What name is given to the ancient region in the area of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers?

THE ANCIENT MIDDLE EAST: The Tigris and Euphrates River Valley : The Tigris and Euphrates River Valley The Tigris and Euphrates Rivers 1. ca. 4500 B.C.: Nomadic herders began to plant crops and build permanent settlements at the mouth of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. * Very little is known about these early settlers. 2. Fourth Millenium B.C.: between 4,000 - 3,000 B.C. another nomadic group migrated from the Armenian Plateau and conquered the delta region. * The Sumerians created the first known civilization in the Ancient Middle East. 3. The Tigris and Euphrates Valley: located in the eastern end ofthe Fertile Crescent (stretching from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean Sea). * The Fertile Crescent (half moon shape) stretching from the Tigris-Euphrates in the east to the Mediterranean in the West. 4. Crossroads of the World: it commands access to three continents, Asia, Africa, and Europe. a. The fertile crescent has few natural barriers. b. Its position led to frequent migrations and invasions. 5. The rivers begin in the highlands of Armenia flowing southward. a. The Tigris flows 1100 miles to the Persian Gulf. b. The Euphrates flows 1700 miles: * Rivers have created a delta at the Persian Gulf. * 150 miles at its greatest distance between the two rivers. 6. Division of the River Valley: a. Mesopotamia: land between the rivers name given by the Greeks. b. Babylonia: southern portion below the neck of the two rivers. 7. The river current is much stronger and more violent than the Nile River -- at times inflicting enormous damage. a. Canals and dikes were built for water control as the Egyptians did. b. Canals were also used to carry off surplus water -- flood control. c. Nature was viewed as hostile ------ their Gods seen as unreasonable and changeable. Sumerian Civilization : Sumer 1. Located in the southern portion of Babylonia, some believe that this is the location of the Garden of Eden. 2. ca. 3,000 B.C.: prosperous city states had developed in this area. a. City States: a town or city and surrounding land it controlled (cooperating for mutual defense). b. Chief Cities: Ur, Erech, and Kish c. Each city belonged to a god or a group of gods -- people believed they were dependent on the city's god for food and protection. * Priests alone knew how to appease the gods, and acted as intermediaries between citizens and the gods. * Theocracy - priests ruled in the name of the gods. 3. Sumerian City States: Constant Conflict a. Disputes over land boundaries and water rights. b. This division tended to weaken them. c. Resulted in a rise of Military Leaders who gradually replaced the priests as rulers. * Rulers were not worshiped as gods, but they were believed to be representatives of the gods on earth. 4. Social Classes: Sumerian Writing : 1. Developed sometime after 3500 B.C. -- first a system of pictograms and ideograms eventually it was simplified with the addition of phonograms. 2. Scribes made marks pressed into clay which was baked to harden the clay. a. They used a pointed stick called a stylus making a combination of wedge-like shapes. b. Cuneiform: cuneus - Latin for wedge. 600 signs - picto, ideo, and phonograms. c. Papyrus did not grow in Sumer, so they continued to write on clay tablets. 3. Mystery: a. A Persian ruler, Darius the Great, suppressed a rebellion led by local chiefs. b. Darius had the story carved in both pictures and writing on a limestone cliff at Behistun. c. The Behistun Rock: Darius passing judgment was recorded in three languages. 1.) Old Persian which was partly known. 2.) Elamite - native to the region. 3.) Babylonian Cuneiform which is similar to Sumerian Writing. d. Sir Henry C. Rawlison in 1846 was able to decipher cuneiform writing. Commerce and Trade 1. Boys of the Upper Class: conducted in temples by priests. 2. Curriculum: writing, spelling, history, math, languages, map making. 3. Advanced Education: law, medicine, and surgery. 4. Divination: (usually a function of the priests) being able to tell the future by signs and omens. a. An omen might be any event. b. A regular means t


On what Pacific island did islanders build giant statues called moai?

Easter Island (Rapa Nui) & Moai Statues Easter Island (Rapa Nui) & Moai Statues By Owen Jarus, Live Science Contributor | October 16, 2012 02:14pm ET MORE Rapa Nui, also known as Easter Island (a name given to it by Europeans), is located in the southeast Pacific and is famous for its approximately 1,000 carvings of moai, human-faced statues. The island measures about 14 miles (22 km) by 7 miles (11 km) at its furthest points and it is often said that it can be traversed by foot in a single day. The volcanic island is the most isolated inhabited landmass on Earth. The closest inhabited land is the Pitcairn Islands, located about 1,200 miles (1,900 km) to the west. Chile, the closest South American country, is located about 2,300 miles (3,700 km) to the east. Easter Island "heads" on the slope of Rano Raraku volcano. Credit: Image via Shutterstock The famous carvings are massive, up to 40 feet (12 meters) tall and 75 tons in weight. They were decorated on top with “Pukao,” a soft red stone in the shape of a hat. The statues also have torsos buried beneath the heads . Recent analysis of radiocarbon dating from the island indicate that Rapa Nui was first settled around A.D. 1200 , a period in which Polynesians voyaged to the east Pacific and perhaps also to South America and California. According to legend, a chief named Hotu Matu’a, having learned of Rapa Nui from an advance party of explorers, led a small group of colonists, perhaps no more than 100 people, to the island. Their place of origin is a mystery and may have been the Marquesas Islands, located 2,300 miles (3,700 km) to the northwest of Rapa Nui. Another suggestion is Rarotonga, located 3,200 miles (5,200 km) to the southwest of the island. In any case, the voyage would have been an arduous one that may have involved tacking against the wind. A deforested environment When people first came to Rapa Nui, around 800 years ago, they would have found the island overgrown with palm trees, among other vegetation. In the centuries that followed Rapa Nui was deforested until, by the 19th century, the landscape was utterly barren. How this occurred is a matter of debate. When people arrived at Rapa Nui they brought with them (whether intentionally or not) the Polynesian rat, a creature that reproduces rapidly and which the Polynesians sometimes consumed. This species had no natural enemies on the island and may have played a major role in deforestation . The popular claim that the island’s palm trees were felled to create devices to move the moai statues is probably incorrect. According to ancient stories the statues “walked” from the quarries to their place on stone platforms (known as ahu) and, indeed, research has shown that two small teams using ropes can move the statues vertically. A recent demonstration of this was recorded on a YouTube video (below) by Terry Hunt, a University of Hawaii professor, and Carl Lipo, a professor at California State University Long Beach. It is also noted by Hunt and Lipo that the deforestation of the island may not have led to a food crisis. They point out in their book, "The Statues that Walked" (Free Press, 2011) that abundant rocks on the island allowed for the construction of stone-protected gardens known as “manavai.” These stone gardens would have been supported by lithic mulching, a process by which minerals from rocks fertilize the soil. The people of the island, it appears, had enough food not only to build and move statues, but also to develop a written script, today known as Rongorongo, which researchers are still trying to decipher. Moai mystery In their book, Hunt and Lipo provide more evidence for the idea that the statues were moved vertically. They note the presence of pathways or “roads” that lead from quarry sites to moai locations in the southeast, northwest and southwest parts of the island. Some of Easter Island's famous stone Moai statues stood more than 30 feet high and weighed up to 82 tons. Credit: Terry Hunt/University of Hawaii, Manoa “The evidence on the ground revealed that roads were not part of some over


"What fermented food product was called ""liberty cabbage"" during WWI?"

Get your Country out of my Happy Meal!: Liberty cabbage, Freedom fries and other Product Renamings | Mental Floss Get your Country out of my Happy Meal!: Liberty cabbage, Freedom fries and other Product Renamings Image credit:  Like us on Facebook Political battles can dictate what we call our food and friends, and even what games we play. During WWI, sauerkraut was popularly rebranded Liberty Cabbage. When anti-French sentiments began to build a few years ago, "French Fries" were rechristened "Freedom Fries." (Nevermind that Thomas Jefferson may have been the one to first rave about the delicious side item in the U.S.). And while most patriotic terms fade, places like Berlin, Iowa, and Germantown, Nebraska, have ended up permanently renamed. Here are a few other examples of reactionary vocab rebranding efforts from all over the globe. 1. Food THE KIWI: The iconic fruit of New Zealand was originally known as a Chinese Gooseberry. When the country exported the fruits to the US starting in the 1950s, marketers referred to them as a melonettes to avoid evoking the Cold War conflict between China and the US. The name was later changed again to Kiwifruit came to avoid tariffs on melons and berries and to honor the country's national bird, the Kiwi. KIWI LOAVES: In 1998, New Zealand bakers were irritated by threats of French nuclear testing in the Pacific Ocean. So they took matters into their own hands by renaming French bread as Kiwi bread. The action received little attention compared to the Freedom fry movement here in the states. FRENCH VANILLA: Of course, now that the Star Spangled Ice Cream company has renamed its ice cream from "I Hate the French Vanilla" to "Air Force "˜Plane' Vanilla," the recent anti-French sentiments may have left US kitchens, for now. ROSES OF MUHAMMAD: After the 2006 controversy over Danish cartoons depicting Muslims, the Iranian Confectioner's Union changed the names of Danish pastries to "Roses of the Prophet Muhammad." 2. Drinks BOURBON: To wash down the sweet taste of independence, Americans began drinking Bourbon—a Whisky first brewed in the US in 1789. Rev. Elijah Craig rebuked the UK origins of the drink, naming it after Bourbon County, Kentucky. MECCA COLA: In 2002, Muslims asserted their beverage independence too. A Muslim-run company introduced Mecca Cola as an alternative to Coca Cola. The manufacturers imitated the Coca Cola flavor and packaged it with a red label and white script. Arab boycotts of American brands boosted the cola's sales. 3. Games CARDS TAKE A HIT: In 1917, the city of Syracuse made a statement against WWI by banning a card game . They prohibited Pinochle because of game's German origins (it came from the game "Binokel"). 21: American Black Jack has roots in Europe, but went through a few name changes before settling on that name. First, it was a popular French casino game in the 1700s called "Vingt-et-Un" ("Twenty One"). The British liked to play it too, but with the French and Indian War going on, they decided to rename it "Pontoon." Animals 4. GERMAN DOGS: Your furry four-footer is man's best friend. But that love might be conditional if the breed's name evokes a particular enemy country. Instead of German Shepherds and Dachsunds, owners in countries around the world doted on their Alsatians and Liberty Pups. 5. Illness EVEN OUR SICKNESS GETS A NAME CHANGE? During WWI, a Massachusetts doctor decided to combat the German invaders, specifically German Measles. The new "Liberty Measles" had all the same symptoms, plus a little extra patriotism. Newspapers used the new term for decades. 6. Education HOW KINDERGARTEN ALMOST GOT CHANGED: New Jersey teacher Katherine T. Cassell published an article "Wartime German at Junior High" in the 1945 German Quarterly . She wrote about her students' experience in the classroom and the anti-German frenzy taking place in the public. Her students learned military-related German words that year, and started dropping "ersatz" into conversations. Students discussed public calls for banning German words, boycotting German music


What figurative barrier separated democratic and communist Europe?

Jernteppe - definition of Jernteppe by The Free Dictionary Jernteppe - definition of Jernteppe by The Free Dictionary http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Jernteppe Also found in: Thesaurus , Encyclopedia , Wikipedia . iron curtain n. 1. often Iron Curtain The military, political, and ideological barrier established between the Soviet bloc and western Europe from 1945 to 1990. 2. A barrier that prevents free exchange of ideas and information: "That department and the editorial department are separated by an almost impenetrable iron curtain" (Brendan Gill). Iron Curtain n (Government, Politics & Diplomacy) a. (formerly) the guarded border between the countries of the Soviet bloc and the rest of Europe b. (as modifier): Iron Curtain countries. i′ron cur′tain n. (sometimes caps.) a barrier to understanding and the exchange of information created by the hostility of one country toward another, esp. such a barrier between the Soviet Union or its allies and other countries. [1920–25] Iron Curtain The barrier, political and military, that was considered to separate the Soviet bloc from western Europe after World War II. ThesaurusAntonymsRelated WordsSynonymsLegend: Noun 1. iron curtain - an impenetrable barrier to communication or information especially as imposed by rigid censorship and secrecy; used by Winston Churchill in 1946 to describe the demarcation between democratic and communist countries ideological barrier - a barrier to cooperation or interaction resulting from conflicting ideologies Translations


What country was once led by military leaders called shoguns?

What Is a Shogun? Updated January 31, 2016. We have all heard of Japan's shoguns, but who were they, exactly?   The word "shogun" comes from the Japanese words sho, meaning "commander," and gun, or "troops."  Thus, "shogun" was originally the title for a military commander or a general in ancient Japan, between the eighth and 12th centuries CE.  In the 12th century, the shoguns seized power from the Emperors of Japan, and became the de facto rulers of the country.  This state of affairs would continue until 1868, when the Emperor once again became the leader of Japan. Origins of the Shoguns: The word "shogun" was first used during the Heian Period (794 - 1185).  Military commanders at that time were called "Sei-i Taishogun," which can be translated roughly as "commander-in-chief of expeditions against the barbarians."  The Japanese at this time were fighting to wrest land away from the Emishi people and from the Ainu , who were driven to the cold northern island of Hokkaido.  The first Sei-i Taishogun was Otomo no Otomaro. continue reading below our video 10 Best Universities in the United States  The best known was Sakanoue no Tamuramaro, who subjugated the Emishi during the reign of Emperor Kanmu.  Once the Emishi and the Ainu were defeated, the Heian court dropped the title. By the early 11th century, politics in Japan were getting complicated and violent once more.  During the Genpei War (1180 - 1185), the Taira and Minamoto clans fought for control of the imperial court.  These early daimyo established the Kamakura shogunate (1192 - 1333), and revived the title of Sei-i Taishogun.   In 1192, Minamoto no Yoritomo gave himself that title; the shoguns would rule Japan from their capital at Kamakura for nearly 150 years.  The emperors continued to exist, and to hold theoretical and spiritual power over the realm, but it was the shoguns who actually ruled.  The imperial family was reduced to a figurehead.  It is interesting to note that the "barbarians" being fought by the shogun at this point were other Yamato Japanese , rather than members of different ethnic groups. Later Shoguns: In 1338, a new family proclaimed the Ashikaga shogunate .  They would rule from the Muromachi district of Kyoto; Kyoto was also the capital of the imperial court.  The Ashikaga lost their grip on power, however, and Japan descended into the violent and lawless era known as the Sengoku  or "warring states" period.  Various daimyo competed to found the next shogunal dynasty. In the end, it was the Tokugawa clan under Tokugawa Ieyasu who prevailed in 1600.  The Tokugawa shoguns would rule Japan until 1868, when the Meiji Restoration finally returned power to the Emperor once and for all.   This complex political structure, in which the Emperor was considered a god and the ultimate symbol of Japan, yet had almost no real power, greatly confused foreign emissaries and agents in the 19th century.  For example, when Commodore Matthew Perry of the United States Navy came to Edo Bay in 1853  to force Japan to open her ports to American shipping, the letters he brought from the US President were addressed to the Emperor.  However, it was the shogun's court that read the letters, and it was the shogun who had to decide how to respond to these dangerous and pushy new neighbors. After a year's deliberation, the Tokugawa government decided that it had no other option than to open the gates to the foreign devils.  This was a fateful decision.  It led to the downfall of the entire feudal Japanese political and social structure, and spelled the end of the office of the shogun. Pronunciation: "SHOH-gun" Examples: "The shoguns rose to power in 1185, after the Minamoto samurai clan defeated the Taira clan in the Genpei War (1180-1185)."


In which modern-day country was the Anglo-Boer war fought?

South African War | British-South African history | Britannica.com British-South African history Alternative Titles: Anglo-Boer War, Boer War, Second Boer War, Second War of Independence Related Topics Robert Arthur Talbot Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd marquess of Salisbury South African War, also called Boer War, Second Boer War, or Anglo-Boer War; to Afrikaners, also known as the Second War of Independence, war fought from Oct. 11, 1899, to May 31, 1902, between Great Britain and the two Boer (Afrikaner) republics—the South African Republic ( Transvaal ) and the Orange Free State —resulting in British victory. Boer troops lining up in battle against the British during the South African War (1899–1902). DeA Picture Library Although it was the largest and most costly war in which the British engaged between the Napoleonic Wars and World War I (spending more than £200 million), it was fought between wholly unequal protagonists. The total British military strength in Southern Africa reached nearly 500,000 men, whereas the Boers could muster no more than about 88,000. But the British were fighting in a hostile country over difficult terrain, with long lines of communications, while the Boers, mainly on the defensive, were able to use modern rifle fire to good effect at a time when attacking forces had no means of overcoming it. The conflict provided a foretaste of warfare fought with breach-loading rifles and machine guns, with the advantage to the defenders, that was to characterize World War I. Underlying causes Southern Africa: The South African War The causes of the war have provoked intense debates among historians and remain as unresolved today as during the war itself. British politicians claimed they were defending their “suzerainty” over the South African Republic (SAR) enshrined in the Pretoria and (disputably) London conventions of 1881 and 1884, respectively. Many historians stress that in reality the contest was for control of the rich Witwatersrand gold-mining complex located in the SAR. It was the largest gold-mining complex in the world at a time when the world’s monetary systems, preeminently the British, were increasingly dependent upon gold. Although there were many Uitlanders (foreigners; i.e., non-Dutch/Boer and in this case primarily British) working in the Witwatersrand gold-mining industry, the complex itself was beyond direct British control. Also, the discovery of gold on the Witwatersrand in 1886 allowed the SAR to make progress with modernization efforts and vie with Britain for domination in Southern Africa. Similar Topics Crimean War After 1897 Britain—through Alfred Milner , its high commissioner for South Africa—maneuvered to undermine the political independence of the SAR and demanded the modification of the Boer republic’s constitution to grant political rights to the primarily British Uitlanders, thereby providing them with a dominant role in formulating state policy that would presumably be more pro-British than the current policy of the SAR. In an effort to prevent a conflict between Britain and the SAR, Marthinus Steyn , president of the Orange Free State, hosted the unsuccessful Bloemfontein Conference in May–June 1899 between Milner and Paul Kruger , president of the SAR. Kruger did offer to make concessions to Britain, but they were deemed insufficient by Milner. After the conference, Milner requested that the British government send additional troops to reinforce the British garrison in Southern Africa; they began arriving in August and September. The buildup of troops alarmed the Boers, and Kruger offered additional Uitlander-related concessions, which were again rejected by Milner. The Boers, realizing war was unavoidable, took the offensive. On Oct. 9, 1899, they issued an ultimatum to British government, declaring that a state of war would exist between Britain and the two Boer republics if the British did not remove their troops from along the border. The ultimatum expired without resolution, and the war began on Oct. 11, 1899. War Initial Boer success The course of the war can be divide


"Rachel Carson's book ""Silent Spring"" was partially responsible for the ban of what insecticide?"

Bill Moyers Journal . Rachel Carson and DDT | PBS September 21, 2007 A Renewed Controversy The centenary of Rachel Carson's birth has been the cause of much celebration ( see our profile ) and of some renewed criticism. Criticism aside, few can debate the impact that SILENT SPRING has had on our natural world, and in inspiring citizens around the globe to work to protect it. Many credit Carson with inspiring the creation of the EPA, as well as the passage of the Clean Air Act and the Endangered Species Act, and laying the groundwork for the environmental movement. Before her landmark book, biologist E.O Wilson writes, "Ecology was near the bottom of scientific disciplines in prestige and support; few Americans even knew what the word meant." Yet Carson's legacy will forever be intertwined with the chemical DDT and the malaria fight. "A lot of people have used Carson to push their own agendas," explains Roger Bate of the American Enterprise Institute. "We just have to be a little careful when you're talking about someone who died in 1964." Sen. Tom Coburn (R-OK) recently put a halt to a bill proposed by Sen. Benjamin L. Cardin (D-MD) that would have honored Rachel Carson for her, "legacy of scientific rigor coupled with poetic sensibility," 100 years after her birth. According to his spokesman, Coburn "opposes these measures honoring Carson because one tragic aspect of Carson's legacy is that unscientific DDT policies have led to, and continue to lead to, millions of preventable deaths in malaria-stricken countries." Senator Coburn is not alone in his recent criticism of Carson. On his Web site, he invites those interested in reading "more about why Rachel Carson's science was wrong." Rachelwaswrong.org , a Web site hosted by the free-market think-tank, Conservative Enterprise Institute,  concludes that, "millions of people around the world suffer the painful and often deadly effects of malaria because one person sounded a false alarm. That person is Rachel Carson." This fervor has been a common note in criticism since the book's release, even though Carson never called for a ban on pesticides  only for study and caution. Even noted novelist Michael Crichton, in his latest book THE STATE OF FEAR, highlights how he believes alarmists in the environmental movement are doing more harm than good. In a speech to the Commonwealth Club in San Francisco he explained, "The greatest challenge facing mankind is the challenge of distinguishing reality from fantasy, truth from propaganda...As an example of this challenge, I want to talk today about environmentalism." What is DDT? Nobel-Prize winning, Swiss scientist Paul Hermann Muller first discovered that the chemical DDT was highly lethal to insects in 1939. Allied soldiers stationed in the Pacific, who were falling ill to malaria and typhoid by the thousands, were dusted with DDT, with tremendous success. "It's hard to overestimate the impact that DDT's early success had on the world of public health," writes Malcolm Gladwell for THE NEW YORKER. DDT even helped to deal malaria its "final blow" in the United States South, describes Kirsten Weir in an article for SALON, even though Jay Ellenberger of the EPA explains that the disease was "pretty well gone" in this country by the 1940's. Fred Soper, dubbed by many a "Malaria Warrior," for his work helping to eradicate the disease in areas such as Brazil and Sardinia in the early 50's, launched the Global Malaria Eradication Program in 1955 with World Health Organization backing, and DDT as his insecticide of choice. "Between 1945 and 1965, DDT saved millions - even tens of millions- of lives around the world, perhaps more than any other man-made drug or chemical before or since," writes Gladwell. Yet Soper's goal of complete eradication of malaria through DDT-spraying proved unattainable for a variety of reasons. Mosquitoes, especially in areas where spraying was the heaviest, began showing resistance to DDT. Furthermore, geographical factors particularly in African countries, made spraying extremely difficult: "How could you effe


"What country was ruled by ""Papa Doc"" and ""Baby Doc"" Duvalier?"

Francois Duvalier | president of Haiti | Britannica.com president of Haiti François Duvalier, byname Papa Doc (born April 14, 1907, Port-au-Prince , Haiti —died April 21, 1971, Port-au-Prince), president of Haiti whose 14-year regime was of unprecedented duration in that country. François Duvalier, 1963. AP Duvalier graduated in 1934 from the University of Haiti School of Medicine, where he served as a hospital staff physician until 1943, when he became prominently active in the U.S.-sponsored anti-yaws campaign. A contributor to the daily Action Nationale (1934), Duvalier was markedly influenced by the mystic scholar Lorimer Denis and became a member of Le Groupe des Griots, a circle of writers who embraced black nationalism and voodoo as the key sources of Haitian culture . A supporter of President Dumarsais Estimé , Duvalier was appointed director general of the National Public Health Service in 1946, and he directed the anti-yaws campaign in 1947–48. He was appointed underminister of labour in 1948 and the following year became minister of public health and labour, a post that he retained until May 10, 1950, when President Estimé was overthrown by a military junta under Paul E. Magloire , who was subsequently elected president. Duvalier returned to his former work with the American Sanitary Mission in 1951–54 and began organizing the resistance to Magloire. By 1954 he had become the central opposition figure and went underground. After the resignation of Magloire in December 1956, Duvalier’s followers participated in most of the six governments that were formed in the succeeding 10 months. Running on a program of popular reform and black nationalism , Duvalier was elected president in September 1957. Setting about to consolidate his power, he reduced the size of the army and, with his chief aide, Clément Barbot, organized the Tontons Macoutes (“Bogeymen”), a private force responsible for terrorizing and assassinating alleged foes of the regime. When Duvalier was stricken by a heart attack in 1959, Barbot acted in his stead. Upon recovery, the president promptly imprisoned his aide. His manipulation of legislative elections in 1961 to have his term extended to 1967 and other corrupt and despotic measures precipitated a termination of U.S. aid to Haiti. That summer he had Barbot murdered, after the latter, on his release from prison, had attempted an insurrection. Other attempts to overthrow Duvalier were equally unsuccessful. Late in 1963 Duvalier moved further toward an absolutist regime, promoting a cult of his person as the semidivine embodiment of Haiti. In April 1964 he declared himself president for life. Although diplomatically almost completely isolated, excommunicated by the Vatican until 1966 for harassing the clergy, and threatened by conspiracies against him, Duvalier was able to stay in power longer than any of his predecessors. His regime of terror quelled political dissent, causing nearly 30,000 deaths, but at the same time achieved for Haiti an unusual degree of political stabilization. On Duvalier’s death, power was transferred to his son, Jean-Claude (“Baby Doc”). Learn More in these related articles:


What did Karl Marx and the Unabomber both write?

Marx, Kaczynski, and Weber on Religion Marx, Kaczynski, and Weber on Religion Published: Last Edited: 23rd March, 2015 This essay has been submitted by a student. This is not an example of the work written by our professional essay writers. Marx, Kaczynski, and Weber on Religion articulations of religion and the technoscientific overlap and are mutually interdependent as they are outgrowths of the imagination, determine existential questioning, are both evolving organically, and share mythic resonances. lack of ability to give our deeper selves meaning, a quest that unfailingly appears to be a universal need for all human beings. Religion answers a deep human need for ritual, connection, and inspiration. Since the industrial revolution of the 18th and 19th century, the gap between science and religion has widened greatly. Religious teachings such as creationism have been proven false and research in genetics support evolution as fact. Galileo was killed for scientifically showing the earth was not the center of the universe but it was actually the sun at the center of the solar system. However each religion claims itself to be reality, so if religious texts and beliefs are to be trusted why would they contain so many contradictions? So if each religion claims itself to be true, then it must dismiss all the other competing religions as false, and vice-versa which just makes every religion that much less believable. The fact of the matter is that there is no omnipotent being, and all religious texts were written by man. Mythology was invented and used in every culture and religion to explain unknown phenomena and teach morals. The purpose being to educate children with all the lessons they need to carry on civilization. There is still a lot of philosophical value in those teachings and they often overlap. The popular online movie, Zeitgeist, explains that each religion used astronomy and patterns in the sky as the basis for their stories which explains, among many other things, why each religion has a trinity for the three brightest stars in Orion's Belt. However the conflicts between religions and the suffering brought about by religion need to end. The fact of the matter is that every religion preaches peace, yet how many wars have been fought over religion? How many people have mindlessly died defending their gods? Karl Marx, Theodore Kaczynski, and Max Weber were three prominent writers that addressed the issue of religion's impact on society. According to Marx, religion can only be understood in relation to other social structures and the economic rules of society because the actual religious doctrines are irrelevant. In fact, religion is only dependent upon economics, nothing else. Marx's opinion is that religion is an illusion that provides reasons and excuses to keep society from functioning the same. Much as capitalism takes our productive labor and alienates us from its value, religion takes our highest ideals and aspirations and alienates us from them, projecting them onto an omnipotent, omnipotent, omniscient being called a god. Marx dislikes religion because it is irrational, degrading, and hypocritical. Religion is a delusion and a worship of appearances that avoids recognizing underlying reality. Second, religion negates all that is dignified in a human being by rendering them servile and more willing to accept the status quo. Third, although religion might profess valuable principles, it sides with the oppressors. Jesus advocated helping the poor, but the Christian church merged with the oppressive Roman state, taking part in the enslavement of people for centuries. In the Middle Ages the Catholic Church preached about heaven, but acquired as much property and power as possible. The late comedian George Carlin said: "religion takes in billions of dollars, they pay no taxes, and they always need a little more. Now you talk about a good bullshit story, holy shit" (Carlin You are All Diseased). Marx is saying that religion is meant to create illusory fantasies for the poor. Economic realities prevent them from


What Mexican general defeated the Texans at the Alamo?

Sam Houston and the Battle for Texas Independence Sam Houston and the Battle for Texas Independence "Remember the Alamo" is a well-known phrase. Do you know what it means? Sam Houston had already served in the U.S. House of Representatives and as governor of Tennessee when he moved to Texas in 1832. At the time he arrived, Texas was part of Mexico and the site of rising tensions and violent disturbances between Mexican authorities and Anglo settlers from the United States. Voicing his support for a separate state of Texas, Houston emerged as a leader among the settlers. In 1835, he was chosen commander in chief of the Texas army. The Alamo was an 18th century Franciscan Mission in San Antonio, Texas, which was the location of an important battle for Texans fighting for independence from Mexico. In 1836, a small group of Texans was defeated by Mexican General Santa Anna. When Houston received word of the defeat at the Alamo, he was inspired to begin a month-long retreat to regroup and replenish the Texas army's strength. Remembering how badly the Texans had been defeated at the Alamo, on April 21, 1836, Houston's army won a quick battle against the Mexican forces at San Jacinto and gained independence for Texas. Soon after, Houston was elected president of the Republic of Texas. He continued to serve as senator and governor after Texas became part of the United States in 1845. Sam Houston died in 1863 in Huntsville, Texas, where a 67-foot-tall memorial statue of him now stands. After a lifetime of service to his country, the event for which he is most well known is his role in the independence of Texas. page 1 of 1


What 1950's subculture was famous for wearing berets, playing bongos, and snapping?

Urban Dictionary: beatnik beatnik A member of the Beat Generation (late 50's - early 60's), a nonconformist in dress and thought. Often reknowned for wearing black turtleneck sweaters, stove-pipe trousers, dark glasses and berets. They used to hang out at coffee shops where they would recite poetry (sometimes accompanied by bongo drums), and talk about jazz or the people/society/regimes that are oppressing them and trying to make them conform. "Oh, man! Ned spilled ink all over my poems. He's a real flat tire, I mean a cube, man. He's putting us on the train to Squaresville" - Ned Flanders' beatnik father "I'm really diggin' this jaaaazz, maaan! This cat is really hip! Far out daddy-o!" (clicks his fingers repeatedly)


Who famously lived at Robben Island prison from 1964-1990?

Robben Island Museum | Cape Town Tourism home chevron_right See and Do chevron_right Arts & Culture chevron_right Heritage & History chevron_right Robben Island Museum Premium Member Robben Island Museum Robben Island is famous, or rather infamous, as the holding place for the imprisoned Nelson Mandela. Mandela served 18 of his 27 years in prison incarcerated on the island’s prison, but Robben Island has also housed a hospital, mental institution, leper colony and military base during its rich history. Now, Robben Island is a World Heritage Site and museum, offering daily tours. The tour begins at the Nelson Mandela Gateway at the V&A Waterfront with a multimedia exhibition, museum shop and restaurant, after which, guests hop onto the ferry for a scenic trip to the island. Once on Robben Island itself, the tour is guided by a former political prisoner of the island, for unique and incomparable insights into the island’s history. Highlights: Ferry tour from V&A Waterfront to Robben Island See where Nelson Mandela served the majority of his sentence Island tour guided by a former political prisoner Enquire Now close Enquiry Form Please complete this form and a Cape Town Tourism representative will contact you shortly or call us at 0861322223 Cancel Your enquiry was successfully sent. A Cape Town Tourism representative wil be in contact shortly. close Celebrate Heritage Day in Cape Town South Africa has 11 official languages and their corresponding cultures and still more unofficial ones that identify as South African. This makes for a melting pot of variety, one that has earned South Africa the fond nickname “Rainbow Nation”. So, it is only right that a public holiday be set… Local culture and cuisine at Richard’s The brainchild of Richard Loring, producer of the internationally-acclaimed African footprint, and Roland Seidel, Richard’s Supper Stage & Bistro is a truly home grown Cape Town affair, using the city’s unique, and colourful history, as the basis to the venue’s signature show – Kaapse Stories. Richard’s is a favourite for… Discover Cape Town’s rich cultural heritage Cape Town is a melting pot of people and cultures and the city’s diverse heritage can be explored through its historical architecture and colourful cuisine. Get started here… SAN Although the San people were the original inhabitants of South Africa, they were systematically marginalised and eradicated by a series of… Cape Town’s Military Heritage Route As the oldest city in South Africa, Cape Town has a rich, if turbulent, history and the military plays a large part in the Mother City’s story. On September 1, the City of Cape Town launched the official Military Heritage Route. Comprising of three properties – the Castle of Good…


What group of French-speaking people settled in Louisiana after being forced out of eastern Canada?

Acadians - History, Settlement patterns, Internal migration, Camps, Acculturation and Assimilation Acadians by Evan Heimlich Overview Acadians are the descendants of a group of French-speaking settlers who    migrated from coastal France in the late sixteenth century to establish a    French colony called Acadia in the maritime provinces of Canada and part    of what is now the state of Maine. Forced out by the British in the    mid-sixteenth century, a few settlers remained in Maine, but most    resettled in southern Louisiana and are popularly known as Cajuns. HISTORY Before 1713, Acadia was a French colony pioneered mostly by settlers from    the coastal provinces of Brittany, Normandy, Picardy, and Poitou—a    region that suffered great hardships in the late sixteenth and early    seventeenth centuries. In 1628, famine and plague followed the end of a    series of religious wars between Catholics and Protestants. When social    tensions in coastal France ripened, more than 10,000 people left for the    colony founded by Samuel Champlain in 1604 known as "La    Cadie" or Acadia. The area, which included what is now Nova Scotia,    New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and part of Maine, was one of the    first European colonies in North America. The Company of New France    recruited colonists from coastal France as indentured servants. Fishermen,    farmers, and trappers served for five years to repay the company with     their labor for the transportation and materials it had provided. In the    New World, colonists forged alliances with local Indians, who generally    preferred the settlers from France over those from Britain because, unlike    the British who took all the land they could, the coastal French in Acadia    did not invade Indian hunting grounds inland. The early French settlers called themselves "Acadiens" or    "Cadiens" (which eventually became Anglicized as    "Cajuns") and were among the first Old World settlers to    identify themselves as North Americans. The New World offered them    relative freedom and independence from the French upper class. When French    owners of Acadian lands tried to collect seignorial rents from settlers    who were farming, many Acadians simply moved away from the colonial    centers. When France tried legally to control their profit from their    trade in furs or grain, Acadians traded illegally; they even traded with    New England while France and England waged war against each other. As French colonial power waned, Great Britain captured Acadia in 1647; the    French got it back in 1670 only to lose it again to the British in the    1690s. Acadians adapted to political changes as their region repeatedly    changed hands. Before the British took the Nova Scotia region, they waged    the Hundred Year War against French colonial forces in a struggle over the    region's territory. The Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, which failed to    define realistic boundaries for the French and English territories after    Queen Anne's War, converted most of the peninsula into a British    colony. Despite British attempts to impose its language and culture,    Acadian culture persisted. Large families increased their numbers and new    settlers spoke French. The British tried to settle Scottish and other    Protestant colonists in Acadia to change the region's    French-Catholic culture to a British-Protestant one. The French-speaking    Acadians, however, held onto their own culture. In 1745 the British threatened to expel the Acadians unless they pledged    allegiance to the King of England. Unwilling to subject themselves to any    king (especially the King of England who opposed the French and    Catholics), Acadians refused, claiming that they were not allied with    France. They also did not want to join the British in fights against the    Indians, who were their allies and relatives. To dominate the region    militarily, culturally,


What is Queen Mary I of England's unflattering nickname?

QUEEN "BLOODY" MARY I Queen "Bloody" Mary I     Tudor of England Queen Mary I of England reigned as Queen of England for a short five years (r.1553-1558), the first reigning queen since the disputed Mathilda in the 12th Century. Most historians consider her reign to be unfruitful in that she never was able to fulfill her dream of returning England to the Roman Catholic Church. She also never had any children of her own to continue her dynasty in England. Her foreign policies met with failure as well. Born in 1516 to England's King Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon , Mary lived quiet life as a royal princess until about 1527 when the king began to seek annulment of his marriage to her mother.   Since Catherine had not produced a male heir, Henry feared that if Mary inherited the throne civil war might result.  Since the pope refused to grant an annulment, in 1533 Henry's bishops dissolved the marriage and allowed Henry to marry Anne Boleyn , who soon gave birth to Mary's half-sister, Elizabeth .  In all, England thus broke away from the Roman Catholic Church and began to follow Anglicanism.  After Catherine's death, Henry in turn executed Anne Boleyn on a trumped-up charges of adultery conspiracy.  His next wife, Jane Seymour, gave birth to his long-desired heir, Edward, so both Mary and Elizabeth were treated as royal bastards.   Edward VI followed his father as king in 1547, but died already in 1553.  Mary became queen only after a faction of Protestant nobles tried to put Lady Jane Grey, or the "nine day queen," on the throne.  Mary's overwhelming support by the powerful averted a serious civil war.  Only a handful of executions followed, including Lady Jane.   Mary immediately went to work bringing the Roman Catholic faith back to England. She initially did this by rescinding the religious proclamations of Edward VI, and replacing them with old English laws enforcing heresy against the Church. In carrying out the last action, Mary earned her nickname, "Bloody Mary," because during her reign, she had more than 300 persons burned at the stake for heresy. Among them was the Archbishop of Canterbury,  Thomas Cranmer.  Chiefly because of her support of the papacy and the Roman Catholic Church, she was never really able to gain the support of nobles and most of her countrymen. In her drive to find an heir to the English throne, at the age of 37 Mary wed prince Philip II of Spain. This made her subjects even more apprehensive about her, because many viewed Spain as an archenemy of England. Twice during her reign she believed that she was with child, and even showed the symptoms of pregnancy. It seems that she had a "hysterical pregnancy" -- she had convinced herself so that her body responded as if she were pregnant. It has also been supposed that she might have had an ovarian cyst that not only prevented her from conceiving a child, but could have contributed to her early death in 1558. Mary's foreign affairs had also met failure as well. Encouraged to ally with Spain by Philip in a war against France, Mary lost Calais, the only English held possession in France. Sadly, in 1558, deserted by her husband who went back to Spain to claim the Spanish throne, Mary realized that she would not be able to provide an heir, and was forced to recognize her sister, Elizabeth, an Anglican Protestant, as the next ruler of England.  Although at several points Mary threatened and put pressure on on her sister to convert to Roman Catholicism, she successfully resisted, survived, and became Queen Elizabeth I .  Special superstitious note:  The game of seeing a ghost or a witch by looking in a mirror in the dark and chanting the name "Bloody Mary" has nothing whatsoever to do with this queen, except the coincidence of the same name.  When I was a kid, to try the trick we said "Mary Worth" (perhaps connected to a comic strip running at the time). For more information, see the article Barbara Mikkelson, "Bloody Mary," Snopes.com, 27 April 2001, < http://www.snopes.com/horrors/ghosts/bloody.htm > (2 June 2005), which also has a brief descrip


Who was the main author of the U.S. Declaration of Independence?

Who Wrote the Declaration of Independence? » Independence Day » Surfnetkids Surfnetkids » Independence Day » History » Who Wrote the Declaration of Independence? Who Wrote the Declaration of Independence? The signing of the Declaration of Independence. The Declaration of Independence is without a doubt one of the most important documents ever to be written in American history. It was signed by fifty-six different men, all representatives from different states. But who wrote the Declaration of Independence? Most of us know today the author of the Declaration of Independence as Thomas Jefferson. But many do not know the history behind the man or the Declaration. Let’s look at some important events leading up to the signing and writing of the Declaration. Why was the Declaration written? During the 1700s, the British Parliament passed several laws that limited the freedoms of many English colonists in America. Theses limitations resulted in the forming of the first Continental Congress in 1774. A list of complaints was sent to King George III but was ignored and after the second meeting of the Continental Congress and another ignored letter, the colonists felt that they needed something to declare their independence. Rebellion was the only choice the colonists felt they had left due to the King ignoring their letters. Who wrote the Declaration of Independence? Although we know Thomas Jefferson as the true author, the Second Continental Congress initially appointed five people to draw up a declaration. The committee included Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, Roger Sherman, Robert Livingston and Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson was then given the task of writing a draft for the Declaration of Independence, which from June 11 to June 28 he worked on. Before he presented the Declaration to the Continental Congress, he showed it to John Adams and Benjamin Franklin; they made revisions. He presented the draft to Congress on July 1, 1776 and more revisions were made. On the fourth of July the delegates met in what we know today as Independence Hall, but back then was known as the Pennsylvania State House, and approved the Declaration. John Hancock, the President of the Continental Congress signed the declaration along with Charles Thomson and it was sent to John Dunlap’s print shop for printing. About Thomas Jefferson As the author of the Declaration of Independence there is much history behind the actual writing of the Declaration, from education to politics. Early years of Thomas Jefferson Thomas Jefferson was born on April 13, 1743 into a family that was related to some of the most prominent individuals in Virginia. In school Jefferson studied Latin, Greek and French, and when he was fourteen years old his father died. Jefferson inherited a lot of land and dozens of slaves. Politics Thomas Jefferson practiced law in the Virginia House of Burgesses. In 1774 he wrote “A Summary View of the Rights of British America”? which became a very powerful argument of American terms for settlement with Britain. It would definitely light a fire and help to speed the way to independence. Jefferson drew heavily on George Mason’s Virginia Declaration of Rights and much of his own work on the Virginia Constitution in his efforts to write the Declaration of Independence. Twenty six changes were made before the actual draft was given to the Continental Congress. Who wrote the Declaration of Independence? Well, the author is known as Thomas Jefferson, but there were many hands that helped revise and deliver the document and more importantly, fifty six that signed and would have given their lives for the cause of freedom. Learn more with these Declaration of Independence websites . Cite This Page "Who Wrote the Declaration of Independence?." Surfnetkids. Feldman Publishing. 21 May. 2013. Web. 18 Jan. 2017. <http://www.surfnetkids.com/independenceday/261/who-wrote-the-declaration-of-independence/ >. American Scripture: Making the Declaration of Independence Price: $7.29 Inventing America: Jefferson's Declaration of Independence Price: $10.99 Very Nice What?!


What is a name for a women of the 1920's who had bobbed hair, wore short skirts, drank, and listened to jazz?

7P guide to 1920s Jazz by james palmer - issuu issuu 1920s Jazz 1920’s Jazz Louis Armstrong Louis Armstrong was born on the 4th of August, 1901 in New Orleans, Louisiana. He was a trumpeter and a singer in New Orleans in pubs. He played the trumpet and the cornet, which is a mini trumpet. He was dubbed Satchmo , which was short for Satchel Mouth, because he had a big mouth; or Pops when he started playing. You might recognize a few of his songs, for example, ‘What a Wonderful World’, or ‘La Vie en Rose’. Louis retired in the 1960’s and died in 1971 in Queens, New York City. Flappers Flappers are ladies who danced to the Charleston type of music. The term ‘Flapper’ is inspired by a bird flapping its wings while learning how to fly. Flappers usually bobbed their hair, listened to jazz music, and wore short skirts. Duke Ellington Edward Kennedy, or Duke Ellington was born on April 29th, 1899 and was a composer, big band leader and a pianist. Ellington was also referred in the genre of Blues, Gospel, film scores, Pop, and classical. Ellington recorded for many American Record companies, and was in several films. Ellington died May 24th, 1974 in New York City, USA. King Oliver Joseph Nathan Oliver, or King Oliver was born on May 11th , 1885. Like Duke Ellington and Louis Armstrong, Joseph was a cornet player and a band leader. You might recognize a few of his songs, for example, ‘Canal Street Blues’, or ‘Dipper mouth Blues’. He was the mentor and teacher of Louis Armstrong, a famous trumpeter. King Oliver died on the 10th of April 1938, age 52. The Charleston The Charleston is a dance, which originated from the harbour city, Charleston, South Carolina. The song, the Charleston was composed in 1923, by James P. Johnson, a pianist. Developed by Kathryn Wilson, the Charleston quickly popularized in the 1920’s. The Cotton Club The Cotton Club was a famous illegal night club located in a Harlem neighborhood in New York. It operated from 1923 to 1940, during the American Prohibition Era, when alcohol was banned. The club was white-only, but many famous black performers performed there including Duke Ellington. They would host ‘Celebrity Nights’ every Sunday, and famous people would go there. Louis Armstrong was born on the 4 August 1901 in New Orleansâ€™s and died on July 6 1971 in Corona, his nickname was Stachmo or Pops. He was a Jazz trumpeter . Duke Ellington was born in April 29, 1899 and died in May 24, 1974; he was an American composer, pianist, and big-band leader. Ellington wrote over 1,000 compositions Joseph Nathan Oliver, better known as Joe "King" Oliver and was born May 11, 1885 and died April 10, 1938 Renowned for his charming stage presence plus voice almost as much as for his trumpet-playing, Armstrong's influence extends well beyond jazz music and by the end of his career in the 1960s, he was widely regarded as a profound influence on popular music in general. Armstrong was one of the first truly popular African-American entertainers to "cross over", whose skin-color was secondary to his music in an America that was severely racially divided. Ellington called his music "American Music" rather than jazz, and liked to define those who impressed him as "beyond category These included many of the musicians who were members of his orchestra, some of whom are considered among the best in jazz in their own right, but it was Ellington who melded them into one of the best-known jazz orchestral units in the history of jazz. He often composed explicitly for the style and skills of these individuals, such as "Jeep's Blues" for Johnny Hodges, "Concerto for Cootie" for Cootie Williams. Joseph Oliver was born in Aben, Louisiana, near Donaldsonville in Ascension Parish, and moved to New Orleans in his youth. Oliver played cornet in the New Orleans brass bands and dance bands and also in the city's red-light district, Storyville. The band he co-led with trombonist Kid Ory was considered New Orleans' hottest and best in the 1910s. Developed by Kathryn Wilson, the Charleston became a popular dance craze in the wider in


Which country was divided near the 38th parallel in 1953?

THE 38TH PARALLEL Olwyn Green "The Vagrant Winds" was the title chosen for the Korean War exhibition for it symbolises the vagaries not only of war but of life just as the soldier experienced the vagaries of the wind indiscriminately blowing the stench of death from dead bodies over enemy and ally alike, at the site of the last battle on the 38th parallel.  Their only respite, he wrote, lay with the vagaries of the Korean winds. "A Lively Life," John Bineham, ex 3RAR. On June 25th 1950, a sudden roar of guns shattered the pre-dawn silence at the 38th Parallel.  The Korean War had begun, a war that was essentially a show-down between Communism and the West. Unfortunately for Korea, a nation that had enjoyed centuries of intact culture, it became the site of a war by proxy which left the country devastated. It is inconceivable that a war of such global importance should be overlooked by history.  Epithets given to the Korean War indicate why amnesia surrounds it: " forgotten;" "unknown;" and the misnomer, "police action," which is attributed to the United States President, Harry Truman. A reason for amnesia is that the war dragged on, only to exact considerable sacrifice . The total death toll is estimated at 5 million. The United Nations' battle casualties1 clearly show the burden of the war was borne by the Republic of Korea which lost 46,000 troops killed, and the USA which lost 33,629 killed, and another 8000 who remain missing.  The enemy figures were higher: China 402,000 troops killed and North Korea 215,000 killed.  When the guns stopped firing, there was no victory to celebrate. There was only an armistice and a still-divided Korea. It is not surprising then that such a bloody, destructive and indecisive war has not inspired great literature, stories or images to ensure it a place in history or in the collective memory. All we have are the American M.A.S.H. characters Hawkeye and Hot Lips. However, 50th anniversary events, the Dedication of a Memorial to the Korean War in Canberra in April 2000, and the Exhibition, The Vagrant Winds at Casula Powerhouse Arts Centre from 8th April to 28th May, should serve to remedy our own national amnesia. At The Vagrant Winds, visitors will be able to rescue the missing Korean chapter of the Anzac Story, and also discover stories from other participating United Nations' countries.  Viewing the images and entries will make the war so much a reality, the "forgotten war" will become part of our consciousness. To better appreciate the stories from the Korean War, an overview is given to provide the context:- Despite Communist propaganda to the contrary, it was Kim Il Sung's North Korean Army that began the Korean War by attacking the South on 25th June 1950.  Joseph Stalin and Mao Zedong had both supported the invasion, for the Communists believed they could swiftly reunite Korea, and that neither America or the United Nations would intervene. That was a miscalculation.  President Truman, for both strategic and philosophical reasons, took the "hardest" decision of his office when he decided to "go in."  That was a miscalculation, too, for it was not anticipated that China would react. Also, the Americans were confident in their ability to execute a quick rebuff to the ambitions of the Communists. The United Nations (with the Soviets absent) declared the North Koreans aggressors and called for member nations to provide military support to repel the invasion. Twenty one countries responded and were included in the composite UN army put under the command of General Douglas MacArthur, the "hero" of the Pacific War. The war having begun, crisis piled upon crisis. The first crisis was resolved so brilliantly, it raised confidence to unrealistic heights.  The defence of South Korea was near collapse by August 1950, before MacArthur effected his brilliant, risky manoeuvre at Inchon. The US Marines' amphibious landing on 15th September enabled them to encircle a far-too extended North Korean army and send it into disarray.  MacArthur, with the United Nations' Securit


What insignia did the Nazi SS wear on their caps?

Why did the SS have skulls on their caps? - Quora Quora Answer Wiki 3 Answers Quora User, World War II History, Native American History, U.S.History, Ancient History, Religious History Critique, World Histor... Written Aug 30, 2015 The Skull and Crossbones, in this instance referred to as the Death’s Head, was among the SS of Nazi era Germany. or Schutzstaffel Apart from its most visible use on the officers caps, it is probably most famously, or infamously, prominent use was the very highly regarded Totenkopfring/Deaths Head Ring awarded to SS officers in recognition of their, “…personal achievement, devotion to duty, and loyalty to the Fuhrer and his ideals Julius Schreck , the leader of the Stabswache (Adolf Hitler's bodyguard unit), resurrected the use of theTotenkopf as the unit's insignia. This unit grew into the Schutzstaffel (SS), which continued to use the Totenkopf as insignia throughout its history. According to a writing by Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler the Totenkopf had the following meaning: The Skull is the reminder that you shall always be willing to put your self at stake for the life of the whole community The death's head was supposed to signify that they were loyal to the death,  Death's Head emblem worn by SS-Totenkopfverbände soldiers Motto reads in English: My Honor's name is Loyalty Sources: Written Sep 1, 2015 Well for one thing, despite what Hollywood tells you, the SS didn't all have the Death Head on their cap.  It gained notoriety as the division symbol of the 3rd Waffen SS Division, Totenkopf, the Death Heads. The division marker of the 3rd Waffen SS Panzer Division Totenkopf, they served the entire war on the Eastern Front and were famous for both their superb combat performance and their laundry list of war crimes. The symbol itself pre-dates WWII, the Nazis, and even modern Germany.  It originated in Prussia in the time of Fredrick the Great.  He used it as the symbol for a regiment of Hussars (light cavalry).  Since they it's made various appearances throughout German military history, appearing as the symbol of some unit in every major Prussian/German war. Prussian Hussars of the Napoleonic Era sporting the Totenkopf Written Sep 1, 2015 It harked back to an antique Prussian Hussar division, as noted in at least one other answer.  Which likewise used a skull-and-crossbone type figure on their hats. It was on the caps of all SS, but it was specifically on the collar tabs of the Totenkopf (or Death's Head) divisions, or SS-TV (Totenkopfverbande).  These were originally the camp guard personnel, basically,  formed under Theodor Eicke .   As WWII began, there were actual armed fighting units formed out of the SS-TV/camp personnel structure. Their fighting units can be seen listed near the bottom of the page here:  SS-Totenkopfverbände .  As fighting units, they participated heavily on the Eastern Front in various battles and they were in fact mostly destroyed and then re-built up on at least one possibly two occasions.  Prior to that, they were known mostly for atrocities against civilians (gentile as well as Jew) in Poland, and in France; to the extent that their behavior even offended certain other Nazis,  or at least German career military men if not devout Nazis. "After the TK-Division, and Eicke personally, performed poorly during Fall Gelb [German invasion of France] Himmler resolved to curb his subordinate [Theodor Eicke]. Cynically using as justification several well-publicized atrocities committed by the Division in France, on 15 August 1940 he dissolved Eicke's Inspectorate of SS-Totenkopfstandarten and transferred the Totenkopf-Division, the independent TK-Standarten, and their reserve and replacement system to the newly formed Waffen-SS high command. [9] "In February 1941 the Totenkopf designation was removed from the names of all units other than the TK-Division [see: 3rd SS Panzer Division Totenkopf ] and the camp Totenkopfwachsturmbanne [i.e., concentration camp Death's Head Batallions] and their personnel exchanged the Death's-Head collar insignia for the Waffen-SS Sig-rune


"Who said ""the die is cast"" as he crossed the Rubicon?"

Julius Caesar - Wikiquote Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (Classical Latin: G AIVS C ÆSAR ) ( 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC ) was a Roman religious , military, and political leader. He played an important part in the transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire . His conquest of Gaul extended the Roman world all the way to the Atlantic Ocean, with the first Roman invasion of Britainia in 55 BC. He is widely considered to be one of the greatest military geniuses of all time, as well as a brilliant politician and one of the ancient world's strongest leaders. For the famous play by William Shakespeare , see Julius Caesar (play) . Contents Men willingly believe what they wish. The die is cast. Fortune, which has a great deal of power in other matters but especially in war, can bring about great changes in a situation through very slight forces. Veni, vidi, vici. I came, I saw, I conquered. Written in a report to Rome 47 B.C., after conquering Pharnaces at Zela in Asia Minor in just five days; as quoted in Life of Caesar by Plutarch ; reported to have been inscribed on one of the decorated wagons in the Pontic triumph, in Lives of the Twelve Caesars , Julius , by Suetonius Variant translation: Came, Saw, Conquered Inscription on the triumphal wagon reported in The Twelve Caesars by Suetonius , as translated by Robert Graves (1957) Alea iacta est . The die is cast. As quoted in Vita Divi Iuli [The Life of the deified Julius] (121 CE) by Suetonius , paragraph 33 (Caesar: … "Iacta alea est", inquit. – Caesar said … "the die is cast".) Said when crossing the river Rubicon with his legions on 10 January, 49 BC, thus beginning the civil war with the forces of Pompey . The Rubicon river was the boundary of Gaul, the province Caesar had the authority to keep his army in. By crossing the river, he had committed an invasion of Italy. The Latin is a translation; Caesar actually spoke this in Greek, as reported by Plutarch , Plutarch , Life of Pompey, 60.2.9: Ἑλληνιστὶ πρὸς τοὺς παρόντας ἐκβοήσας, «Ἀνερρίφθω κύβος», [anerriphtho kybos] διεβίβαζε τὸν στρατόν. He [Caesar] declared in Greek with loud voice to those who were present ‘Let the die be cast’ and led the army across. He was reportedly quoting the playwright Menander , specifically “Ἀρρηφόρῳ” (Arrephoria, or “The Flute-Girl”), according to Deipnosophistae , Book 13 , paragraph 8, saying «Ἀνερρίφθω κύβος» (anerriphtho kybos). The Greek translates rather as “let the die be cast!”, or “Let the game be ventured!”, which would instead translate in Latin as Jacta Alea Est. According to Lewis and Short ( Online Dictionary: alea , Lewis and Short at the Perseus Project. See bottom of section I.), the phrase used was a future active imperative , “let the die be cast!”, or “Let the game be ventured!”, which would instead translate in Latin as iacta alea est. Gallia est pacata. Gaul is subdued. Written in a letter with which Caesar informed the Roman Senate of his victory over Vercingetorix in 52 BC Sed fortuna, quae plurimum potest cum in reliquis rebus tum praecipue in bello, parvis momentis magnas rerum commutationes efficit; ut tum accidit. Fortune, which has a great deal of power in other matters but especially in war, can bring about great changes in a situation through very slight forces. The Civil War, Book III, 68; variant translation: "In war, events of importance are the result of trivial causes." I assure you I had rather be the first man here than the second man in Rome. On passing through a village in the Alps, as attributed in Parallel Lives , by Plutarch , as translated by John Langhorne and William Langhorne (1836), p. 499 Variant: First in a village rather than second in Rome. I will not … that my wife be so much as suspected. His declaration as to why he had divorced his wife Pompeia , when questioned in the trial against Publius Clodius Pulcher for sacrilege against Bona Dea festivities (from which men were excluded), in entering Caesar's home disguised as a lute-girl apparently with intentions of a seducing Caesar's wife; as reported in Plutarch's Lives


What disease killed over 3% of the world's population in 1918 and 1919?

The 1918 Influenza Pandemic I opened the window, And in-flu-enza. The influenza pandemic circled the globe. Most of humanity felt the effects of this strain of the influenza virus. It spread following the path of its human carriers, along trade routes and shipping lines. Outbreaks swept through North America, Europe, Asia, Africa, Brazil and the South Pacific (Taubenberger). In India the mortality rate was extremely high at around 50 deaths from influenza per 1,000 people (Brown). The Great War, with its mass movements of men in armies and aboard ships, probably aided in its rapid diffusion and attack. The origins of the deadly flu disease were unknown but widely speculated upon. Some of the allies thought of the epidemic as a biological warfare tool of the Germans. Many thought it was a result of the trench warfare, the use of mustard gases and the generated "smoke and fumes" of the war. A national campaign began using the ready rhetoric of war to fight the new enemy of microscopic proportions. A study attempted to reason why the disease had been so devastating in certain localized regions, looking at the climate, the weather and the racial composition of cities. They found humidity to be linked with more severe epidemics as it "fosters the dissemination of the bacteria," (Committee on Atmosphere and Man, 1923). Meanwhile the new sciences of the infectious agents and immunology were racing to come up with a vaccine or therapy to stop the epidemics. The experiences of people in military camps encountering the influenza pandemic: An excerpt for the memoirs of a survivor at Camp Funston of the pandemic Survivor A letter to a fellow physician describing conditions during the influenza epidemic at Camp Devens A collection of letters of a soldier stationed in Camp Funston Soldier The origins of this influenza variant is not precisely known. It is thought to have originated in China in a rare genetic shift of the influenza virus. The recombination of its surface proteins created a virus novel to almost everyone and a loss of herd immunity. Recently the virus has been reconstructed from the tissue of a dead soldier and is now being genetically characterized . The name of Spanish Flu came from the early affliction and large mortalities in Spain (BMJ,10/19/1918) where it allegedly killed 8 million in May (BMJ, 7/13/1918). However, a first wave of influenza appeared early in the spring of 1918 in Kansas and in military camps throughout the US.  Few noticed the epidemic in the midst of the war. Wilson had just given his 14 point address. There was virtually no response or acknowledgment to the epidemics in March and April in the military camps. It was unfortunate that no steps were taken to prepare for the usual recrudescence of the virulent influenza strain in the winter. The lack of action was later criticized when the epidemic could not be ignored in the winter of 1918 (BMJ, 1918). These first epidemics at training camps were a sign of what was coming in greater magnitude in the fall and winter of 1918 to the entire world. The war brought the virus back into the US for the second wave of the epidemic. It first arrived in Boston in September of 1918 through the port busy with war shipments of machinery and supplies. The war also enabled the virus to spread and diffuse. Men across the nation were mobilizing to join the military and the cause. As they came together, they brought the virus with them and to those they contacted. The virus killed almost 200,00 in October of 1918 alone. In November 11 of 1918 the end of the war enabled a resurgence. As people celebrated Armistice Day with parades and large partiess, a complete disaster from the public health standpoint, a rebirth of the epidemic occurred in some cities. The flu that winter was beyond imagination as millions were infected and thousands died. Just as the war had effected the course of influenza, influenza affected the war. Entire fleets were ill with the disease and men on the front were too sick to fight. The flu was devastating to both sides, kill


What design movement was exemplified by the Empire State and Chrysler buildings?

The Art Deco Design | The Empire State building in the Art Deco design The Empire State building in the Art Deco design par td11artdeco The Empire State building from the ground on 34th street Contrary to several skyscrapers, the Empire State Building show a rather classic frontage, and a very conventional shape in the Art Deco style, without curves. This design is typical of pre–World War II architecture in New York. The modernistic stainless steel canopies of the entrances on 33rd and 34th Streets lead to two story-high corridors around the elevator core, crossed by stainless steel and glass-enclosed bridges at the second-floor level. The elevator core contains 67 elevators. Several materials were used for the construction of the building. Its only armature required 60 000 tons of steel. 10 millions bricks and 200 000 tons of stone (granite and limestone) were used, among 8485 m³ of indian limestone. Some aluminium was also used inside and outside of the high rise. You can find all this kind of information on this website , a scientific blog which dedicate a whole article to the Empire State building. Even if a large part of this article is a product of Wikipedia, all the technical details are interesting for the knowledge of the Empire State Building architecture. The Empire State Building appears as cubes of various sizes stacked, with columns of windows crossing the building as straight line. The building is wider on its base and becomes refined by rising up to the antenna on its top. This short  article on a famous french news website gives a realistic and detailed description of the external architecture of the Empire State. The Empire State Building main entrance on 5th avenue The main entrance of the Empire State Building is located on the 5th avenue. Its symmetry, the elegance of the cut stone and the very long windows between the two sculptures is a total demonstration of the Art Deco design. This entrance’s height and the quality of the materials used give to the visitor an overview of the monument, and its signification for the city of New York. This main entrance gives onto the majestic hall. you can find a whole article about this hall on another page of this blog. par td11artdeco In order to replace our subject in the artistic context of the 1930’s, we decided to write a post on the art deco architecture in New York City. This article will be helpful to understand better the aim of our blog. We choosed to focus on three major buildings, the GE building (Rockefeller Centre), the Chrysler Building and the 40 Wall Street (Trump building). Those three buildings were built around the same period so it is interessting to see the different expressions of Art Deco at some point. Picture of the Trump Building today. This photo is coming from the website http://www.aviewoncities.com/gallery The Trump Building is located in lower Manhattan, it is a 70 story skyscraper, measuring 283 meters. It was built between 1929 and 1930, so more or less at the same period as the Empire State Building. The building was completed in only 11 months and was the tallest building in the world during a few months, just before the Chrysler Building and then the Empire State Building became it. This massive building is constructed in a pyramidal form, due to the zonning law from 1916 and gives a very good example of the 1930’s Art Deco architecture. We invite you to read this article  on the website « about.com » writen by an architecture guide. Personnal picture from the Chrysler Building, taken on April 2012. We already talked about the Chrysler Building in the article about the « race of height ». Also built at the same period, beteween 1928 and 1930 this very bold edifice represent the sophistication and the refinement of the Art Deco architecture. Again due to the zonning law from 1916, this construction take a pyramidal form.  High from 319 meters, after the spire was added in order to make it higher than the Trump Building. Unlike the Trump Building, the Chrysler Building is much more innovative and modern in a architectural way,


Who abdicated in 1936 in order to marry American divorcée Wallis Simpson?

Edward VIII abdication 80th anniversary: December 11, 1936 - King Edward VIII abdicates to marry American divorcee Wallis Simpson - BT Print this story 80 years ago, on December 11, 1936, a major constitutional crisis was averted when King Edward VIII renounced the British throne in order to marry American socialite Mrs Wallis Simpson. In a radio broadcast, which you can hear in the video above, the King told the nation that he was stepping down from the throne because he couldn’t carry out his duties as monarch “without the support of the woman I love”. [Read more: Rare Edward VIII coin showing profile of monarch's 'better side' goes on display] The King’s marriage to the American divorcee was opposed by the British government and most of its Commonwealth counterparts for religious, legal, moral and political reasons; despite several alternative options being mooted, it was felt there was no satisfactory way for Edward to marry the divorcee and remain King. The future King, then Prince of Wales, had met Mrs Simpson – still married to her husband Ernest at the time – early in 1934, and by the end of the year they were conducting a passionate affair. Edward ascended to the throne in January 1936 on the death of his father, George V, and it soon became apparent that he intended to marry his partner, who was in the process of divorcing. [Read more: The Crown on Netflix: Who’s who in the epic new royal drama] News of their affair became public early in December and Mrs Simpson fled to France, where she pronounced herself willing to give up the King in order to save the situation; however, he remained determined to marry her. Having been unable to find a satisfactory compromise, the King informed the Cabinet of his irrevocable decision to abdicate. After signing the Instrument of Abdication on December 10, he spoke to the nation the next day and his younger brother Albert was proclaimed King George VI on December 12. What do you make of the abdication from a modern perspective? Was Edward right to step down? Let us know in the Comments section below. The Abdication Crisis – Did you know? As Prince of Wales, the future King was something of a playboy in his 20s and 30s, causing his father King George V to worry about the monarchy’s future. "After I am dead," he said, "the boy will ruin himself in 12 months." Edward brought Wallis Simpson to a party at Buckingham Palace in November 1934. She was introduced to his mother Queen Mary, but King George refused to meet her. In spite of Mrs Simpson being seen and photographed publicly with the King, the British press did not publish stories about them until December 1936 as they remained largely deferential to the royal family. The continental press was not so reticent. The King suggested to Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin that he and Mrs Simpson should have a morganatic marriage, whereby he would remain monarch but she would not become Queen. This idea was rejected by British and Commonwealth governments. Baldwin then gave the King three choices: to end his relationship with Mrs Simpson, to marry against the advice of his ministers who would then resign, or to abdicate. Having signed the Instrument of Abdication, Edward made a radio broadcast to the nation in which he said he would have been unable to carry out his duties as monarch do his job "as I would have wished" without the support of "the woman I love". George VI gave his brother the title His Royal Highness, the Duke of Windsor. When he married Mrs Simpson the following June in France, she became his Duchess, but was denied the styling ‘Her Royal Highness’ by the new King. The Duke and Duchess remained married for 35 years, living mainly in France, until his death in 1972.


BBC NEWS | Africa | Obituary: The buffoon tyrant Obituary: The buffoon tyrant Idi Amin: Reigned with terror, ruled by decree Idi Amin presided over a reign of terror in Uganda, during which an estimated 300,000 people died. He seized power in 1971 and condemned his country to a decade of fear. Idi Amin's rule ended only when he was himself ousted by forces from neighbouring Tanzania. Born in 1925 in Uganda's remote West Nile region, the young Amin looked to the military as a source of advancement. Joining the Kings African Rifles in 1948 he enjoyed rapid promotion, becoming, in 1961, one of the first two Ugandans to be given the Queen's Commission. He became army chief of staff four years after Uganda won independence from the United Kingdom in 1962. Amin awarded himself the Victoria Cross Amin grew increasingly frustrated with the government of President Milton Obote, finally seizing power in a bloody coup in January 1971 while Obote was abroad. Initially viewed as being strongly pro-British, Amin's reputation suffered a blow in the summer of 1972 when he expelled the whole of Uganda's Asian population, blaming them for controlling the economy for their own ends. 'King of Scotland' Appropriating British property in Uganda, Amin curtailed business between the two countries and constantly threatened to expel all Britons remaining there. Rule by decree became the order of the day and he purged anyone he considered to be a threat. Idi Amin relaxes Amin was a compelling speaker and this, together with his commanding physical presence, led many people to believe what he said. To others, though, he was simply mad. Amin is reported to have expressed admiration for Adolf Hitler and kept the severed heads of political opponents in his refrigerator. The depth of Amin's cruelty was matched only by the eccentricity of his behaviour. He declared himself King of Scotland, banned hippies and mini-skirts, and appeared at a royal Saudi Arabian funeral in 1975 wearing a kilt. He awarded himself the Victoria Cross, offered to visit Northern Ireland as a peace mediator, and said that he, not the Queen, should be head of the Commonwealth. In the summer of 1975, relations between Amin's Uganda and Britain hit a new low when a British university lecturer, Denis Hills, was sentenced to death by a Ugandan court for treason following comments made in a book critical of Amin. Hills' execution was only averted only after the British Foreign Secretary, James Callaghan, visited Amin. The hijacking of an Air France Airbus over the Mediterranean in June 1976 led to a dramatic international crisis with President Amin at its centre. Amin expelled Uganda's Asian population in 1972 The plane, seized by Palestinian and West German terrorists, flew to Entebbe airport. Amin took charge of negotiations. But Israeli special forces made a spectacular, long-range, raid on the airport, freeing the hostages and crew. But one of the hostages, 75-year-old Dora Bloch, who held joint British and Israeli citizenship, disappeared a day after the raid. There were reports that she had been dragged away by Ugandan troops and killed. By the end of the month, Britain had broken off diplomatic relations with Uganda. Tyrant in exile The murder in 1977 of the Anglican Archbishop of Uganda, Dr Janani Luwum, was only one of many instances of political violence perpetrated during Amin's rule. Milton Obote was Amin's bete noire A series of skirmishes between Uganda and Amin's old enemy Tanzania came to a head in January 1979, when Ugandan army exiles, supported by Tanzanian troops, carried out a full-scale invasion. President Amin's reign began to crumble. By February he had evacuated some of his five wives and dozens of children. As his capital fell, he slipped through the net, finally turning up in Libya, his years in power over. Ironically he was replaced by the man he deposed, Milton Obote. Obote's regime possibly tortured and killed even more people than Amin's but he kept a lower profile than his predecessor and never raised such international uproar. In later years, Idi Am


In what extinct language were the Hindu Vedas written?

Sanskrit, language, learn online, basic | Hinduism Facts | Facts about Hindu Religion Skip to secondary content Sanskrit Sanskrit is the most ancient language of the world. It is considered as the mother of all the languages. Hindus believe that Sanskrit is the language of gods. In ancient times, Sanskrit was a common language in India but afterwards, its status descended and it was confined to the Hindu scriptures only. Brahmins in India denied to teach it to others as it was the language of God. Because of that Sanskrit has become an endangered language now. If proper efforts are not made to popularize it, it could become extinct also. There are many organizations which are trying to promote Sanskrit. Most of the languages in India spoken to date are similar to Sanskrit in many ways such as grammar and vocabulary. Even in English, there are hundreds of words which are akin to Sanskrit. There are many organizations in India which are trying to promote Sanskrit through different means. They are organizing free classes of Sanskrit and are distributing free books to promote Sanskrit. Sanskrit is also the part of official curriculum in most of the high schools in India. Students opt for it as it is a high-scoring subject for them. But the main support it needs is from the government. If the government decides to promote it by heart, then nothing could stop it. It is also the duty of all of us to promote Sanskrit as it is an integral part of our culture. Most of the Hindu scriptures, shlokas, mantras, and other religious materials are written in Sanskrit only. In order to understands their meaning, we have to learn the Sanskrit. Rigveda, which is considered as the first book in human civilization, is also written in Sanskrit. Leave a Reply


What duo did Sacagawea help on their famous journey to the Pacific?

Searching for Sacagawea: Her Journey Sacagawea's Journey with the Corps of Discovery Travel with the Corps Sacagawea's travel route is marked on the journey map above. Although she played an important role in the Corps of Discovery, as Lewis and Clark's journey was called, she is mentioned only a few times in the captain's journals. The dates listed next to the map indicate when Sacagawea was mentioned in the captain's journals. Learn about these rare insights into her life by clicking on the dates. Sacagawea's Role and Importance in the Journey with Lewis and Clark Most people have heard about Sacagawea, the Shoshone woman who traveled with Lewis and Clark on their famous journey of discovery of the American West. Contrary to her romanticised image, however, Sacagawea was not the expedition's "girl guide." On a few occasions in Shoshone country she recognized features of the landscape and was able to reassure the captains that they were heading in the right direction. But most of the territory they passed through was as unfamiliar to her as it was to Lewis and Clark. Sacagawea's main role on the journey was as an interpreter. The Shoshones possessed horses that the expedition needed to cross the Bitterroot Mountains. The captains felt that because of her Shoshone heritage, Sacagawea could be important in trading for horses when the Corps reached the western mountains and the Shoshones. While Sacagawea did not speak English, she spoke Shoshone and Hidatsa. Her husband Charbonneau spoke Hidatsa and French. In effect, Sacagawea and Charbonneau would become an intepreter team. As Clark explained in his journals, Charbonneau was hired "as an interpreter through his wife." If and when the expedition met the Shoshones, Sacagawea would talk with them, then translate to Hidatsa for Charbonneau, who would translate to French. The Corps' Francois Labiche spoke French and English, and would make the final translation so that the two English-speaking captains would understand. One of Sacagawea's greatest contributions was her mere presence, which seems to have disarmed potentially hostile tribes along the way. Some of these Indians, prepared to defend their lands, had never seen white men before. As Clark noted on October 19, 1805, the Indians were inclined to believe the whites were friendly when they saw Sacagawea. A war party never traveled with a woman  especially a woman with a baby. As Clarke wrote, "The wife of Shabono our interpreter we find reconsiles all the Indians, as to our friendly intentions a woman with a party of men is a token of peace." Her Life  |  Her Journey  |  Her Companions  |  Historical Significance  |  Fact & Fiction


Where were Walter Raleigh, Anne Boleyn, and Guy Fawkes imprisoned?

6 Famous Prisoners of the Tower of London - History Lists History Lists September 11, 2012 By Evan Andrews Share Get all the facts on London's most iconic landmarks. Share this: 6 Famous Prisoners of the Tower of London Author 6 Famous Prisoners of the Tower of London URL Google The Tower of London has served as everything from a royal residence to a zoo for exotic animals, but it remains best known as a fearsome prison and torture chamber. First constructed in the wake of the Norman Conquest in 1066, the Tower has held some of Great Britain’s most prominent inmates, including disgraced royals, would-be revolutionaries and even Nazi officers. Find out more about six of these famous captives of one of history’s most forbidding prisons. Anne Boleyn The second wife of Henry VIII, Anne Boleyn was twice a resident of the Tower of London—once as a queen-in-waiting and once as a condemned prisoner. Boleyn married Henry in 1533 after the English king defied the Roman Catholic Church and annulled his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. Housed in the Tower of London prior to her coronation in June 1533, Boleyn would reign as queen of England for nearly three years. Coupled with courtly intrigue and accusations of infidelity, Boleyn’s failure to give birth to a male heir ultimately proved to be her undoing. Accused of seducing the king into a cursed marriage, in May 1536 she was arrested on trumped-up charges of adultery, treason and even an alleged incestuous affair with her brother. Boleyn was confined to the Lieutenant’s Lodgings of the Tower of London, where she was tried and found guilty. She was beheaded by a French swordsman on a scaffold at the Tower on May 19, 1536. Catherine Howard, Henry’s fifth wife, would meet a similar fate when she was imprisoned and then executed at the Tower of London in 1542. Sir Walter Raleigh One of the longest-serving prisoners of the Tower of London was the famed Sir Walter Raleigh, who was confined to the citadel for some 13 years. A soldier and explorer who engineered the ill-fated English colony at Roanoke Island, Raleigh was knighted by Elizabeth I in 1585 and became one of the queen’s favorite courtiers. Despite his influential position, Raleigh was briefly imprisoned in the Tower in 1592 when it was revealed that he had secretly wed Elizabeth Throckmorton, one of the queen’s maids of honor. Raleigh was confined to the Tower a second time in 1603 after he was accused of plotting against King James I. Stripped of most of his wealth, he would spend nearly 13 years detained in a part of the castle known as the Bloody Tower. While he was ostensibly a prisoner, Raleigh’s high social standing ensured that he had comfortable lodgings, and he was even joined in the Tower by his family. During this time he devoted himself to science and writing—composing his “History of the World” in 1614—and also fathered a son. Raleigh was released in 1616 and dispatched to Central America in search of the mythical gold city of El Dorado. The mission proved unsuccessful, and Raleigh was arrested and executed at the block after his forces attacked a Spanish outpost against the orders of the king. The Princes in the Tower Twelve-year-old Prince Edward V and 10-year-old Prince Richard of Shrewsbury—better known as “the Princes in the Tower”—are among the most famous prisoners to have disappeared within the bowels of the Tower of London. The two boys first arrived at the castle in 1483 after the death of their father, King Edward IV. The princes were originally housed in the Tower on the orders of their uncle Richard, Duke of Gloucester, but were stripped of their royal titles after the duke invalidated their father’s marriage, declared them illegitimate and claimed the throne for himself as King Richard III. Moved from their opulent royal apartments to the confines of the Garden Tower (later known as the Bloody Tower), the boys effectively became prisoners of the crown. While there were initially sightings of the former princes playing in the Tower courtyard, by mid-1483 they had vanished without a trace. The would-be


Europeans brought many new diseases to the new world. But what STD did the New World give Europe?

American Indians and European Diseases | Native American Netroots American Indians and European Diseases Posted on by Ojibwa ( – promoted by navajo) There were an estimated 18 million Native Americans living north of Mexico at the beginning of the European invasion. Prior to the arrival of the Europeans, American Indians were remarkably free of serious diseases. People did not often die from diseases. As the European explorers and colonists began to arrive, this changed and the consequences were disastrous for Native American people. The death tolls from the newly introduced European diseases often reached 80-90 percent. Entire groups of people vanished before the tidal wave of disease.   Aboriginal Health: If we were to compare the overall health of American Indians in North America with that of Europeans in 1500, we would find that Indians were generally healthier. There are a number of reasons for this. First, Indians had better diets and they were less likely to face starvation and hunger. The first Europeans to reach North America often commented on the large size of the Indians. American Indians were larger than the Europeans simply due to better diets and less starvation. Unlike the Europeans, Indian political leaders did not store their wealth but accumulated prestige by giving food to those in need. No one in an Indian village or an Indian band starved unless all did so.   Secondly, American Indian populations did not have many of the infectious diseases that were endemic in Europe.  A number of reasons have been suggested for this lack of disease. Some scientists have suggested that Indian people came to this continent through the cold, harsh climate of the north and that this acted as a germ filter which screened out infectious diseases. Others have suggested that Indians were disease-free because of the lack of domesticated animals. Measles, smallpox, and influenza are among the diseases which are closely associated with domesticated animals. Lacking the large domesticated animals, there were comparatively few opportunities in this hemisphere for the transfer of infections from animal reservoirs of disease to human beings. European Diseases: The diseases brought to this continent by the Europeans included bubonic plague, chicken pox, pneumonic plague, cholera, diphtheria, influenza, measles, scarlet fever, smallpox, typhus, tuberculosis, and whooping cough. The diseases introduced in the Americas by the Europeans were crowd diseases: that is, individuals who have once contracted the disease and survived become immune to the disease. In a small population, the disease will become extinct. Measles, for instance, requires a population of about 300,000 to survive. If the population size drops below this threshold, the virus can cause illness and death, but after one epidemic, the virus itself dies out. Another important factor in the European diseases was the presence of domesticated animals. The source of many of the infections was the domesticated animals which lived in close proximity with the humans. Overall, hundreds of thousands of Indians died of European diseases during the first two centuries following contact. In terms of death tolls, smallpox killed the greatest number of Indians, followed by measles, influenza, and bubonic plague. Smallpox: The most deadly European disease was smallpox, a disease almost unknown in today’s world but common prior to the twentieth century. Smallpox is caused by a virus that may be airborne or spread by direct contact. There are three forms of smallpox: (1) Variola major which is quite virulent; (2) Variola minor which is comparatively mild; and (3) Variola vaccinae which is also known as cowpox. An attack of any one of these forms will provide immunity against the other two. Children resist the smallpox virus better than teenagers or adults. In a larger population, smallpox is a constant. Since nearly all children contract some form of smallpox, this means that adults have had the disease and are immune. Smallpox thus becomes a childhood disease with relatively low mort


What was New York City called before 1664?

New Amsterdam becomes New York - Sep 08, 1664 - HISTORY.com New Amsterdam becomes New York Share this: New Amsterdam becomes New York Author New Amsterdam becomes New York URL Publisher A+E Networks Dutch Governor Peter Stuyvesant surrenders New Amsterdam, the capital of New Netherland, to an English naval squadron under Colonel Richard Nicolls. Stuyvesant had hoped to resist the English, but he was an unpopular ruler, and his Dutch subjects refused to rally around him. Following its capture, New Amsterdam’s name was changed to New York, in honor of the Duke of York, who organized the mission. The colony of New Netherland was established by the Dutch West India Company in 1624 and grew to encompass all of present-day New York City and parts of Long Island, Connecticut, and New Jersey. A successful Dutch settlement in the colony grew up on the southern tip of Manhattan Island and was christened New Amsterdam. To legitimatize Dutch claims to New Amsterdam, Dutch governor Peter Minuit formally purchased Manhattan from the local tribe from which it derives it name in 1626. According to legend, the Manhattans–Indians of Algonquian linguistic stock–agreed to give up the island in exchange for trinkets valued at only $24. However, as they were ignorant of European customs of property and contracts, it was not long before the Manhattans came into armed conflict with the expanding Dutch settlement at New Amsterdam. Beginning in 1641, a protracted war was fought between the colonists and the Manhattans, which resulted in the death of more than 1,000 Indians and settlers. In 1664, New Amsterdam passed to English control, and English and Dutch settlers lived together peacefully. In 1673, there was a short interruption of English rule when the Netherlands temporary regained the settlement. In 1674, New York was returned to the English, and in 1686 it became the first city in the colonies to receive a royal charter. After the American Revolution, it became the first capital of the United States. Related Videos