When he fell in the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485, who became the last English king to die in battle?

Battle of Bosworth Field (Aug. 22, 1485) [Wars of the Roses] Search   THE BATTLE OF BOSWORTH FIELD (Aug. 22, 1485), was fought between Richard III and Henry, Earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII . On August [7], Henry landed at Milford Haven and passed on without opposition to Shrewsbury, being joined by a large number of Welshmen. He then marched on to Tamworth, where he arrived on the 18th. On the 20th he was at Atherstone, where he was met by Lord Stanley and by Sir William Stanley , who both promised to desert Richard during the battle. Meanwhile Richard, having mustered his forces at Nottingham, marched to Leicester and encamped at Bosworth on the 21st. On the next morning the two armies met between Bosworth and Atherstone at a place known as Whitemoors, near the village of Sutton Cheneys. The battle was mainly a hand-to-hand encounter, the Stanleys for some time keeping aloof from the fight till, at a critical moment, they joined Richmond. Richard, perceiving that he was betrayed, and crying out, "Treason, treason!" endeavoured only to sell his life as dearly as possible, and refused to leave the field till, overpowered by numbers, he fell dead in the midst of his enemies. The crown was picked up on the field of battle and placed by Sir William Stanley on the head of Richmond, who was at once saluted king by the whole army. Among those that perished on Richard's side were the Duke of Norfolk , Lord Ferrers, Sir Richard Ratcliffe , and Sir Robert Brackenbury, while the only person of note in Henry's army who was slain was his standard-bearer, Sir William Brandon, who is said to have been killed by Richard himself. The Dictionary of English History. Sidney J. Low and F. S. Pulling, eds. London: Cassell and Company, Ltd., 1910. 198. THE BATTLE OF BOSWORTH By C. Oman At last on August 1 Henry of Richmond set sail from Harfleur; the Regent Anne of France had lent him 60,000 francs, and collected for him 1,800 mercenaries and a small fleet. The adventurer was accompanied by his uncle, Jasper Tudor , the Earl of Oxford , Sir Edward Woodville, Sir John Welles, heir of the attainted barony of Welles, Sir Edward Courtenay, who claimed the earldom of Devon, his kinsman the Bishop of Exeter [Peter Courtenay], Morton, Bishop of Ely , and some scores of exiled knights and squires, among whom Yorkists were almost as numerous as Lancastrians. The French auxiliaries were under a Savoyard captain named Philibert de Chaundé. The Marquis of Dorset and Sir John Bourchier had been left at Paris in pledge for the loan made by the French government. Richmond did not desire to have the marquis with him, for he had been detected in correspondence with his mother the queen-dowager , who urged him to abandon conspiracy and submit to King Richard . Stealing down the Breton coast, so as to avoid the English fleet, Richmond turned northward when he had passed the longitude of Lands End, and came ashore in Milford Haven on August 7. He had selected this remote region as his landing point both because he knew that he was expected to strike at the English south coast, and because he had assurance of help from many old retainers of his uncle the Earl of Pembroke . He was himself a Welshman and could make a good appeal to the local patriotism of his countrymen. On landing he raised not only the royal banner of England but the ancient standard of Cadwallader, a red dragon upon a field of white and green, the beast which was afterwards used as the device of the house of Tudor, and the sinister supporter of their coat-of-arms. For a few days Henry received but trifling reinforcements, but he struck into the Cardiganshire mountains, a district where, if his adherents were slow to join him, he might hope to maintain an irregular warfare in the style of Owen Glendower . After a short delay the Welsh gentry began to come in to his aid; the wealthiest and most warlike chief Rhys ap Thomas consented to put himself at their head, after he had been promised the justiciarship of South Wales. Sir Walter Herbert had charge of the district in King Richard's name,


Who is the only person in the history of the two major political parties in the US to have been his party's nominee for both President and Vice-President, but who was never elected to either office?

historical background political parties elections 20th century United States History: Elections--20th Century Figure 1.--The Democratic Party was in the first half of the 19th century the dominant American political party, in some elections the only national political party. In the aftermath of the Civil War, the new Republican Party became the dominant party. This did not change until the Depression of the 1930s and the coalition Franklin Roosevelt put togerger (1932). Organized labor like this coal miner were a key part of that coaltion. While Republicans managed to win many presidential elections after President Rossevelt's four victories, the Democrats dominated the Congress with only a few exceptions until the Republican resurgence at the end of the century. The Republicans began the 20th century as the dominant politicl party in the United States. Conservarives dominanted the Party, but the assasination of President McKinnley brought Vice President Roosevelt to the presidency (1900). He sponsored a series of progressive reforms and a more forceful role for the United States in world affairs. A split in the Republicn Party resulted in the electin of Democraric New Jersey Govenor Woodrow Wilson (1912). Wilson sponsored more progressive reforms called the New Freedoms. He also after reelection reluctantly led America into World War I (1917). President Wilson after the War hoped to prevent future wars through a system of collective security overseen by the new League of Nations. The Republican dominated Senate rejected the League. Senator Warren Harding persued what he called a return to normalcy (1920). American returned to a Republican dominated government. The economic boom of the 1920s made the three Republicans presidents ellected in the 1920s extreemely popular. The Republicans with their philosophy of laizze faire , however, failed to address major inequities in American society or to adequately regulate business. The result was the Great Depression which was made worse by flawed monetary policies. The result was a major realignment in American politics. With Franklin Roosevelt's election (1932), the Democrats became the dominant political party. President Roosevelt led the United States through the Great Depression and World War II. President Roosevelt's New Deal enacted many important reforms, but often forgotten in the glow of Roosevelt's masterful war leadership, the New Deal never suceeded in ending the Depresion. To everyone'suprise, President Truman was also able to defeat the Republicans (1948). Truman established the basic policies pursued by a series of Democratic and Republican presidents to fight the Cold War. The Republicans nominating war hero General Dwight Eisenhower finally regained the White House (1952). Eisenhower did not as some Republicans wanted, reverse the New Deal. The assasination of President Kennedy (1963) brought Vice President Lyndon Johnson to the presidency. Major liberal reforms were enacted by President Johnson, but his standing was tragically ruined by the War in Vietnam. Former Vice President Richard Nixon won two elections, but his image and that of the Republican Party was tarnished by Watergate. He became the first president forced to resign his office (1973). The presidency swung back and forth between the two parties in the late-20th century, although the Democrats maintained control of Congress. Govenor Ronald Reagan was elected (1980). beginning a notable Republican resurgency leaving the Republicans the majority party and in control of Congress by the end of the century. 1900 Presidential Election The 1900 election was a rematch between President McKinley and former Congressman William Jennings Bryan. Bryan had an unimpressive political history. He had served two terms in Congress (the second with a narriow vicvtory) and had been defeated in a senate race. McKinnely has soundly defeated Bryan in 1896, but Bryan with his oritorical skills retained control over the Democratic Party. He had traveled the country giving speeches in suppor


What were the military units made up of volunteers from different countries who traveled to defend the Second Spanish Republic in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) called?

International Brigades | Military Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia File:British Brigades.JPG-for-web-LARGE.jpg Flag of Giustizia e Libertà , an Italian anti-fascist resistance movement led by Carlo Rosselli . Rosselli took part in the war, uniting a mix of Italian anti-fascist political forces, including socialists, anarchists, communists, and liberals together to support the Republican cause and took part in the fighting. Rosselli was assassinated by a French fascist in 1937, the Italian brigade he had led took on the name the "Rosselli Brigade". The International Brigades (Spanish: Brigadas Internacionales ) were military units made up of volunteers from different countries, who traveled to Spain to fight for the Second Spanish Republic in the Spanish Civil War between 1936 and 1939. The number of combatant volunteers has been estimated at between 32,000–35,000, though with no more than about 20,000 active at any one time. [1] A further 10,000 people probably participated in non-combatant roles and about 3,000–5,000 foreigners were members of CNT or POUM . [1] They came from a claimed "53 nations" to fight against the Spanish Falangist forces led by General Francisco Franco who was assisted by German and Italian forces. [2] Contents For military structure and organization, see International Brigades order of battle . For anti-Stalinist communist brigades, see POUM . Using foreign to recruit volunteers for Spain was first proposed in the Soviet Union in September 1936—apparently at the suggestion of Maurice Thorez [3] —by Willi Münzenberg , chief of Comintern propaganda for Western Europe. As a security measure, non-Communist volunteers would first be interviewed by an NKVD agent. By the end of September, the Italian and French Communist Parties had decided to set up a column. Luigi Longo , ex-leader of the Italian Communist Youth , was charged to make the necessary arrangements with the Spanish government. The Soviet Ministry of Defense also helped, since they had experience of dealing with corps of international volunteers during the Russian Civil War . The idea was initially opposed by Largo Caballero , but after the first setbacks of the war, he changed his mind, and finally agreed to the operation on 22 October. However, the Soviet Union did not withdraw from the Non-Intervention Committee , probably to avoid diplomatic conflict with France and the United Kingdom. The main recruitment centre was in Paris, under the supervision of Polish communist colonel Karol "Walter" Świerczewski . On 17 October 1936, an open letter by Joseph Stalin to José Díaz was published in Mundo Obrero, arguing that victory for the Spanish second republic was a matter not only for Spaniards, but also for the whole of "progressive humanity"; in a matter of days, support organisations for the Spanish Republic were founded in most countries, all more or less controlled by the Comintern.[ citation needed ] Entry to Spain was arranged for volunteers: for instance, a Yugoslav ( ethnic Croat), Josip Broz, who would become famous as Marshal Josip Broz Tito , was in Paris to provide assistance, money and passports for volunteers from Eastern Europe . Volunteers were sent by train or ship from France to Spain, and sent to the base at Albacete . However, many of them also went by themselves to Spain. The volunteers were under no contract, nor defined engagement period, which would later prove a problem. Also many Italians, Germans, and people from other countries joined the movement, with the idea that combat in Spain was a first step to restore democracy or advance a revolutionary cause in their own country. There were also many unemployed workers (especially from France), and adventurers. Finally, some 500 communists who had been exiled to Russia were sent to Spain (among them, experienced military leaders from the First World War like "Kléber" Stern , "Gomez" Zaisser , "Lukacs" Zalka and "Gal" Galicz , who would prove invaluable in combat). The operation was met by communists with enthusiasm, but by anarchists with skepticism, at best[ citation need


The Ostend Manifesto was a document written in 1854 that described the rationale for the United States to purchase what island from Spain?

16 Ostend Manifesto A document written in 1854 that - AMERICAN H - 2021 Chapter 13 and 14 Assignment 16 ostend manifesto a document written in 1854 that SCHOOL View Full Document 16. Ostend Manifesto- A document written in 1854 that described the rationale for the United States to purchase Cuba from Spain while implying that the U.S. should declare war if Spain refused. 17. Know-Nothing Party- A prominent United States political party during the late 1840s and the early 1850s. The American Party originated in 1849. Its members strongly opposed immigrants and followers of the Catholic Church. 18. Sectionalism- Restriction of interest to a narrow sphere; undue concern with local interests or petty distinctions at the expense of general well-being. 19. Dred Scott- A slave in the United States who unsuccessfully sued for his freedom. 20. Outcome of the Dred Scott Case- Did not gain his freedom. 21. John Brown- A white American abolitionist who believed armed insurrection was the only way to overthrow the institution of slavery in the U.S. 22. John Brown’s Raid on Harpers Ferry, Virginia- An attempt by the white abolitionist John Brown to start an armed slave revolt in 1859 by seizing a United States arsenal. Questions: Chapter 13 1. This is the end of the preview. Sign up to                   access the rest of the document. TERM Felix Varela Senior High School AMERICAN H 2021                     -                     Fall 2015 Randy Alvarez P1 Chapter 16 Vocabulary: 1. Radical Republicans- A faction of American Chapter 16 Assignment


"Which Asian mountain pass of significant historical importance has been called ""a sword cut through the mountains"" by Kipling?"

The Real History of White People     "New" DEEP Search All of Realhistory using Keyword or Phrase   Ancient Man and His First Civilizations   The Real History of White People     The falsity of White history begins and ends with their desire to hide their true nature; that being that they are derived from Albinos. Their efforts to make all peoples of historical significance White, would appear to be their effort to make themselves the "New Normal" i. e. "See everybody important was White, therefore White is good - the best even!" This fabricated concept of themselves, is obviously so satisfying, and so ingrained, that it has become delusional. Even today, there are many Whites who refuse to believe that the ancient Egyptians, and the other original civilizations as well, were Black people! This in spite of the countless evidences to the contrary: Egypt IS in Africa, there are countless statues and paintings which clearly show them to be Black people. Even scientific studies of ancient Egyptian Bones and Mummy tissue, like this one: Mummy tissue study: Click >>> , Does not satisfy them. Whites will still doggedly point to artifacts from the periods of Greek and Roman rule and say: See, these are the "Real Egyptians". Of course, there is absolutely no reason why a reasonably intelligent human being, would ever think that the ancient Egyptians were White people, but then again, reason and intelligent thought, have nothing to do with this: This is about a "Need" to believe. This persistence in thinking, is then clearly not intellectual, put rather purely emotional.   Here then, is White history as developed with "Evidence" Note: here we do not delve too deeply into the discussion of whether or not Whites are derived from Albinos, or present the many proofs thereof. That discussion is Here: Click >>> THE ARYAN CONTROVERSY Europes Albinos, since the time they ursurped Blacks and took power in Europe, have tried mightly to figure out where they came from. Paul Broca (1824–80), French surgeon and anthropologist had urged that while there may be Aryan languages, there is no such thing as an Aryan race, and that language is only one, and the least important factor in the inquiry, and that while Aryan languages are spoken by races wholly unrelated, there is only one race, the tall, blue-eyed, fair-skinned German race, with abundant beard and dolichocephalic skull, which can claim to be genuine Aryans by blood as well as by language. Theodor Friedrich Wilhelm Poesche (1825 – 1899) was a German American anthropologist and author, specializing in historical anthropology. In 1878 he published The Aryans: A contribution to historical anthropology. Based on the physical characteristics attributed to Indo-Europeans (fair hair, blue or light eyes, tallness, slim hips, fine lips, a prominent chin). He identified this race with that whose skeletons are found in the Alemannic "row-graves" of Southern Germany, and he contended that it has existed in Europe since the Neolithic period. His argument was that the Aryan race originated in the great Rokitno swamp, between the Pripet, the Beresina, and the Dnieper. Here depigmentation or albinism is very prevalent, and here he considers the fair, white race originated. In this swamp, he thinks, lived the pile-dwellers who afterwards extended themselves to the Swiss lakes and the valley of the Po. The archaic character of the neighboring Lithuanian language induced him to believe that the Lithuanians were a surviving relic of this oldest Aryan race. Comment: Clearly in earlier times, intelligent Albinos themselves, came to realize that they must be derived from Albinos. But today that openness has evaporated; it seems that when Albinos tell Albinos that they are Albinos, it is acceptable. However, when Blacks tell Albinos that they are Albinos, it seems to illicit ill feelings.   The beginning The second Out Of Africa (OOA) migration event (The first being Humans to Australia), saw Blacks from Africa with straight hair and "Mongol features" take an "Inland route" through southern Asia and on up to


Sengbe Pieh (1813–ca.1879), later known as Joseph Cinqué was a West African man and the most prominent defendant in which 1841 case in American history named for a ship?

To be, Children and Farmers on Pinterest Forward Sengbe Pieh (c.1814–c.1879), later known as Joseph Cinqué, was a West African man of the Mende people. He was a rice farmer, married with three children, when he was captured illegally by African in 1839 and sold to Portuguese slave traders. On June 30, 1839 Cinqué led a sucessful revolt onboard the ship, La Amistad, but was later brought to trial in the United States v. The Amistad case, during which he and 51 others were found to be victims of the illegal Atlantic slave trade and freed. See More


What groups of secret revolutionary societies founded in early 19th-century Italy get their name from the Italian for 'charcoal burners'?

Lived 1777 1825 Carbonari The Carbonari charcoal burners were - HIST - 102 View Full Document idealism, slosely linked to romanticism and the enlightenment. Lived (1777-1825) Carbonari – The Carbonari "charcoal burners" were groups of secret revolutionary societies founded in early 19th-century Italy. Their goals were patriotic and liberal and they played an important role in the unification of italy and the early years of Italian nationalism. This preview has intentionally blurred sections. Sign up to view the full version. View Full                             Document Count Camillo di Cavour – minister of piedmont-sardinia under victor emmanuel II, was essential in uniting italy by establishing an alliance with france, resulting in the defeat and removal of Austria from the Italian penensula 1810-1861 Piedmont-sardinia – kingdom in northern italy that wanted to unite italy. They fought against russia in the Crimean war hoping that to make its name militarily and win recognition for their aim to unite italy mid to late 1800’s Edmond burke – conservatist who wrote Reflections on the Revolution in France in 1790 . 1729-1797 Victor Emmanuel II – became king of piedmont Sardinia after his father was exiled 1849-1861 North German Confederation – began after the seven weeks war and took the place of the german confederation. It was a military alliance of 22 states in northern germany, it was created after the 7 weeks war to exclude Austria 1866-1871 Frankfort parliament – an assembly of delagates from the german states in Frankfort convened to unify the german states and establish a constitution 1848 John Stuart Mill – Englishman who rejected the ideas of utilitarianism and embraced social reform for the poor and equality of women and the necessity of birth control. (1806-1873) Marshal Helmuth von Moltke – head of the Prussian General Staff, was responsible for reorganizing the Prussian army under bismark 1800-1891 Georges Boulanger – reformed army life and led troops to put down strikes, created the image of a patriot, he ran a political campaign to try to create an authoritarian govt., he failed, but caused a right wing movement that operated outside of the standard parliamentary institutions 1837-1891 David Lloyd George – chancellor of the exchequer, he led a liberal movement supporting workers. They sponsored the national insurance act of 1911, and the parliament bill of 1911. strengthening the house of commons, and providing unemployment and sickness benefits 1863-1945 Adolph Thiers – put down the paris commune, prime minister under louis phillipe, and head of state from 1871-1873 Congress of Berlin – peace conference led by bismark. Resulted in the blocking of Russia from creating a Bulgarian satilite state, a dual alliance between germany, and Austria-hungary, and disregarded Serbian attempts at creating an independent state in the ottoman empire 1878 Pius IX – pope who was sympathetic to Italian organization but failed to support it. He was forced to flee rome in 1849 until the French defeated garibaldi’s troops 1846-1878 Lord Salisbury – foreign seceratary of britan at the congress of berlin, prime minister 2 times, passed the naval defense act Private ownership of the means of production – capitalism, the borgoise own the means of production This is the end of the preview. Sign up to                   access the rest of the document. TERM cofc history 102 - Test 1 study guide CofC Ancien regime the oppressive regime that ruled france before the French revolution B cofc history 102 - Test 1 study guide


What medieval Islamic dynasty was founded in 1250 in Egypt and Syria by slave soldiers who deposed the Ayyubids?

The Art of the Ayyubid Period (ca. 1171–1260) | Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art The Metropolitan Museum of Art The Art of the Ayyubid Period (ca. 1171–1260) See works of art Works of Art (6) Essay The Ayyubid dynasty came to power under the leadership of the Kurdish Zengid general Salah al-Din (r. 1169–93), known in Europe as Saladin. After repulsing a Crusader army that had reached the gates of Fatimid Cairo and occupying Egypt on behalf of the Zengids (1160s), Salah al-Din declared the Fatimid caliphate to be at its end, and established the Ayyubid sultanate (1171). Soon thereafter, Salah al-Din also gained control over Yemen (1174) and Syria (1180s). The conflict with the Crusaders continued throughout the Ayyubid period; Jerusalem was captured by the Muslims in 1187, then, following a failed treaty, ceded until 1244, when the city was retaken for good. The sultanate depended on mamluks (slave soldiers) for its military organization, yet the end of the dynasty in 1250 was largely caused by Turkic mamluks themselves, who overthrew the last Ayyubid sultan in Egypt, al-Malik al-Ashraf (r. 1249–50) and founded the Mamluk sultanate (1250–1517). In the arts, the Ayyubids are known especially for their works in inlaid metalwork and ceramics, particularly luster- and underglaze-painted wares. Some objects from this period, including a group of inlaid metalwork pieces, also have Christian scenes. Signatures of artists on refined and prized brass works inlaid with silver seem to indicate that the craftsmen were from Mosul (in present-day Iraq) and had fled from the approaching Mongol armies. In the case of ceramics produced in Syria, the influence of Seljuq Iran is prevalent. Among other arts, enameled glass rose to excellence in this period and carved wood was also esteemed by Ayyubid patrons. Techniques established and developed during this time formed the foundation of the arts in the Mamluk period. The Ayyubids were also vigorous builders. Their generous patronage led to tremendous architectural activity in Egypt and especially in Syria, and their local courts revived the cities of Damascus and Aleppo. The outstanding secular architecture from this period includes the fortified citadels of Cairo (1187) and Aleppo (early thirteenth century). Meanwhile, the establishment of madrasas, higher institutions for religious learning, such as the Zahiriya (1219) in Aleppo and that of Salih Najm al-Din Ayyub (1243) in Cairo, exemplify the Ayyubid interest in Sunni education after the Shi’i interlude in the region under the Fatimids. Furthermore, the Madrasa al-Sahiba in Damascus (1233), built by Salah al-Din’s sister Rabia Khatun, as well as the Mausoleum of Salih Najm al-Din Ayyub (1250), commissioned by his wife Shajarat al-Durr, reflects the importance of women as patrons of architecture under the Ayyubids. In terms of commemorative buildings and pious architectural initiatives, the Mausoleum of Imam al-Shafi’i (1211) and the Tomb of the ‘Abbasid Caliphs (1242–43) in Cairo are especially noteworthy. Suzan Yalman


A check for $7.2 million was issued on August 1, 1868 and was made payable to Edouard de Stoeckl, a Russian Minister. What was being bought?

Our Documents - Check for the Purchase of Alaska (1868) Check for the Purchase of Alaska (1868) Citation: Cancelled check in the amount of $7.2 million, for the purchase of Alaska, issued August 1, 1868; Records of the Accounting Officers of the Department of the Treasury; Record Group 217; National Archives. The Russian exchange copy of the Treaty of Cession, March 30, 1867, General Records of the United States Government; Record Group 11; National Archives. (on Archives.gov) With this check, the United States purchased Alaska from Russia for $7.2 million. In 1866 the Russian government offered to sell the territory of Alaska to the United States. Secretary of State William H. Seward, enthusiastic about the prospects of American Expansion, negotiated the deal for the Americans. Edouard de Stoeckl, Russian minister to the United States, negotiated for the Russians. On March 30, 1867, the two parties agreed that the United States would pay Russia $7.2 million for the territory of Alaska. For less that 2 cents an acre, the United States acquired nearly 600,000 square miles. Opponents of the Alaska Purchase persisted in calling it “Seward’s Folly” or “Seward’s Icebox” until 1896, when the great Klondike Gold Strike convinced even the harshest critics that Alaska was a valuable addition to American territory. The check for $7.2 million was made payable to the Russian Minister to the United States Edouard de Stoeckl, who negotiated the deal for the Russians. Also shown here is the Treaty of Cession, signed by Tzar Alexander II, which formally concluded the agreement for the purchase of Alaska from Russia. (Information excerpted from Stacey Bredhoff, American Originals [Seattle: The University of Washington Press, 2001], p. 58.)


What 1943 WWII battle between Germany and the Soviet Union remains to this day the largest series of armored clashes ever?

WWII Batle of Kursk - German Footage 1943 - Bf110 Panzer Tiger MG34 Nebelwerfer etc. Watch in HD - YouTube WWII Batle of Kursk - German Footage 1943 - Bf110 Panzer Tiger MG34 Nebelwerfer etc. Watch in HD Want to watch this again later? Sign in to add this video to a playlist. Need to report the video? Sign in to report inappropriate content. Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Uploaded on Aug 3, 2011 just few scenes.STRICTLY APOLITICAL VIDEO. NO POLITICAL,RELIGIOUS,SILLY,INSULTING COMMENTS PLEASE,MANY THANKS FOR THAT. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_o... The Battle of Kursk took place when German and Soviet forces confronted each other on the Eastern Front during World War II in the vicinity of the city of Kursk, (450 kilometres / 280 miles south of Moscow) in the Soviet Union in July and August 1943. It remains both the largest series of armored clashes, including the Battle of Prokhorovka, and the costliest single day of aerial warfare in history. It was the final strategic offensive the Germans were able to mount in the east. The resulting decisive Soviet victory gave the Red Army the strategic initiative for the rest of the war. The Germans hoped to shorten their lines by eliminating the Kursk salient (also known as the Kursk bulge), created in the aftermath of their defeat at the Battle of Stalingrad. They envisioned pincers breaking through its northern and southern flanks to achieve a great encirclement of Red Army forces. The Soviets, however, had intelligence of Adolf Hitler's intentions. This and German delays to wait for new weapons, mainly Tiger and Panther tanks,[20][21] gave the Red Army time to construct a series of defense lines and gather large reserve forces for a strategic counterattack.[22] Kursk as a whole demonstrated the failure of Blitzkrieg against a prepared, flexible, and multiply-redundant strategy of defense in depth.[citation needed] Well-advised months in advance that the attack would fall on the neck of the Kursk salient, the Soviets designed a system to slow, redirect, exhaust, and progressively attrit the powerful German panzer spearheads by forcing them to attack through a vast interconnected web of minefields, pre-sighted artillery fire zones, and concealed anti-tank strongpoints comprising eight progressively spaced defense lines 250 km deep — more than 10 times as deep as the vaunted Maginot Line — and featuring a greater than 1:1 ratio of anti-tank guns to attacking vehicles, it was by far the most statistically formidable[peacock term] defensive works ever constructed. It eventually proved to be more than three times the depth necessary to contain the furthest extent of the German attack.[23][page needed] When the German forces had exhausted themselves against the defences, the Soviets responded with their own counter-offensives, which allowed the Red Army to retake Orel and Belgorod on 5 August and Kharkov on 23 August, and push the Germans back across a broad front. Although the Red Army had had success in winter, this was the first successful strategic Soviet summer offensive of the war. The model strategic operation earned a place in war college curricula.[nb 8][24][page needed] The Battle of Kursk was the first battle in which a Blitzkrieg offensive had been defeated before it could break through enemy defences and into its strategic depths.[ Category


During World War I, which Belgian city that was the centre of intense battles was nicknamed 'wipers'?

Ieper - YouTube Ieper Want to watch this again later? Sign in to add this video to a playlist. Need to report the video? Sign in to report inappropriate content. The interactive transcript could not be loaded. Loading... Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Published on Aug 2, 2014 Ypres is a Belgian municipality located in the Flemish province of West Flanders. Though Ieper is the Dutch and only official name, the city's French name, Ypres, is most commonly used in English due to its role in World War I when only French was in official use in Belgian documents, including on maps. The municipality comprises the city of Ypres and the villages of Boezinge, Brielen, Dikkebus, Elverdinge, Hollebeke, Sint-Jan, Vlamertinge, Voormezele, Zillebeke, and Zuidschote. Together, they are home to some 34,900 inhabitants. During World War I, Ypres was the centre of intense and sustained battles between German and Allied forces. During the war, because the British troops had trouble pronouncing its name, they nicknamed the city "Wipers". Category


Who is the Scottish outlaw of the 18th century who is sometimes called as the Scottish Robin Hood? (hint: also the name of a Manhattan like cocktail)

scots gaelic Archives - Wild Eyed Southern Celt Jan 31, 2016 by Pye O'Malley Scottish proverbs often seem simplistic at first glance. Behind the humble words, however, lies a wealth of wisdom and Celtic “can-do” attitude. Here are a few of my favorite Gaelic Scottish proverbs:   In other words, whatever is worth having will take effort to obtain. There are many examples of how this Scottish proverb applies in life: finding your soul mate, providing for yourself and your family, achieving Scotland’s freedom from English rule, to name just a few. This Scottish proverb speaks to the need to always be prepared.  Invasion from England and Vikings was a constant threat to Scots for many hundreds of years.  Putting aside the sword for the plough could spell disaster for the clan. Generations later, the wisdom behind the words still rings true, and not just in military situations. This Gaelic phrase is the Scottish proverb equivalent of saying that the course of true love never runs smooth.  The illustration is from a 1906 childrens’ book of English history.  It depicts the sad parting of Flora MacDonald and Bonnie Prince Charlie , as he was fleeing the English after Culloden . The romance between Flora and Charles has been greatly embellished over time, and may never have happened at all. Actual partings of loved ones, however, was a harsh reality for many Scottish Highlanders and Islanders over the centuries.  Whether their men left in search of jobs to earn desperately needed money, or were forcibly removed to an English prison, Scottish women knew well the heartache of separation. For a fictionalized version of romantic Scottish misery, check out Outlander , the book, by Diana Gabaldon , or the cable series Outlander , based on Gabaldon’s books. Of course, we all know that this Scottish proverb holds true in the modern world.  As the first proverb above implies, however, sometimes the reward is worth the risk. Jul 2, 2014 by Pye O'Malley Despite popular belief, it’s possible to have a sunny day in the Scottish Highlands that heats up the area too much. When that happens, you’ll need need to cool down your hairy  Hielan coos at the local beach. No sunscreen necessary, though. Highland cattle at Oldshoremore beach in Sutherland     Image Source: Scotland on Face book Oldshoremore ( Àisir Mòr in Scots Gaelic) is a small, remote crofting village in Sutherland, one of the northernmost areas in the Scottish Highlands. The name Sutherland comes from the Norse, Suðrland (“southern land”), and dates from the time of Norse rule in the Highlands by the jarl of Orkney. The Norse called it “Southern land”  in relation to Orkney and Caithness, which are even further north. Feb 26, 2014 by Pye O'Malley Wednesday is a good day to try a dram or two of a new whisky or whiskey, depending on your preference.   You won’t appear as desperate as you might on a Monday night (the week has barely begun), and you’ll have more time to properly savor the taste results than you would on a Friday night (TGIF–just gimme a bottle!).  While you’re at it, you may as well invite a friend over to share in your Celtic heritage appreciation event…but which whisky will make the cut?   Personally, I love single malts, preferably with peaty smokiness, paired with a hint of sweetness.   I’ve read reviews of the newest release from Highland Park,  Scotland’s northernmost single malt distillery, and it may be a good match for me.   Distilled in an area that was once a Norse stronghold in Viking Age Scotland, HP’s new 15 year old whisky is named after Freya, the Norse goddess of love, and is said to taste of lush fruitiness and smoky earthiness, closing with a spicy finish. Sounds like the perfect uisge beatha to share with my favorite Scottish Butler. Not sure which whisk(e)y you should try?   I recommend consulting  Whisky For Everyone , a wonderful blog for all whisky lovers, whether you’re just starting to appreciate this much-loved elixir of the Celts or you’re a long-time whisky drinker–they always have a list of the latest whisky releases. Jan 29, 2014 by Pye O'M


What term refers to the stage of the journey that saw the forcible passage of Africans to the New World as part of the Atlantic slave trade?

"The Middle Passage" [ushistory.org] 6b. "The Middle Passage" Harvard College Library This illustration depicts what one reporter saw on the upper deck of a slave ship — "about four hundred and fifty native Africans, in a sitting or squatting posture, the most of them having their knees elevated so as to form a resting place for their heads and arms." Two by two the men and women were forced beneath deck into the bowels of the slave ship. The "packing" was done as efficiently as possible. The captives lay down on unfinished planking with virtually no room to move or breathe. Elbows and wrists will be scraped to the bone by the motion of the rough seas. Some will die of disease, some of starvation, and some simply of despair. This was the fate of millions of West Africans across three and a half centuries of the slave trade on the voyage known as the "middle passage." Two philosophies dominated the loading of a slave ship. "Loose packing" provided for fewer slaves per ship in the hopes that a greater percentage of the cargo would arrive alive. "Tight packing" captains believed that more slaves, despite higher casualties, would yield a greater profit at the trading block. Doctors would inspect the slaves before purchase from the African trader to determine which individuals would most likely survive the voyage. In return, the traders would receive guns, gunpowder, rum or other sprits, textiles or trinkets. The "middle passage," which brought the slaves from West Africa to the West Indies, might take three weeks. Unfavorable weather conditions could make the trip much longer. The Transatlantic (Triangular) Trade involved many continents, a lot of money, some cargo and sugar, and millions of African slaves. Slaves were fed twice daily and some captains made vain attempts to clean the hold at this time. Air holes were cut into the deck to allow the slaves breathing air, but these were closed in stormy conditions. The bodies of the dead were simply thrust overboard. And yes, there were uprisings. Upon reaching the West Indies, the slaves were fed and cleaned in the hopes of bringing a high price on the block. Those that could not be sold were left for dead. The slaves were then transported to their final destination. It was in this unspeakable manner that between ten and twenty million Africans were introduced to the New World.


What is the name of the fictional woman who is depicted as the national emblem of the French Republic?

France.com » Blog Archive Marianne - National Emblem of France - France.com Search for: Marianne – National Emblem of France Marianne is a national emblem of France. She is present in many places in France and holds a place of honor in town halls and law courts. She symbolizes the “Triumph of the Republic”, a bronze sculpture overlooking the Place de la Nation in Paris. Her profile stands out on the official seal of the country, is engraved on French euro coins, and appears on French postage stamps; it was also featured on the former French franc coins and banknotes. Marianne is considered one of the most prominent symbols of the French Republic. But who is this woman, depicted by artist Honoré Daumier as a mother nursing two children, or by sculptor François Rude as an angry warrior voicing the Marseillaise on the Arc de Triomphe? And where does she come from? One thing is certain: her image never leaves the French indifferent. During the last two wars, some people worshipped her like a saint. Others, those with anti-Republican leanings, often dragged her in the mud. History The image of Marianne comes down from Antiquity. The Phrygian bonnet was worn under the Roman Empire by former slaves who had been emancipated by their master and whose descendants were therefore considered citizens of the Empire. Democracy was already represented as having a woman’s face: at her feet a tiller and a sack of wheat, slumped on the ground and overflowing; having little regard for power, she is concerned above all with the aspirations of the people. In classical times, it was common to represent ideas and abstract entities by gods, goddesses and allegoric personifications. Less common during the Middle Ages, this practice resurfaced during the Renaissance. During the French Revolution, many allegorical personifications of ‘Liberty’ and ‘Reason’ appeared. These two figures finally merged into one: a female figure, shown either sitting or standing, and accompanied by various attributes, including the rooster, the tricolore cockade, and the Phrygian cap. This woman typically symbolized Liberty, Reason, the Nation, the Homeland, the civic virtues of the Republic. (Compare the Statue of Liberty, created by a French artist, with a copy in Paris.) In September 1792, the National Convention decided by decree that the new seal of the state would represent a standing woman holding a spear with a Phrygian cap held aloft on top of it. Why is it a woman and not a man who represents the Republic? One could find the answer to this question in the traditions and mentality of the French, suggests the historian Maurice Agulhon, who set out on a detailed investigation to discover the origins of Marianne. Note also that both liberté and république are feminine words in French. The use of this emblem was initially unofficial and very diverse. Marianne/Liberty makes an appearance in Eugène Delacroix’s bravura political propaganda ‘Liberty guiding the people’ (Louvre Museum), painted in July 1830, before the first rush of enthusiasm for Louis Philippe had time to cool. In 1848, the Ministry of the Interior launched a contest to symbolize the Republic. After the fall of the monarchy, the Provisional Government had declared: “The image of liberty should replace everywhere the images of corruption and shame, which have been broken in three days by the magnanimous French people.” Two “Mariannes” were authorised: the one is fighting and victorious, recalling the Greek goddess Athena; the other is wise and serious. She made her first appearance on a French postage stamp in 1849. Later, during the Second Empire (1852-1870), this depiction was clandestine and served as a symbol of protest against the regime. The common use of the name “Marianne” for the depiction of the “Liberty” started around 1848/1851, with a generalization around 1875. It began to be more official during the Third Republic (1870-1940). The city hall of Paris displayed a statue of “Marianne” wearing a Phrygian cap in 1880, and was quickly followed by the other French cities. Although common emble


As numerous countries gained their independence in that year, which year in the second half of the 20th century is known as the 'Year of Africa'?

Africa still struggles against imperialism Five decades after its ‘year’ Africa still struggles against imperialism By  Abayomi Azikiwe Editor, Pan-African News Wire Published Apr 25, 2010 7:39 PM The year 2010 is the 50th anniversary of the Year of Africa, when 17 former colonial territories gained their national independence during 1960. The liberation movements in Africa had gained momentum after World War II, when the European colonial powers were weakened by their mutual destruction from 1939 to 1945. Colonialism was a vicious system of national oppression and exploitation with origins in the Atlantic Slave Trade starting in the 15th century. After four centuries of enslaving Africans in Western Europe, the Caribbean, Latin America, North America and on the African continent itself, the imperialists solidified their colonial system with the 1884-1885 Berlin Conference. African people resisted the rapacious slave trade and colonialist encroachment for centuries. Beginning in the late 19th century, anti-colonial revolts and movements blossomed throughout the African continent and other territories throughout the world. Despite the two inter-imperialist wars in the first half of the 20th century, as of 1945 colonialism in Africa remained largely intact. To justify their crimes, the European colonialists claimed that their presence in Africa spurred economic development and prepared African states for eventual independence in the 20th century. The introduction of capitalist systems of production and trade, however, only managed to maximize profits and maintain political control for the imperialists. For example, in the West African state of Ghana, which was called the Gold Coast during the colonial period, British rule established a one-cash-crop economy of cocoa, providing the British ruling class with an effective means of exploiting the African territory. Gold mining provided an impulse for the territory’s first railway, which extended from the gold-mining district of Tarkwa to Sekondi by 1901. After the railway line’s construction in the Gold Coast, the rate of profit extracted from gold mining grew quickly. Gold exports expanded from £22,000 (all numbers in pound sterling) in 1897 to £255,000 by 1907 and £1,687,000 by 1914, the beginning of World War I. The railway extended to Kumasi in 1903 in order to ensure the political and military dominance over the Ashanti nation. This factor led to the penetration of the forest areas where the British carried out the process of rubber-tapping. The expansion of cocoa farming brought about another round of windfall profits for the British colonialists. In 1901, the value of cocoa exported from the colony was £43,000, £515,000 in 1907 and £2,194,000 in 1914, when cocoa amounted to 49 percent of all exports, and cocoa alone paid for all the Gold Coast’s imports. The railway also expedited the export of timber, worth £169,000 in 1907. Cocoa, gold and timber made the Gold Coast, by 1914, the most prosperous of all the African colonies. Rise of African nationalism As World War II ended, the only nominally independent African states were Egypt, Liberia and the reconstituted nation of Ethiopia. Nonetheless, in 1945 these states in actuality were firmly under the yoke of imperialism. Pro-British King Farouk I’s monarchy controlled Egypt until 1952, when the Free Officers’ Movement seized power in a popular coup. In 1956 when Gamal Abdel Nasser became president of Egypt and nationalized the Suez Canal, Britain, France and the state of Israel invaded. After this imperialist invasion failed, Egypt became a leading proponent of the independence movements that swept other areas of the continent during the 1950s and 1960s. Liberia had been established as a settlement for formerly enslaved Africans from the United States beginning in 1822. Granted nominal independence in 1847, it remained under the U.S. yoke and after the 1920s became Firestone’s private rubber plantation. After the defeat of Italian fascism in 1943, the restored Ethiopian monarchy of Haile Selassie fell under U.S. polit


What foreign policy theory promoted by the US government during the Cold War speculated that if one land in a region came under the influence of communism, the surrounding countries would follow?

US History, Standards 11.9/11.10/11.11 Flashcards Arms Race Definition A competition between nations for superiority in the development and accumulation of weapons, esp. between the US and the former Soviet Union during the Cold War Term Cold War Definition The state of political hostility that existed between the Soviet bloc countries and the US-led Western powers from 1945 to 1990 Term Domino Theory Definition The domino theory was a foreign policy theory during the 1950s to 1980s, promoted at times by the government of the United States, that speculated that if one land in a region came under the influence of communism, then the surrounding countries would follow in a domino effect Term Marshall Plan Definition A program of financial aid and other initiatives, sponsored by the US, designed to boost the economies of western European countries after World War II. It was originally advocated by Secretary of State George C. Marshall and passed by Congress in 1948 Term McCarthyism Definition A vociferous campaign against alleged communists in the US government and other institutions carried out under Senator Joseph McCarthy in the period 1950–54. Many of the accused were blacklisted or lost their jobs, although most did not in fact belong to the Communist Party Term NATO Definition North Atlantic Treaty Organization: an international organization created in 1949 by the North Atlantic Treaty for purposes of collective security Term Truman Doctrine Definition The principle that the US should give support to countries or peoples threatened by Soviet forces or communist insurrection. First expressed in 1947 by US President Truman in a speech to Congress seeking aid for Greece and Turkey, the doctrine was seen by the communists as an open declaration of the Cold War Term Vietnam War Definition a prolonged war (1954-1975) between the communist armies of North Vietnam who were supported by the Chinese and the armies of South Vietnam who were supported by the United States Term War Powers Act of 1973 Definition Passed as a result of military actions in Vietnam, designed to increase the role of congress in deploying the US military Term Brown v. Board of Education Definition Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 U.S. 483 (1954), was a landmark decision of the United States Supreme Court that declared state laws establishing separate public schools for black and white students, denying black children equal educational opportunities unconstitutional Term Civil Rights Act of 1964 Definition The Civil Rights Act of 1964 (, , July 2, 1964) was a landmark piece of legislation in the United States that outlawed unequal application of voter registration requirements and racial segregation in schools, at the workplace and by facilities that served the general public Term Voting Rights Act of 1965 Definition Met to increase African-Am. Civil Rights in regards to voting. Increased Federal involvement in States where policies disenfranchised African-Americans. Term Great Society Definition A domestic program in the administration of President Lyndon B. Johnson that instituted federally sponsored social welfare programs Term The enforced separation of different racial groups in a country, community, or establishment Term Counterculture Definition Opposed to dominant culture. Sociological term used to describe the values and norms of behavior of a cultural group, or subculture, that run counter to those of the social mainstream of the day Term Feminism Definition The term feminism can be used to describe a political, cultural or economic movement aimed at establishing equal rights and legal protection for women. Term Watergate Definition a political scandal involving abuse of power and bribery and obstruction of justice; led to the resignation of Richard Nixon in 1974 Term


What 'fruity' term for a small and unstable country dependent on agriculture was first used by O. Henry in reference to Honduras?

USA A Banana Republic? USA a Banana Republic? James Joyner   ·   Monday, November 8, 2010   ·   29 Comments NYT columnist Nick Kristoff laments “Our Banana Republic.” In my reporting, I regularly travel to banana republics notorious for their inequality. In some of these plutocracies, the richest 1 percent of the population gobbles up 20 percent of the national pie. But guess what? You no longer need to travel to distant and dangerous countries to observe such rapacious inequality. We now have it right here at home — and in the aftermath of Tuesday’s election, it may get worse. The piece goes on for several more paragraphs, but you needn’t bother reading them.  The US has high income inequality. So does, for example, Nicaragua. QED. Wikipedia’s definition of banana republic is an accurate reflection of how the term is used: Banana republic is a term that refers to a politically unstable country dependent upon limited agriculture (e.g. bananas), and ruled by a small, self-elected, wealthy, and corrupt politico-economic clique. The original concept of banana republic was a direct reference to a “servile dictatorship” that abetted (or supported for kickbacks) the exploitation of large-scale plantation agriculture, especially banana cultivation. As a political science term banana republic is a descriptor first used by the American writer O. Henry in Cabbages and Kings (1904), a book of related short stories derived from his 1896-97 residence in Honduras, where he was hiding from the U.S. law for bank embezzlement in the U.S. So, Kristoff is taking a common byproduct of this phenomenon and asserting that the United States, which has said byproduct, therefore qualifies.   Except that, you know, our economy isn’t based on agriculture, much less a single crop.  Oh, and that we have elections to decide who will govern us and periodically throw the bums out.   Oh, and a complex system of divided government and checks and balances.  And, of course, a broad series of individual rights that are guarded by an independent judiciary. Yes, but for how long?  Why, the Republicans want to extend the current tax code indefinitely into the future!  Which means that those making over an arbitrary sum that some define as “wealthy” will continue to pay a top marginal rate of 34 percent instead of a more appropriate 39 percent.  Apparently, somewhere in the mid-thirties, there’s a magical dividing line with “socialism” on one side and “banana republic” on the other. Also, apparently, the rich are oppressing the not-quite-rich by buying fancy things, forcing everyone below them to go heavily into debt to try and keep up. Seriously, Kristoff is too smart for such nonsense.  There are good arguments as to why income inequality is unhealthy.  Let’s dispense with silly ones. And, for that matter, there are actual threats to our individual liberties and the rule of law that are far more likely to engender comparisons to Third World dictatorships than the fact that the top 1 percent consume a lot of stuff.


Because foreigners were forbidden to serve in the French Army after the 1830 July Revolution, what was created by Louis Philippe, the King of France in 1831?

The Beret Project: Green Beret - Foreign Legion The Beret Project Peaked Cap: for people who don't dare to wear a beret Saturday, October 2, 2010 Green Beret - Foreign Legion The  French Foreign Legion  (Légion étrangère) is a unique military unit in the French Army established in 1831. The legion was specifically created for foreign nationals wishing to serve in the French Armed Forces, but commanded by French officers. However, it is also open to French citizens, who amounted to 24% of the recruits as of 2007. The Legion is today known as an elite military unit whose training focuses not only on traditional military skills but also on its strong  esprit de corps . As its men come from different countries with different cultures, this is a widely accepted solution to strengthen them enough to work as a team. Consequently, training is often described as not only physically challenging, but also extremely stressful psychologically. The French Foreign Legion was created by King Louis Philippe, on 10 March 1831. The direct reason was that foreigners were forbidden to serve in the French Army after the 1830 July Revolution, so the Legion was created to allow the government a way around this restriction. The purpose of the Legion was to remove disruptive elements from society and put them to use fighting the enemies of France. Recruits included failed revolutionaries from the rest of Europe, soldiers from the disbanded foreign regiments, and troublemakers in general, both foreign and French. Algeria was designated as the Legion's home. In late 1831, the first Legionnaires landed in Algeria, the country that would be the Legion's homeland for 130 years and shape its character. The early years in Algeria were hard for Legionnaires because they were often sent to the worst postings, received the worst assignments and were generally uninterested in the new colony of the French. The Legion's first service in Algeria came to an end after only four years, as it was needed elsewhere. The Legion was primarily used to protect and expand the French colonial empire during the 19th century, but it also fought in almost all French wars including the Franco-Prussian War and both World Wars. The Foreign Legion has remained an important part of the French Army, surviving three Republics, The Second French Empire, two World Wars, the rise and fall of mass conscript armies, the dismantling of the French colonial empire and the French loss of the legion's base, Algeria. These days most Legionnaires still come from European countries but a growing percentage comes from Latin-America, 24%. Most of the Legion's commissioned officers are French with approximately 10% being former Legionnaires who have risen through the ranks. Membership of the Legion is often a reflection of political shifts: specific national representations generally surge whenever a country has a political crisis and tend to subside once the crisis is over and the flow of recruits dries up. After the First World War, many (Tsarist) Russians joined. Immediately before the Second World War, Czechs, Poles and Jews from Eastern Europe fled to France and ended up enlisting in the Legion.  Following the break-up of Yugoslavia, there were many Serbian nationals. Also in the 1990s, the collapse of the Soviet Union, and the changes in the former Warsaw Pact countries, led to an increase in recruitment from Poland and from the former republics of the USSR (If you're interested in joining, click  here !). Posted by


Mimar Sinan (1489-1588) is considered the greatest architect of the classical period and was responsible for the Suleiman mosque in Istanbul and many other magnificent constructions. Which political entity benefited from his genius?

Agoston and Masters, Encyclopedia of Ottoman Empire Agoston and Masters, Encyclopedia of Ottoman Empire Agoston and Masters, Encyclopedia of Ottoman Empire Copyright: Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC) You're Reading a Free Preview Pages 14 to 178 are not shown in this preview. You're Reading a Free Preview Pages 192 to 386 are not shown in this preview. You're Reading a Free Preview Pages 400 to 517 are not shown in this preview. You're Reading a Free Preview Pages 541 to 689 are not shown in this preview.


In ancient Greece, the bematists who accompanied Alexander the Great on his campaigns were trained to measure what?

Bematist Bematist   . Bematists were specialists in ancient Greece who were trained to measure distances by counting their steps. Measurements of Alexander's bematists Bematists accompanied Alexander the Great on his campaign in Asia. Their measurements of the distances traveled by Alexander's army show a high degree of precision to the point that it had been suggested that they must have used an odometer, although there is no direct mentioning of such a device: The overall accuracy of the bematists’ measurements should be apparent. The minor discrepancies of distance can be adequately explained by slight changes in the tracks of roads during the last 2300 years. The accuracy of the measurements implies that the bematists used a sophisticated mechanical device for measuring distances, undoubtedly an odometer such as describes by Heron of Alexandria .[1] The table below lists distances of the routes as measured by two of Alexander's bematists, Diognetus and Baeton. They were recorded in Pliny's Naturalis Historia (NH 6.61-62). Another similar set of measurements is given by Strabo (11.8.9) following Eratosthenes.[2] Pliny 6.61-62 1) 1 mille passus = 1,480 meters or 1618.5 yards 2) 1 Attic stadion = 606’10’’ 3) No entries: Data not specified (n.s.) 4) The route is not recorded to have been followed by Alexander himself. Addenda: Leaving out the highest outlier each, the average deviation of the rest of the bematists's measurements would be 1.9% with Pliny and 1.5% with Strabo at a measured distance of 1958 respectively 1605 miles. References ^ Donald W. Engels: Alexander the Great and the Logistics of the Macedonian Army, Los Angeles 1978, p.158 ^ All data from: Donald W. Engels: Alexander the Great and the Logistics of the Macedonian Army, Los Angeles 1978, p.157. Ancient Greece


If you have to associate one person with the 'Kuomintang Party' between 1929 and 1948, who would it be?

Appeal to All the Comrades of the Chinese Communist Party | 20th century revolutions | History & Theory | Front page articles Appeal to All the Comrades of the Chinese Communist Party +1 This letter contains Chen's most important suppressed letter which he wrote after being outsed as General Secretary of the CCP. Since 1920 (the ninth year of the republic) I have worked with the comrades, in founding the party, in sincerely carrying out the opportunist policy of the International's leaders, Stalin, Zinoviev, Bukharin, and others. bringing the Chinese revolution to a shameful and sad defeat. Though I have worked night and day, yet my demerits exceed my merits. Of course, I should not imitate the hypocritical confessions of some of the ancient Chinese emperors: "I, one person, am responsible for all the sins of the people"; take upon my own shoulders all the mistakes that caused the failure. Nevertheless I feel ashamed to adopt the attitude of some responsible comrades at times-only criticizing the past mistakes of opportunism and excluding oneself. Whenever my comrades have pointed out my past opportunist errors, I earnestly acknowledged them. I am absolutely unwilling to ignore the experiences of the Chinese revolution obtained at the highest price paid by proletarians in the past. (From the August 7 Conference [1927] to the present time, I not only did not reject proper criticism against me, but I even kept silent about the exaggerated accusations against me.) Not only am I willing to acknowledge my past errors, but now or in the future, if I should make any opportunist errors in thought or action, I likewise expect comrades to criticize me mercilessly with theoretical argument and fact. I humbly accept or shall accept all criticism, but not rumors and false accusations. I cannot have such self-confidence as Ch'u Ch'iu-pai and Li Li- san. I clearly recognize that it is never an easy thing for anybody or any party to avoid the errors of opportunism. Even such veteran Marxists as Kautsky and Plekhanov were guilty of unpardonable opportunism when they were old; those who followed Lenin for a long time like Stalin and Bukharin are now also acting like shameful opportunists. How can superficial Marxists like us be self-satisfied? Whenever a man is self- satisfied, he prevents himself from making progress. Even the banner of the Opposition is not the incantation of the "Heavenly Teacher" Chang [the Taoist pope]. If those who have not fundamentally cleared out the ideology of the petty bourgeoisie, and have not plainly understood the system of past opportunism, and decisively participated in struggles, merely stand under the banner of the Opposition to revile the opportunism of Stalin and Li Li-san, and then think that the opportunist devils will never approach, they are suffering from an illusion. The only way of avoiding the errors of opportunism is continually and humbly to learn from the teachings of Marx and Lenin in the struggles of the proletarian masses and in the mutual criticism of comrades. I decisively recognize that the objective conditions were second in importance as the cause of the failure of the last Chinese revolution. The main cause was the error of opportunism, the error of our policy in dealing with the bourgeois Kuomintang. All the responsible comrades of the Central Committee at that time, especially myself, should openly and courageously recognize that this policy was undoubtedly wrong. But it is not enough merely to recognize the error. We must sincerely and thoroughly acknowledge that the past error was the internal content of the policy of opportunism examine the causes and results of that policy, and reveal them clearly. Then we can hope to stop repeating the errors of the past, and the repetition of former opportunism in the next revolution. When our party was first founded, though it was quite young, yet, under the guidance of the Leninist International, we did not commit any great mistakes. For instance, we decisively led the struggle of the workers and recognized the class nature of the Kuomint


Meaning 'Apple orchard' in Spanish, what is the collective name of the ten concentration camps in California where thousands of Japanese Americans were imprisoned during WWII?

Manzanar - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Manzanar A hot windstorm brings dust from the surrounding desert July 3 , 1942 Nearest city: Independence, California Coordinates: LAHCM #: 160 Manzanar is most widely known as the site of one of ten concentration camps where over 110,000 Japanese Americans were imprisoned during World War II . Located at the foot of the Sierra Nevada in California 's Owens Valley between the towns of Lone Pine to the south and Independence to the north, it is approximately 230 miles (370 km) northeast of Los Angeles . Manzanar (which means “apple orchard” in Spanish ) was identified by the United States National Park Service as the best-preserved of the former camp sites, and was designated the Manzanar National Historic Site. [7] Long before the first prisoners arrived in March 1942, Manzanar was home to Native Americans , who mostly lived in villages near several creeks in the area. Ranchers and miners formally established the town of Manzanar in 1910, [8] but abandoned the town by 1929 after the City of Los Angeles purchased the water rights to virtually the entire area. [7] As different as these groups might seem, they are tied together by the common thread of forced relocation . Since the last prisoners left in 1945, former prisoners and others have worked to protect Manzanar and to establish it as a National Historic Site that preserves and interprets the site for current and future generations. The primary focus is the Japanese American Internment era, [9] as specified in the legislation that created the Manzanar National Historic Site. The site also interprets the town of Manzanar, the ranch days, the settlement by the Owens Valley Paiute , and the role that water played in shaping the history of the Owens Valley. [9] [10] Contents Further information: Japanese American internment#Terminology_debate Since the end of World War II, there has been debate over the terminology used to refer to Manzanar and the other camps in which Americans of Japanese ancestry and their immigrant parents were imprisoned by the United States Government during the war. [11] [12] [13] Manzanar has been referred to as a "War Relocation Center," "relocation camp," "relocation center," " internment camp ," and " concentration camp ," and the controversy over which term is the most accurate and appropriate continues to the present day. [14] [15] [16] In 1998, use of the term "concentration camps" gained greater credibility prior to the opening of an exhibit about the American camps at Ellis Island . Initially, the American Jewish Committee (AJC) and the National Park Service, which manages Ellis Island, objected to the use of the term in the exhibit. [17] However, during a subsequent meeting held at the offices of the AJC in New York City , leaders representing Japanese Americans and Jewish Americans reached an understanding about the use of the term. [18] After the meeting, the Japanese American National Museum and the AJC issued a joint statement (which was included in the exhibit) that read in part: A concentration camp is a place where people are imprisoned not because of any crimes they have committed, but simply because of who they are. Although many groups have been singled out for such persecution throughout history, the term 'concentration camp' was first used at the turn of the century in the Spanish American and Boer Wars . During World War II, America's concentration camps were clearly distinguishable from Nazi Germany's. Nazi camps were places of torture, barbarous medical experiments and summary executions; some were extermination centers with gas chambers. Six million Jews were slaughtered in the Holocaust . Many others, including Gypsies, Poles, homosexuals and political dissidents were also victims of the Nazi concentration camps. In recent years, concentration camps have existed in the former Soviet Union , Cambodia and Bosnia . Despite differences, all had one thing in common: the people in power removed a minority group from the general population and the rest of society let it happen. [19] [2


What are 'Potemkin villages' which were purportedly erected at the direction of Russian minister Grigori Potemkin to impress Empress Catherine II during her visit to Crimea in 1787?

Potemkin village P Potemkin village Potemkin villages were purportedly fake settlements erected at the direction of Russian minister Grigory Potyomkin to fool Empress Catherine II during her visit to Crimea in 1787. According to this story, Potyomkin, who led the Crimean military campaign, had hollow facades of villages constructed along the desolate banks of the Dnieper River in order to impress the monarch and her travel party with the value of her new conquests, thus enhancing his standing in the empress' eyes. General Potemkin villages Modern historians are divided on the degree of truth behind Potemkin villages. While tales of the fake villages are generally considered exaggerations, some historians dismiss them as malicious rumors spread by Potyomkin's opponents. These historians argue that Potyomkin did mount efforts to develop the Crimea and probably directed peasants to spruce up the riverfront in advance of the Empress's arrival. According to Simon Sebag-Montefiore, Potyomkin's most comprehensive English-language biographer, the tale of elaborate, fake settlements with glowing fires designed to comfort the monarch and her entourage as they surveyed the barren territory at night, is largely fictional. Some Russian historians hold a somewhat different view. Aleksandr Panchenko, an authoritative specialist on 19th century Russia, used original correspondence and memoirs to conclude that the myth of the Potemkin village has a basis in reality: "Potemkin really did build mock towns and villages, but he never denied that they were theatrical sets." Panchenko writes that "Potemkin's goal was to demonstrate that this vast region was already practically civilized, or was at least energetically becoming civilized," by showing a vision of what the area would become, using screens on which villages were painted and driving flocks of sheep each night to the next stop along the route. Also, the close relationship between Field Marshal Potyomkin and Empress Catherine made it likely that she was aware of the fictitious nature of the villages. Thus, the deception would have been mainly directed towards the foreign ambassadors accompanying the imperial party. Regardless, Potyomkin had in fact directed the building of fortresses , ships of the line , and thriving settlements, and the tour – which saw real and significant accomplishments – solidified his power. So, while "Potemkin village" has come to mean, especially in a political context, any hollow or false construct, physical or figurative, meant to hide an undesirable or potentially damaging situation, the phrase may not apply to its original context. Modern Uses "Potemkin village" has also frequently been used to describe the attempts of the Soviet government to fool foreign visitors. The government would take such visitors, who were often already sympathetic to socialism or communism, to select villages, factories, schools, stores, or neighborhoods and present them as if they were typical, rather than exceptional. Given the strict limitations on the movement of foreigners in the USSR, it was often impossible for these visitors to see any other examples. "Potemkin village" has also been used to describe states and cities whose low tax régimes allow international companies to base their headquarters there, but to conduct their real businesses elsewhere. Examples of Potemkin villages The Nazi German Theresienstadt concentration camp, called "the Paradise Ghetto" in World War II , was designed as a concentration camp that could be shown to the Red Cross , but was really a Potemkin village: attractive at first, but deceptive and ultimately lethal, with high death rates from malnutrition and contagious diseases. It ultimately served as a way-station to Auschwitz-Birkenau. Gijeong-dong, built by the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) in the north half of the Korean Demilitarized Zone. Following the Manchurian Incident, and China 's referral of the Japanese occupation of Manchuria to the League of Nations in 1931, the League's representative was given a tour of th


What was the name of the notorious biological research unit of the Japanese Army that undertook lethal human experimentation during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945) and WWII?

UNIT 731 Documentary | Japanese Invasion of China | Second Sino-Japanese War | 1937-45 - YouTube UNIT 731 Documentary | Japanese Invasion of China | Second Sino-Japanese War | 1937-45 Want to watch this again later? Sign in to add this video to a playlist. Need to report the video? Sign in to report inappropriate content. The interactive transcript could not be loaded. Loading... Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Published on Feb 25, 2015 UNIT 731 Documentary | Japanese Invasion of China | Second Sino-Japanese War | 1937-45 | WW2 Unit 731 (731部隊 Nana-san-ichi butai, Chinese: 731部队) was a covert biological and chemical warfare research and development unit of the Imperial Japanese Army that undertook lethal human experimentation during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) and World War II. It was responsible for some of the most notorious war crimes carried out by Japanese personnel. Unit 731 was based at the Pingfang district of Harbin, the largest city in the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo (now Northeast China). It was officially known as the Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department of the Kwantung Army (関東軍防疫給水部本部 Kantōgun Bōeki Kyūsuibu Honbu). Originally set up under the Kempeitai military police of the Empire of Japan, Unit 731 was taken over and commanded until the end of the war by General Shiro Ishii, an officer in the Kwantung Army. The facility itself was built between 1934 and 1939 and officially adopted the name "Unit 731" in 1941. Between 3,000 and 12,000 men, women, and children - from which around 600 every year were provided by the Kempeitai - died during the human experimentation conducted by Unit 731 at the camp based in Pingfang alone, which does not include victims from other medical experimentation sites. Almost 70% of the victims who died in the Pingfang camp were Chinese, including both civilian and military. Close to 30% of the victims were Russian. Some others were South East Asians and Pacific Islanders, at the time colonies of the Empire of Japan, and a small number of Allied prisoners of war. The unit received generous support from the Japanese government up to the end of the war in 1945. Many of the researchers involved in Unit 731 went on to prominent careers in post-war politics, academia, business, and medicine. Some were arrested by Soviet forces and tried at the Khabarovsk War Crime Trials in 1949; most remained under American Forces occupation. These researchers were not tried for war crimes by the Americans so that the information and experience gained in bio-weapons could be co-opted into the U.S. biological warfare program. On 6 May 1947, Douglas MacArthur, as Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces, wrote to Washington that "additional data, possibly some statements from Ishii probably can be obtained by informing Japanese involved that information will be retained in intelligence channels and will not be employed as 'War Crimes' evidence." The immunity deal concluded in 1948. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_731 Category


On 31 October 1984, the English actor Peter Ustinov was waiting to interview which Asian leader when that person was assassinated?

Astrology: Peter Ustinov, date of birth: 1921/04/16, Horoscope, Astrological Portrait, Dominant Planets, Birth Data, Biography 1st Fire sign - 1st Cardinal sign (spring equinox) - Masculine In analogy with Mars, his ruler, and the 1st House Aries governs the head. His colour is red, his stone is the heliotrope, his day is Tuesday, and his professions are businessman, policeman, sportsman, surgeon... If your sign is Aries or your Ascendant is Aries: you are courageous, frank, enthusiastic, dynamic, fast, bold, expansive, warm, impulsive, adventurous, intrepid, warlike, competitive, but also naive, domineering, self-centred, impatient, rash, thoughtless, blundering, childish, quick-tempered, daring or primitive. Some traditional associations with Aries: Countries: England, France, Germany, Denmark. Cities: Marseille, Florence, Naples, Birmingham, Wroclaw, Leicester, Capua, Verona. Animals: Rams and sheeps. Food: Leeks, hops, onions, shallots, spices. Herbs and aromatics: mustard, capers, Cayenne pepper, chilli peppers. Flowers and plants: thistles, mint, bryonies, honeysuckles. Trees: hawthorns, thorny trees and bushes. Stones, Metals and Salts: diamonds, iron, potassium phosphate. Signs: Taurus 1st Earth sign - 1st Fixed sign - Feminine In analogy with Venus, his ruler, and the 2nd House Taurus governs the neck and the throat. Her colour is green or brown, her stone is the emerald, her day is Friday, her professions are cook, artist, estate agent, banker, singer... If your sign is Taurus or your Ascendant is Taurus: you are faithful, constant, sturdy, patient, tough, persevering, strong, focused, sensual, stable, concrete, realistic, steady, loyal, robust, constructive, tenacious. You need security, but you are also stubborn, rigid, possessive, spiteful, materialistic, fixed or slow. Some traditional associations with Taurus: Countries: Switzerland, Greek islands, Ireland, Cyprus, Iran. Cities: Dublin, Palermo, Parma, Luzern, Mantua, Leipzig, Saint Louis, Ischia, Capri. Animals: bovines. Food: apples, pears, berries, corn and other cereals, grapes, artichokes, asparagus, beans. Herbs and aromatics: sorrels, spearmint, cloves. Flowers and plants: poppies, roses, digitales, violets, primroses, aquilegia, daisies. Trees: apple trees, pear trees, fig-trees, cypresses, ash trees. Stones, Metals and Salts: copper, calcium and potassium sulphate, emeralds. Signs: Gemini 1st Air sign - 1st Mutable sign - Masculine In analogy with Mercury, his ruler, and the 3rd House Gemini governs the arms, the lungs and the thorax. His colour is green or silver, his stone is the crystal, his day is Wednesday, his professions are journalist, lawyer, presenter, dancer, salesman, travel agent, teacher... If your sign is Gemini or if your Ascendant is Gemini: you are expressive, lively, adaptable, quick-witted, humorous, sparkling, playful, sociable, clever, curious, whimsical, independent, polyvalent, brainy, flexible, ingenious, imaginative, charming, fanciful but also capricious, scattered, moody, shallow, inquisitive, opportunistic, unconcerned, selfish, fragile, ironical or changeable. Some traditional associations with Gemini: Countries: Belgium, Wales, United-States, Lower Egypt, Sardinia, Armenia. Cities: London, Plymouth, Cardiff, Melbourne, San Francisco, Nuremberg, Bruges, Versailles. Animals: monkeys, butterflies, parrots, budgerigars. Food: dried fruits, chestnuts, ground-level vegetables: peas, broad beans, etc. Herbs and aromatics: aniseed, marjoram, lemon balm, cumin. Flowers and plants: lilies of the valley, lavenders, myrtle, ferns, Venus-hair-ferns, bittersweets. Trees: nut trees such as chestnut trees. Stones, Metals and Salts: agates, mercury, silicas and potashes. Signs: Cancer 1st Water sign - 2nd Cardinal sign (summer solstice) - Feminine In analogy with the Moon, her ruler, and the 4th House Cancer governs the stomach and the breast. Her colour is white or black, her stone is the moonstone, her day is Monday, her professions are catering, the hotel trade, property, antique dealer, archaeologist... If your sign is Cancer


Kåre Kristiansen, a member of the Nobel Committee resigned in 1994 in protest at the awarding of the Peace Prize to which person, calling the awardee a terrorist?

10 Reasons Why The Nobel Peace Prize Is A Lie 10 Reasons Why The Nobel Peace Prize Is A Lie Swarajya Staff - Oct 11, 2014, 6:33 pm Artboard 3 Created with Sketch. Kailash Satyarthi and Malala Yusafzai have been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for 2014 “for their struggle against the suppression of children and young people and for the right of all children to education”. While we do not in any way wish to take away any of their remarkable honour and glory, we at Swarajya did take a hard look at the Nobel Peace Prize and the awardees over the last few decades. On 27 November 1895, Alfred Nobel signed his last will and testament, giving the largest share of his fortune to a series of prizes, the Nobels. As described in Nobel’s will, one part was dedicated to “the person who shall have done the most or the best work for fraternity between nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses”. The average age of all Nobel Peace Laureates between 1901 and 2014 is 61 years. Malala, at 17, is the youngest ever winner of any Nobel in any category. Satyarthi is 60. Here goes: the dubious Nobel Peace Prize Prize winners (the list is not comprehensive, we selected the ones who came to our collective mind immediately). 1. The European Union, 2012 – “for over six decades contributed to the advancement of peace and reconciliation, democracy and human rights in Europe” The truth: The EU has not been a great success. Far from it. Forget the Eurozone crisis, and the PIGS economies—Portugal, Italy, Greece and Spain. All of us know about the EU’s desperate scrambling around. Let’s get into slightly lesser known stuff. The EU’s Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) was a hugely inefficient economic policy and a massive waste of money. Artboard 3 Created with Sketch. It subsidized farmers to produce goods that nobody wanted. The excess supply was often dumped on world markets creating falling prices and incomes for world farmers. After many years, the worst excesses of CAP have been reformed. But, it remains persistently difficult to end the culture of subsidizing agriculture. The taxpayer pays the burden of higher prices and cost to EU. Unemployment in the European Union has been persistently high for the past two decades because of its strictly regulated labour market policies as defined in the EU’s social charter. A survey in 2012, conducted by  TNS  Opinion and Social on behalf of the  European Commission , showed that, for the European Union overall, those who think that their country’s interests are looked after well in the EU are now in a minority (42%). About 60% of EU citizens do not trust the European Union as an institution. Three Nobel Peace laureates, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Mairead Maguire and Adolfo Perez Esquivel, protested against awarding the Prize to the EU, writing an open letter to the Nobel Foundation, claiming that the EU was “clearly not one of the ‘champions of peace’ Alfred Nobel had in mind” when he created the prize in 1895, and that the EU does not “realize Nobel’s demilitarized global peace order.” 2. Barack H. Obama 2009 – “for his extraordinary efforts to strengthen international diplomacy and cooperation between peoples” The award, given nine months into Obama’s presidency, received criticism that it was undeserved, premature and politically motivated. Obama himself said that he was “surprised”. The prize was called a “stunning surprise” by  The New York Times .Much of the surprise arose from the fact that nominations for the award had been due by 1 February 2009, only 12 days after Obama took office. In an October 2011 interview,  Thorbjørn Jagland , chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee, was asked whether Obama had lived up to the prize, and replied: “Yes, I think so. I’m as convinced as I was when he got it that he deserved it for many reasons. During three months’ time, he…paved the way for new negotiations with the Russian Federation about nuclear arms. If you look at the will of Alfred Nobel, that goes directly to what he said that the prize shou


Who was executed by hanging at Ramla prison in 1962 and remains the only person to have been executed by an Israeli civilian court?

Pathetic Image of 'Mighty' Adolf Eichmann as he walks around the yard of his cell, Israel, 1961 SHARE: Facebook Twitter Adolf Eichmann walks around the yard of his cell, Ramla Prison, Israel, April 1961. Otto Adolf Eichmann was a German Nazi SS-Obersturmbannführer (lieutenant colonel) and one of the major organizers of the Holocaust. Because of his organizational talents and ideological reliability, Eichmann was charged by SS-Obergruppenführer Reinhard Heydrich with the task of facilitating and managing the logistics of mass deportation of Jews to ghettos and extermination camps in German-occupied Eastern Europe. After World War II, he fled to Argentina using a fraudulently obtained laissez-passer issued by the International Red Cross. He lived in Argentina under a false identity, working a succession of different jobs until 1960. He was captured by Mossad operatives in Argentina and taken to Israel to face trial in an Israeli court on 15 criminal charges, including crimes against humanity and war crimes. The Mossad was able to get an EL-AL to Buenos Aires to extricate Eichmann from Argentina. When the Argentinians discovered the real reason for the jet being in Argentina, they tried to stop it from flying back to Israel. The Mossad was only able to escape because they flew directly to Africa to refuel instead of remaining in the Western Hemisphere like they reported they would in their itinerary. He was found guilty and executed by hanging in 1962. He is the only person to have been executed in Israel on conviction by a civilian court. Eichmann was executed by hanging at a prison in Ramla. The hanging was scheduled for midnight on 31 May 1962, but due to a slight delay it happened a few minutes after midnight. He refused a last meal (preferring instead a bottle of wine) as well as the traditional black hood.Journalists and a Canadian reverend, William Lovell Hull, who had been his spiritual counselor while in prison, were allowed to attend the execution. His last words were: Long live Germany. Long live Argentina. Long live Austria. These are the three countries with which I have been most connected and which I will not forget. I greet my wife, my family and my friends. I am ready. We’ll meet again soon, as is the fate of all men. I die believing in God.   7 most dangerous men of the wild west Creepy Ghost Ships


What two countries fought the six-day 'Football War' or the '100-hours War' in 1969?

The "Football" War ..100-hours War - WARTIME - tribe.net The "Football" War ..100-hours War topic posted Thu, September 13, 2007 - 10:06 PM by  Unsubscribed The "Football" War (La guerra del fútbol, in Spanish), also known in English as the Soccer War or 100-hours War, was a six-day war fought by El Salvador and Honduras in 1969. The tensions between the two nations were reflected by rioting at a football (soccer) match between them, but the war was not caused by football, as has been popularly imagined internationally. The war was caused by political differences between Hondurans and Salvadorans, including immigration from El Salvador to Honduras. Some believe the name is derived from the rioting at the football match immediately preceding the war, others that it refers to the sensationalist way in which international journalists overlapped war reporting with rioting from a series of football matches. Contents [hide] 3 1970 World Cup results 4 Consequences 6 References [edit] Context The Football War is the catchy nickname that has been given to the 1969 war that broke out between the Central American countries of Honduras and El Salvador. Although this was considered a Futbol War, the war goes much more in depth than a Latin American soccer game. The roots of this alarming disagreement turned war were issues over land reform and immigration problems. Honduras is more than five times the size of neighboring El Salvador, even though in 1969, El Salvador had a population that was more than double that of Honduras. At the beginning of the twentieth century, Salvadorans had begun migrating to Honduras in large numbers. These immigrants made the journey to a new land in hopes of decent jobs and escaping their oppressive government. By 1969, more than 350,000 Salvadorans were living in Honduras. These Salvadorans now made up twenty percent of the Honduran peasant population (Acker, 93). Meanwhile, by the 1960s Hondurans began to cry out for land reform as well. In Honduras, a large majority of the land was granted to large landowners or big corporations. This was a very popular trend in Latin America and still is to this day. The United Fruit Company, in fact, had ownership of ten percent of the country, making it hard for the average landowners to compete. In 1966, the United Fruit Company banded together with many other large companies to create la Federación Nacional de Agricultores y Ganaderos de Honduras (FENAGH; the National Federation of Farmers and Livestock-Farmers of Honduras). FENAGH was very anti-campesino as well as anti-Salvadoran. This group put pressure on the Honduran President, General Lopez Arellano, to protect the property rights of wealthy landowners via a propaganda campaign. This led to violent nationalism spreading throughout the Honduras state. Hondurans then began targeting Salvadoran immigrants, specifically by means of beatings, tortures, and killings (Anderson 64-75). In 1969, Honduras successfully enacted a new land reform law. This law took land away from Salvadoran immigrants and redistributed this land to native-born Honduran peoples. The land was taken from both immigrant farmers and squatters regardless of their right to ownership and the status of their immigration. Thousands of Salvadorans were displaced by this law and were forced to immigrate once again. Salvadoran newspapers then heightened the already stressed relationship between the two countries by showing the many atrocities being committing against Salvadorans in Honduras. Hate and dislike towards Honduras began to be displayed all across El Salvador. The social situation in both countries in the run-up to the war was explosive, and their military governments were looking for a convenient cause towards which to direct their nationals' political concerns. National media in both countries encouraged hatred towards citizens of the other, eventually provoking the expulsion from Honduras of thousands of Salvadoran laborers, including both temporary harvest workers and longer-term settlers. This general rise in tensions ultimately led t


What sporty term popularized by Rudyard Kipling in Kim was used to describe the rivalry between the British Empire and the Russian Empire in their quest for supremacy in Central Asia in the 19th century?

Game Concepts - Civ III Civilopedia Database Civ III Civilopedia Database ^Every civilization can experience an [Age of Science], a 20-turn period in which the $LINK<scientific research=GCON_Research> of each city in that civilization's empire is 25% more productive. An Age of Science can only be triggered by a $LINK<scientific leader=GCON_Leaders>. #GCON_Phony Wonders_01 Phony Wonders ^ ^Aden :Port of Aden, +20 naval - The port's convenient position on the sea route between India and Europe has made Aden desirable to rulers who sought to possess it at various times throughout history. On 19 January 1839 the British East India Company landed Royal Marines at Aden to stop attacks by pirates against British shipping to India. The port lies about equidistant from the Suez canal, Mumbai, and Zanzibar, which were all important British possessions. ^Aisen :+1 prod - Puerto Aysen is a coastal city of Chile located in the Aysen Region. ^Akmolinsk ^Amsterdam :Rijksmuseum, +2 culture, +1 prod, +20 defense - The Rijksmuseum is a national museum of the Netherlands, located in Amsterdam on the Museumplein. The Rijksmuseum is dedicated to arts, crafts and history. It has a large collection of paintings from the Dutch Golden Age and a substantial collection of Asian art. In 1885 the museum moved to its current location, built by Dutch architect Pierre Cuypers. He combined gothic and renaissance elements. The building is richly decorated with references to the Dutch art history. Rembrandts The Night Watch has its own hall in the museum since 1906. ^Angora :Angora Citadel, +20 defense - The foundations of the citadel were laid by the Galatians on a prominent lava outcrop, and the rest was completed by the Romans. The Byzantines and Seljuks further made restorations and additions. The area around and inside the citadel, being the oldest part of Ankara, contains many fine examples of traditional architecture. #GCON_Phony Wonders_02 Phony Wonders ^ ^Antalya :Yivli Minare Mosque, +1 culture - The Yivli Minare Mosque (Ulu camii) is located in Antalya, Turkey. The mosque's fluted minaret, which is decorated with dark blue tiles, is a landmark and symbol of the city. ^Arckhangelsk :Port of Arckhangelsk, +1 prod, +20 naval, doubles city defenses - Arkhangelsk city declined in the 18th century as the Baltic trade became ever more important, but its economy revived at the end of the 19th century when a railroad to Moscow was completed and timber became a major export. The city resisted Bolshevik rule from 1918 to 1920 and was a stronghold of the anti-Bolshevik White Army, supported by the military intervention of Entente forces, known as the Polar Bear Expedition. ^Ashgabat :Ashgabat Fortress - +1 culture, doubles city defenses - In 1869, Russian soldiers built a fortress on a hill near the village, and this added security soon attracted merchants and craftsmen to the area. Tsarist Russia annexed the region in 1884, and chose to develop the town as a regional center due to its proximity to the border of British-influenced Persia. It was regarded as a pleasant town with European style buildings, shops and hotels. ^Astrakhan :Astrakhan Kremlin, +1 culture - Astrakhan's kremlin was built from 1580s to 1620s from bricks pillaged at the site of Sarai Berke. Its two impressive cathedrals were consecrated in 1700 and 1710, respectively. Built by masters from Yaroslavl, they retain many traditional features of Russian church architecture, while their exterior decoration is definitely baroque. ^Asuncion :Panteón Nacional de los Héroes, +1 culture, reduces WW - Nacional de los Héroes is a smaller version of Les Invalides in Paris where many of the nation's heroes are entombed. #GCON_Phony Wonders_03 Phony Wonders ^ ^Athinai :Acropolis of Athens, +2 culture, +50% science - The Acropolis of Athens is the best known acropolis (high city) in Greece. Although there are many other acropolises in Greece, the significance of the Acropolis of Athens is such that it is commonly known as The Acropolis without qualification. ^Atlanta :Coca-Cola Co., +1 culture, doubles