexy? Audiences headed to the cinema to watch Danny Zuko pursue Sandy Olsson in Grease, a goofy reporter from the planet Krypton pursue Lois Lane in Superman, and Turkish justice pursue an American drug smuggler in Midnight


Who was executed at Akershus Fortress, Oslo in 1945 along with Albert Hagelin and Ragnar Skancke after being convicted of high treason?

Vidkun Quisling Vidkun Quisling Sunday, 24 January 2010 19:53 Vidkun Abraham Lauritz Jonssøn Quisling Born: 18 July 1887, Fyresdal, Telemark, Norway Died: 24 October 1945, Oslo, Norway Age: 58 Cause of Death: Bullet wounds from firing squad. Notable because: Collaborated with the Nazis and as soon as they were gone, was tried and executed. His name is synonymous with traitor. Vidkun Abraham Lauritz Jonssøn Quisling was a Norwegian army officer and politician. He worked with Fridtjof Nansen during the famine in the Soviet Union, and served as Minister of Defence in the Bondepartiet government 1931–1933. In 1933 he founded the nationalist party Nasjonal Samling ("National Gathering"), and during World War II, from 1942 to 1945, he served as Minister-President of the collaborationist Norwegian government, after being appointed by the German authorities. After the war he was tried for high treason and subsequently executed by firing squad. Today in Norway and other parts of the world, "Quisling" has become synonymous with "traitor" Quisling was the son of a Church of Norway pastor and genealogist, Jon Lauritz Quisling, who preferred to be called "Qvisling", from Fyresdal. Other ancient names of the family were "Quislinus" or "Quislin". Both of his parents belonged to old and distinguished families of Telemark. Quisling had a flair for mathematics, and in his early teens had sent in corrections to a national mathematical textbook. Impressed by the age of the boy, the editors made the corrections, and included his name and some adulation as encouragement for other young boys to pay attention to their mathematics. After WWII, editions kept the corrections and adulation, but changed all references to his name to en gutt ("a boy"). His early life was varied and successful; he became the country's best war-academy cadet upon graduation in 1911, and achieved the rank of major in the Norwegian army. He worked with Fridtjof Nansen in the Soviet Union during the famine of the 1920s. In 1923, he married Maria Vasilevna Pasechnikova (Russian: Мари́я Васи́льевна Па́сечникова), a native of Kharkov born in 1900 and known to her intimates as "Mara". For his services in looking after British interests after having broken diplomatic relations with the Bolshevik government, the United Kingdom in 1929 awarded him the CBE (which was revoked by King George VI in 1940). He later served as defense minister in the Agrarian governments from 1931 to 1933. As a child, Quisling was already interested in religion and metaphysics, and his ponderings upon this subject never abated. He went as far as expounding his own religion, called Universalism, an elaboration and development of sorts of Christianity. It is presented as an addendum in the book containing the extant diaries and letters of Maria Quisling. On 17 May 1933, Norwegian Constitution Day, Quisling and lawyer Johan Bernhard Hjort formed Nasjonal Samling ("National Unity"), the Norwegian fascist political party. Nasjonal Samling had an anti-democratic, Führerprinzip-based political structure, and Quisling was to be the party's Fører (Norwegian: "leader", equivalent of the German "Führer"). He was sometimes referred to as "the Hitler of Norway". The party went on to have modest successes: in the election of 1933, four months after it was formed, it garnered 27,850 votes (approximately 2%), following support from the Norwegian Farmers' Aid Association, with which Quisling had connections from his time as a member of the Agrarian government. However, as the party line changed from a religiously rooted one to a more pro-Nazi and anti-Semitic policy from 1935 on, church support waned, and in the 1936 elections the party received fewer votes than in 1933. The party became increasingly extremist, and party membership dwindled to an estimated 2,000 before the German invasion, but under the German occupation, by 1945, some 45,000 Norwegians had become members of the party. On 9 April 1940, Germany invaded Norway by air and sea, intending to capture King Haakon VII and the government of Prime Minister Johan


In WWII, Germany's 6th army was destroyed in 'Operation Uranus' in 1943 after a bitter battle around which city?

Military History Online - Battle of Stalingrad Battle of Stalingrad Annihilation and Aftermath by Mike Yoder As the attempt at resupply by air gradually faded away, the proud army that       Paulus had marched to the edge of the Volga was disintegrating. The elite men       of the German 6th Army were now a tattered collection of emaciated walking       skeletons. Although the famous discipline of the Wehrmacht still remained       largely intact, it too was starting to fade away as starvation, disease and       despair stalked the German soldiers. Desertions, unauthorized surrenders and       even an occasional mutiny further diminished their capacity for organized       resistance as the Red Army relentlessly closed the ring around the city. After his demand for surrender had been rebuffed, Rokkosovsky stepped up the       pressure on the Stalingrad pocket. By mid-January 1943, the remnant of Paulus'       command had shrunk to an area roughly 10 miles square. The Staff officers at       OKW had tacitly admitted to themselves that 6th Army was lost and they tried to       salvage what they could of technicians and specialists while abandoning the       ordinary Landsers to their fate. They stepped up evacuation of officers with       rare skills and ability, giving them priority on flights out of the pocket even       in front of the wounded. Gen. Hans Hube, the one-armed commander of the 16th       Armored division who had first reached the Volga at Rynok was one such officer.       Ordered to abandon his command and fly out, Hube refused. He was flown out       after a squad of Gestapo men were sent to the city with orders to remove him       forcibly. Many others needed no such prompting. With a sense of urgency spurred on by the       knowledge that each departing aircraft from Gumrak or Pitomnik might be the       last, desperate soldiers overwhelmed the guards and clung to the outside of       transports making their take-off run. Many still clung to the wings as the       planes gained speed and became airborne, but all eventually lost their grip and       fell onto the snowy steppe. Among those departing these final flights were a       number of men with self-inflicted wounds who had managed to deceive the triage       doctors who were determined to bar such men from evacuation. They had managed       to hide the tell-tale marks of gunpowder burns by shooting themselves through       thick blankets. Rather than inflicting an obvious wound such as shooting       themselves in the hand or foot, many of them shot themselves in the chest or       abdomen. Such acts were indicative of the level of desperation that drove many       to try and escape the frozen Hell of Stalingrad at any cost. In an attempt at dissuading Hitler from his insistence upon fighting to the       bitter end, Paulus dispatched an aide, Major Coelestine von Witzewitz, to speak       directly to Hitler and give him a first hand account of the dire situation of       the men in the pocket. Although von Witzewitz was warmly welcomed by the       Fuehrer, his attempt at recounting the horrors facing the soldiers of 6th Army       was met with attempts to change the subject. Hitler spluttered nonsense about       how the soldiers should hang on until relief arrived and that 6th Army's ordeal       was tying down Soviet forces which might otherwise prevent the evacuation of       the Army Group in the Caucasus. With Hitler trying to evade the issue and Keitel glaring a warning at him not       to take this any further, von Witzewitz was undeterred. With a temerity few       higher ranking officers dared to display to the German dictator, von Witzewitz       countered Hitler's instructions to fight to the last man and bullet by saying,       "Mein Fuehrer, I ca


Traudl Junge, who wrote the book Until the Final Hour that was the basis for the 2004 film Downfall was the personal secretary of which historical figure?

Amazon.com: Until the Final Hour: Hitler's Last Secretary (9781559707565): Traudl Junge, Melissa MÃ¼ller, Anthea Bell: Books By mwreview on January 13, 2005 Format: Hardcover For any reader interested in Adolf Hitler as a person, not just as the ranting and raving dictator, Traudl Junge's account is the best resource available. Junge (nee Humps) was one of Hitler's private secretaries from the tenth anniversary of Hitler's coming to power to the dramatic fall of the Nazi regime just two and one half years later. During much of this time, Junge's duties were primarily social. Junge accompanied Hitler for meals and relaxation almost daily. She observed him in a way very few people did and was one of a minute number of Hitler's companions who survived the war to tell her story. She wrote her memoirs in 1947 and they were later published in Voices From the Bunker. I have read that book about four times and this edition once. Her account is as fascinating now as it was the first time I read it. Voices From the Bunker is one of my all-time favorite books. If you already have Voices From the Bunker and are wondering if this book is worth owning, I would say it is only if you are interested in Junge beyond her experiences with Hitler. This book includes more background information on her pre-Hitler life (I had not read before that her father had taken part in the 1923 Beer Hall Putsch) and a 30-page chapter written by Melissa Mueller in 2001 that follows Junge's post-war life chronologically. It would not be until the revisionist 1960s when people took an interest in her story. Otherwise, the bulk of the work is the same 1947 account in Voices. I've compared sections between the two books and, although they are not the same verbatim with a few minor details added or omitted, the account is basically the same. I like the way Voices is divided up better, with more chapters separating the story (i.e. The July Bomb Plot). It is more useful for looking up information than Until the Final Hour which is mostly one long chapter. Voices also includes accounts of Hitler's aides-de-camp Otto Guensche and pilot Hans Baur which this book does not offer. Until the Final Hour does have very interesting end notes with side tidbits and brief biographical information on many of the people Junge mentions. Junge died February 10, 2002, soon after the first German publication of her memoirs. Her memories were controversial in her homeland because her experiences with Hitler were pleasant. She knew him as a polite host and gentle father figure who showed compassion and human emotions (i.e. when he offered condolences to her after her husband died at the front). Only in brief snippets does she hint at the harsher side of the dictator. Hitler tries to hide his emotional explosions in meetings with his military officers. Frau von Schirach (wife of the head of the Hitler Youth) was no longer invited to be Hitler's guest after she voiced concern to him about trains full of deported Jews headed for Amsterdam (p. 88). Junge would finally become angry with Hitler when he gave up on the war and was accusatory to the end (Junge typed up his last demands and will). She, of course, kept such feelings of disappointment to herself. Her viewpoint is, admittedly, from an isolated world with one set of beliefs and a "puppet master" who controlled the day-to-day lives and thoughts of those around him. She describes Hitler's demeanor and routine at the Wolf's Lair (Hitler's headquarters in East Prussia), at the Berghof (his mountain retreat), and finally in the bunker as Berlin was being surrounded. She offers a unique perspective on many aspects of the dictator's life: his dietary habits, the attention he gave to his dog Blondi, his outlook on the war, his after-dinner small talk with such intimates as Eva Braun and important visitors like Albert Speer, Josef Goebbels, etc. Her account of the final days in the bunker with the Russian army drawing near is very moving. You almost feel like you were there. By Candace Scott on February 29, 2004 For


The 15th century figure Skanderbeg who is remembered for his struggle against the Ottoman Empire is considered the national hero of which country?

Skanderbeg - Historum - History Forums Posts: 12 Skanderbeg George Kastrioti Skanderbeg (6 May 1405 ï¿½ 17 January 1468), widely known as Skanderbeg (from Turkish: İskender Bey, meaning "Lord Alexander", or "Leader Alexander"; Albanian: Gjergj Kastrioti Skï¿½nderbeu), was a 15th-century Albanian lord.[D] He was appointed as the governor of the Sanjak of Dibra by the Ottoman Turks in 1440. In 1444, he initiated and organised the League of Lezhï¿½ and defended the region of Albania against the Ottoman Empire for more than two decades. Skanderbeg's military skills presented a major obstacle to Ottoman expansion, and he was considered by many in western Europe to be a model of Christian resistance against the Ottoman Muslims. Skanderbeg is Albania's most important national hero and a key figure of the Albanian National Awakening. Skanderbeg was born in 1405[G] to the noble Kastrioti family, in the Shï¿½gjerth neighborhood of Sinï¿½, a village in Dibra. Sultan Murad II took him hostage during his youth and he fought for the Ottoman Empire as a general. In 1443, he deserted the Ottomans during the Battle of Niï¿½ and became the ruler of Krujï¿½. In 1444, he organized local leaders into the League of Lezhï¿½, a federation aimed at uniting their forces for war against the Ottomans. Skanderbeg's first victory against the Ottomans, at the Battle of Torvioll in the same year marked the beginning of more than 20 years of war with the Ottomans. Skanderbeg's forces achieved more than 20 victories in the field and withstood three sieges of his capital, Krujï¿½. In 1451 he de jure recognized the suzerainty of Kingdom of Naples through the Treaty of Gaeta, to ensure a protective alliance, although he remained an independent ruler de facto. [1] In 1460ï¿½1461, he participated in Italy's civil wars in support of Ferdinand I of Naples. In 1463, he became the chief commander of the crusading forces of Pope Pius II, but the Pope died while the armies were still gathering. Left alone to fight the Ottomans, Skanderbeg did so until he died in January 1468. Marin Barleti's biography of Skanderbeg, written in Latin and in a Renaissance and panegyric style, was translated into all the major languages of Western Europe from the 16th through the 18th centuries. Such translations inspired an opera by Vivaldi, and literary creations by eminent writers such as playwrights William Havard and George Lillo, French poet Ronsard, English poet Byron, and American poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow.   Posts: 12 Name George Kastrioti Skï¿½nderbeu appears in various Latin sources as Georgius Castriotus Scanderbegh. Gjergj is the Albanian equivalent of the name George. The form of his last name was given variously as Kastrioti,[2] Castriota,[3] Castriottis,[4] or Castriot.[5] The last name Kastrioti refers both to the Kastrioti family and to a municipality in northeastern Albania called Kastriot, in the modern Dibï¿½r District, from which the family's surname derives,[6][7][8] having its origin possibly in Latin word castrum via Greek word κάστρο (English: castle).[9][10] The Ottoman Turks gave him the name Skanderbeg. Skanderbeg has also been rendered as Scanderbeg in English versions of his biography; Skï¿½nderbeu (or Skï¿½nderbej) is the Albanian version. [11] meaning "Lord Alexander", or "Leader Alexander". Latinized in Barleti's version as Scanderbegi and translated into English as Skanderbeg, the combined appellative is assumed to have been a comparison of Skanderbeg's military skill to that of Alexander the Great   Posts: 12 Early life Skanderbeg was born with the name George Kastrioti in 1405[G] in Sinï¿½, one of the two villages owned by his grandfather.[A] Skanderbeg's father was Gjon Kastrioti, lord of Middle Albania, which included Mat, Mirditï¿½ and Dibï¿½r.[14] His mother was princess Vojsava Tripalda, originally from the Polog valley, north-western part of present-day Republic of Macedonia. Skanderbeg's parents had nine children, of whom he was the youngest son, his older brothers were Stanisha, Reposh and Kostandin, and his sisters were Mara, Jelena,


What is the famous four-letter phrase uttered by Ronald Reagan in his speech in June, 1987 at Brandenburg Gate in West Berlin?

Summary/Reviews: Tear down this wall : Add to Book Bag Tear down this wall :  a city, a president, and the speech that ended the Cold War / Drawing on interviews with Reagan administration officials, journalists, historians, and eyewitnesses, the author focuses on Ronald Reagan's June 1987 speech at the Brandenburg Gate and his historic challenge to Mikhail Gorbachev to tear down the Berlin Wall. Full description Main Author:


What political movement in first century Judaism that sought to incite people against the Roman Empire has now come to mean fanatical support for a cause?

Antisemitism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Your continued donations keep Wikipedia running!     Antisemitism This article is becoming very long . Please consider summarizing or transferring content to subtopic articles. See Wikipedia:Long article layout and Wikipedia:Longpages for more information. This article describes the development and history of traditional antisemitism. A separate article exists on the more recent concept of New antisemitism . The Eternal Jew (German: Der ewige Jude): 1937 German poster advertising an antisemitic Nazi movie. Antisemitism (alternatively spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism) is hostility toward or prejudice against Jews as a religious or racial/ethnic group, which can range in expression from individual hatred to institutionalized, violent persecution . While the term's etymology may imply that antisemitism is directed against all Semitic peoples , it is in practice used exclusively to refer to hostility towards Jews. The highly explicit ideology of Adolf Hitler 's Nazism was the most extreme example of this phenomenon, leading to the genocide of European Jewry . Antisemitism can be broadly categorized into three forms: Religious antisemitism, or anti-Judaism . As the name implies, it was the practice of Judaism itself that was the defining characteristic of the antisemitic attacks. Under this version of antisemitism, attacks would often stop if Jews stopped practising or changed their public faith. Racial antisemitism. Either a pre-cursor or by-product of the eugenics movement, racial antisemitism replaced hatred of the Jewish religion with the concept that the Jews themselves were a distinct and inferior race. New antisemitism is the concept of a new form of 21st century antisemitism coming simultaneously from the left , the far right , and radical Islam , which tends to focus on opposition to the emergence of a Jewish homeland in the State of Israel . [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] The concept has been criticized for what some authors see as a confusion of antisemitism and anti-Zionism . [6] [7] Antisemitism 13 External links [ edit ] Etymology and usage Semite refers broadly to speakers of a language group which includes both Arabs and Jews . However, the term antisemitism is specifically used in reference to attitudes held towards Jews. Cover page of Marr's The Way to Victory of Germanicism over Judaism, 1880 edition The word antisemitic (antisemitisch in German) was probably first used in 1860 by the Austrian Jewish scholar Moritz Steinschneider in the phrase "antisemitic prejudices" ( German : "antisemitische Vorurteile"). Steinschneider used this phrase to characterize Ernest Renan 's ideas about how " Semitic races" were inferior to " Aryan races." These pseudo-scientific theories concerning race, civilization, and "progress" had become quite widespread in Europe in the second half of the 19th century, especially as Prussian nationalistic historian Heinrich von Treitschke did much to promote this form of racism. In Treitschke's writings Semitic was practically synonymous with Jewish, in contrast to its usage by Renan and others. German political agitator Wilhelm Marr coined the related German word Antisemitismus in his book "The Way to Victory of Germanicism over Judaism" in 1879. Marr used the phrase to mean hatred of jews or Judenhass, and he used the new word antisemitism to make hatred of the Jews seem rational and sanctioned by scientific knowledge. Marr's book became very popular, and in the same year he founded the "League of Antisemites" ("Antisemiten-Liga"), the first German organization committed specifically to combatting the alleged threat to Germany posed by the Jews, and advocating their forced removal from the country. So far as can be ascertained, the word was first widely printed in 1881, when Marr published "Zwanglose Antisemitische Hefte," and Wilhelm Scherer used the term "Antisemiten" in the "Neue Freie Presse" of January. The related word semitism was coined around 1885. See also the coinage of the term " Palestinian " by Germans to refer to the nation or


If the Chinese are associated with the Long March in the 20th century, who are associated with the Great Trek in Africa in the 19th century?

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In 1973, Libya went to war with which country to claim control of the Aouzou strip which was claimed to be rich with uranium deposits?

Libya - HISTORY Libya - HISTORY Libya UNTIL LIBYA ACHIEVED independence in 1951, its history was essentially that of tribes, regions, and cities, and of the empires of which it was a part. Derived from the name by which a single Berber tribe was known to the ancient Egyptians, the name Libya was subsequently applied by the Greeks to most of North Africa and the term Libyan to all of its Berber inhabitants. Although ancient in origin, these names were not used to designate the specific territory of modern Libya and its people until the twentieth century, nor indeed was the whole area formed into a coherent political unit until then. Hence, despite the long and distinct histories of its regions, modern Libya must be viewed as a new country still developing national consciousness and institutions. Geography was the principal determinant in the separate historical development of Libya's three traditional regions-- Tripolitania, Cyrenaica, and Fezzan. Cut off from each other by formidable deserts, each retained its separate identity into the 1960s. At the heart of Tripolitania was its metropolis, Tripoli, for centuries a terminal for caravans plying the Saharan trade routes and a port sheltering pirates and slave traders. Tripolitania's cultural ties were with the Maghrib, of which it was a part geographically and culturally and with which it shared a common history. Tripolitanians developed their political consciousness in reaction to foreign domination, and it was from Tripolitania that the strongest impulses came for the unification of modern Libya. In contrast to Tripolitania, Cyrenaica historically was oriented toward Egypt and the Mashriq. With the exception of some of its coastal towns, Cyrenaica was left relatively untouched by the political influence of the regimes that claimed it but were unable to assert their authority in the hinterland. An element of internal unity was brought to the region's tribal society in the nineteenth century by a Muslim religious order, the Sanusi, and many Cyrenaicans demonstrated a determination to retain their regional autonomy even after Libyan independence and unification. Fezzan was less involved with either the Maghrib or the Mashriq. Its nomads traditionally looked for leadership to tribal dynasties that controlled the oases astride the desert trade routes. Throughout its history, Fezzan maintained close relations with sub-Saharan Africa as well as with the coast. The most significant milestones in Libya's history were the introduction of Islam and the Arabization of the country in the Middle Ages, and, within the last two generations, national independence, the discovery of petroleum, and the September 1969 revolution that brought Muammar al Qadhafi to power. The era since 1969 has brought many important changes. The Qadhafi regime has made the first real attempt to unify Libya's diverse peoples and to create a distinct Libyan state and identity. It has created new political structures and made a determined effort at diversified economic development financed by oil revenues. The regime has also aspired to leadership in Arab and world affairs. As a consequence of these developments, Libyan society has been subjected to a significant degree of government direction and supervision, much of it at the behest of Qadhafi himself. Although the merits of the regime and its policies were much debated by Libyans and foreigners alike, there was no question that Libya in the 1980s was a significantly different country from the one it had been only two or three decades earlier. Libya Archaeological evidence indicates that from at least the eighth millennium B.C. Libya's coastal plain shared in a Neolithic culture, skilled in the domestication of cattle and cultivation of crops, that was common to the whole Mediterranean littoral. To the south, in what is now the Sahara Desert, nomadic hunters and herders roamed a vast, well-watered savanna that abounded in game and provided pastures for their stock. Their culture flourished until the region began to desiccate after 2000 B.C. Scattering before