Gilbert Ryle's The Concept of Mind (1949) is a critique of the notion propounded by Descartes that the mind is distinct from the body. What phrase did Ryle famously use to describe his concept?

The Concept of Mind by Gilbert Ryle — Reviews, Discussion, Bookclubs, Lists Shelves: prose-style , highly-recommended-favorites , footnotes-to-plato Men are not machines, not even ghost-ridden machines. They are men—a tautology which is sometimes worth remembering. The problem of mind is one of those philosophical quandaries that give me a headache and prompt an onset of existential angst when I try to think about them. How does consciousness arise from matter? How can a network of nerves create a perspective? And how can this consciousness, in turn, influence the body it inhabits? When we look at a brain, or anywhere else in the ‘physical’ Men are not machines, not even ghost-ridden machines. They are men—a tautology which is sometimes worth remembering. The problem of mind is one of those philosophical quandaries that give me a headache and prompt an onset of existential angst when I try to think about them. How does consciousness arise from matter? How can a network of nerves create a perspective? And how can this consciousness, in turn, influence the body it inhabits? When we look at a brain, or anywhere else in the ‘physical’ world, we cannot detect consciousness; only nerves firing and blood rushing. Where is it? The only evidence for consciousness is my own awareness. So how do I know anybody else is conscious? Could it be just me? If you think about the problem in this way, I doubt you’ll make any progress either, because it’s insoluble. This is where Gilbert Ryle enters the picture. According to Ryle, the philosophy of mind was put on a shaky foundations by Descartes and his followers. When Descartes divided the world into mind and matter, the first private and the other public, he created several awkward problems: How do we know other people have minds? How do the realms of matter and mind interact? How can the mind be sure of the existence of the material world? And so on. This book is an attempt to break away from the assumptions that led to these questions. Ryle’s philosophy is often compared with that of the later Wittgenstein, and justly so. The main thrusts of their argument are remarkably similar. According to what I’ve read, this may have been due simply to the influence of Wittgenstein on Ryle—though there appears to be some doubt. Regardless, it’s appropriate to compare them, as I think, taken together, their ideas help to shed light on one another. Both Wittgenstein and Ryle are extraordinary writers. Wittgenstein is certainly the better of the two, though this is not due to any defect on Ryle’s part. Wittgenstein is aphoristic, sometimes oblique, employing numerous allegories and similes to make his point. Ryle is sharp, direct, and epigrammatic. Wittgenstein is in the same tradition as Nietzsche and Schopenhauer, while Ryle is the direct descendent of Jane Austen. But both of them are witty, quotable, and brilliant. They’ve managed to create excellent works of philosophy without using any jargon and avoiding all obscurity. Why can’t philosophy always be written so well? There is no contradiction, or even paradox, in describing someone as bad at practising what he is good at preaching. There have been thoughtful and original literary critics who have formulated admirable canons of prose style in execrable prose. There have been others who have employed brilliant English in the expression of the silliest theories of what constitute good writing. Ryle also has the quality—unusual among philosophers—of being apparently quite extroverted. His eyes are turned not toward himself, but his surroundings. He speaks with confidence and insight about the way people normally behave and talk, and in general prefers this everyday understanding of things to the tortured theories of his introverted colleagues. Teachers and examiners, magistrates and critics, historians and novelists, confessors and non-commissioned officers, employers, employees and partners, parents, lovers, friends and enemies all know well enough how to settle their daily questions about the qualities of character and intellect of the individuals


In 1922, the magazine The American Girl suggested selling what for fund-raising?

Girls Scout Cookies Girls Scout Cookies Start Your Fundraising Journey Here Believe it or not, Girl Scout cookies can actually be found in the dictionary. This is what the dictionary calls it: A Girl Scout cookie is one of several varieties of cookie. They were sold on neighborhood tours by Girl Scouts of the USA as a fundraiser for their organization. Cookies have become a world wide frenzy. The history of how they came to be is very interesting. In 1922 the American Girl magazine suggested cookie sales as a fundraiser and provided recipes. It was 1933 in Philadelphia, when the first official sale took place. In 1936 they licensed the recipes out so that companies could mass produce them. The girls scouts would usually sell to their relatives and friends. Then they would walk around town to visit people's houses and take their order by paper, just like they do today. As an incentive to sell more cookies, the councils would offer different prizes. The prizes would differ from council to council, but popular prizes were stuffed animals, coupons and uniforms. Today the prizes have grown to scholarships, family trips and other large prizes. For every box sold, the Girl Scout council receives around 40-60 cents. This adds up to millions for the council, and this allows for the council to put the money back into the girl scouts. There are many critics of the cookies. They believe that they are too fatty, and help spread the obese epidemic that has taken over this country. A way that the council helped to dismiss these remarks was to create sugar free and fat free cookies. Not only are these cookies better for us, but they also taste just as good. There are fourteen different types of cookies today: 1. Thin Mints 2. Do-si-dos 3. Trefoils 4. Tagalongs 5. Samoas 6. Golden Yangles 7. Lemon Coolers 8. Lemon Pastry Cremes 9. Thanks-a-lots 10. Allabouts 11. Cartwheels 12. Caf? cookies 13. Classic Cremes 14. Double Dutch Out of these fourteen cookies, four of them are either reduced fat, fat free, or sugar free. Whether you are a lover or critic, there is no denying the popularity of these cookies. With each bite you take, you are sent back into a different time where life was easy and slow. The Top No Upfront Cost Fundraisers in America


The Berne Convention of 1886 was an international agreement that established rules governing what?

WIPO-Administered Treaties: Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works Possibilities of applying, or admitting the application of, certain provisions of the Appendix before becoming bound by it: 1. Declaration;  Depository and effective date of declaration   The countries of the Union, being equally animated by the desire to protect, in as effective and uniform a manner as possible, the rights of authors in their literary and artistic works, Recognizing the importance of the work of the Revision Conference held at Stockholm in 1967, Have resolved to revise the Act adopted by the Stockholm Conference, while maintaining without change Articles 1 to 20 and 22 to 26 of that Act. Consequently, the undersigned Plenipotentiaries, having presented their full powers, recognized as in good and due form, have agreed as follows:   Article 1 Establishment of a Union 2 The countries to which this Convention applies constitute a Union for the protection of the rights of authors in their literary and artistic works.   1. “Literary and artistic works”; 2. Possible requirement of fixation; 3. Derivative works; 4. Official texts; 5. Collections; 6. Obligation to protect; beneficiaries of protection; 7. Works of applied art and industrial designs; 8. News (1) The expression “literary and artistic works” shall include every production in the literary, scientific and artistic domain, whatever may be the mode or form of its expression, such as books, pamphlets and other writings; lectures, addresses, sermons and other works of the same nature; dramatic or dramatico-musical works; choreographic works and entertainments in dumb show; musical compositions with or without words; cinematographic works to which are assimilated works expressed by a process analogous to cinematography; works of drawing, painting, architecture, sculpture, engraving and lithography; photographic works to which are assimilated works expressed by a process analogous to photography; works of applied art; illustrations, maps, plans, sketches and three-dimensional works relative to geography, topography, architecture or science. (2) It shall, however, be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to prescribe that works in general or any specified categories of works shall not be protected unless they have been fixed in some material form. (3) Translations, adaptations, arrangements of music and other alterations of a literary or artistic work shall be protected as original works without prejudice to the copyright in the original work. (4) It shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to determine the protection to be granted to official texts of a legislative, administrative and legal nature, and to official translations of such texts. (5) Collections of literary or artistic works such as encyclopaedias and anthologies which, by reason of the selection and arrangement of their contents, constitute intellectual creations shall be protected as such, without prejudice to the copyright in each of the works forming part of such collections. (6) The works mentioned in this Article shall enjoy protection in all countries of the Union. This protection shall operate for the benefit of the author and his successors in title. (7) Subject to the provisions of Article 7(4) of this Convention, it shall be a matter for legislation in the countries of the Union to determine the extent of the application of their laws to works of applied art and industrial designs and models, as well as the conditions under which such works, designs and models shall be protected. Works protected in the country of origin solely as designs and models shall be entitled in another country of the Union only to such special protection as is granted in that country to designs and models; however, if no such special protection is granted in that country, such works shall be protected as artistic works. (8) The protection of this Convention shall not apply to news of the day or to miscellaneous facts having the character of mere items of press information.   A


A 2012 research study in Australia determined that the most perceived trustworthiness in a particular profession was of someone wearing what instrument as compared to a reflex hammer, surgical scrubs, otoscope, or a pen?

trustworthiness Introduction When people are concerned about their physical or psychological well-being, they may consult a doctor. When a patient consults a doctor face-to-face, all five senses affect the experience: sight, hearing, touch, smell (eg, medications, disinfectants, and tissues), and sometimes taste (eg, medications, and equipment used to examine the mouth or throat) [ 1 - 5 ]. In consultations where the doctor and patient are not even in the same room, there are limits to the extent to which all the senses can be engaged [ 6 ]. It is important that a doctor (or online ehealth service or website) be perceived as trustworthy, especially in circumstances in which there are limits to the engagement of the senses as occurs, for example, when people interact with doctors via a computer or when a doctor is portrayed in a static image in support of a message on a website. When someone is experiencing symptoms, the condition does not require the presence of objective organic pathological analysis. Indeed, some people experience relief from symptoms despite being treated with a placebo or inactive drug [ 7 , 8 ]. It has been demonstrated in conditions that are not the result of organic pathology that a doctor has powers to relieve disease in a manner analogous to that of a placebo [ 9 ]. In common with many placebos, the physical appearance of the doctor may account for some of the therapeutic response. As McCroskey stated, “No message is received independently of its source or presumed source” [ 10 ]. Various writers have agreed that there is a dimension to the perception of an individual that can be referenced as trustworthiness (character, sagacity, safety, and honesty) [ 11 ]. The literature records many studies in which credibility and persuasive communication have been tested with specific reference to the physical appearance of doctors. In an experiment conducted by computer scientists, advice was shown to be much more persuasive when presented as coming from doctors as depicted in static pictures [ 12 ]. Similarly, previously published studies have reported that patients prefer traditional physicians’ attire consisting of a white coat and professional dress [ 13 ]; other studies indicate that patients are equally satisfied with their physicians regardless of casual or business attire [ 14 ]. In a more recent experiment, researchers have concluded that doctors working with a primarily older population may find their patients prefer their physicians to wear white coats, whereas a large majority of parents do not expect their child's doctor to wear a white coat and that the a parent’s trust is not compromised by less-traditional physicians’ attire [ 15 ]. In addition to what the doctor is wearing, we must also consider what he or she is seen to be holding, or using. For example, the stethoscope has been the cornerstone of medical diagnostics for nearly 200 years. This monaural device improved physicians’ ability to hear clues to their patients’ underlying pathology and thus apply the appropriate treatment in many cases. It has been eulogized by many commentators, such as the following: I contend that the stethoscope best symbolizes the practice of medicine. Whether absentmindedly worn around the neck like an amulet or coiled gunslinger-style in the pocket, ever ready for the quick draw, the stethoscope is much more than a tool that allows us to eavesdrop on the workings of the body. Indeed, it embodies the essence of doctoring: using science and technology in concert with the human skill of listening to determine what ails a patient. [ 16 ] The stethoscope is one of several medical instruments that are recognized by laypeople as belonging in a doctor’s office and that have significance in the consultation that extends beyond the instrument’s physical functionality. Similarly, reflex hammers and other items used in clinical examination have developed an iconic status for doctors [ 17 ]. In this study we hypothesized that in the absence of any other information, an individual appearing in a static image may be rat


The names of the command module and lunar module of Apollo 10 were named for the characters of what story that was told in nearly 18,000 strips?

20 Things You Didn't Know About Charles Schulz | The Huffington Post 20 Things You Didn't Know About Charles Schulz 11/26/2013 08:34 am ET | Updated Oct 19, 2016 2k ABC Photo Archives via Getty Images Today is the birthday of American cartoonist Charles Monroe Schulz, that beloved "Peanuts" creator who would turn 91 years old if he were still alive today. Born in Minneapolis, Minnesota, Schulz is remembered most fondly for the wholesome characters he created throughout his 50-year-long illustration career. Among them are the eternally hesitant Charlie Brown and the mischievous Snoopy, two characters who came to represent the iconic four-panel gag strip known as "Peanuts." Schulz devoted much of his life to the American comic standard, which ran up until the day after his death in 2000. In honor of the 91st anniversary of Schulz's birth, we wanted to shine a spotlight on the man behind the cartoon, so we've put together 20 facts you might not have known about the great American artist. Behold, the quirks of a "Peanuts" legend: 1. The man, Charles Schulz, and the comic character, Charlie Brown, are pretty similar. Schulz's father was a barber and his mother a housewife, just like Charlie Brown's parents. Plus, as the youngest in his class at Central High School in Saint Paul, Minnesota, Schulz was famously shy. 2. Schulz's childhood nickname was based on a comic strip. Schulz's childhood nickname, Sparky, was given to him by his uncle and refers to the horse Spark Plug in Billy DeBeck's comic strip, "Barney Google ." 3. Schulz had his own unusual dog named Spike. When Schulz was a young boy, he submitted a picture of his dog, Spike, to Ripley's Believe It or Not! His drawing appeared in Robert Ripley's syndicated panel, describing Spike as an unusual dog who ate pins, tacks and razor blades. 4. Schulz served in WWII but never fired his weapon. In 1943, Schulz was drafted into the United States Army where he served as a staff sergeant with the 20th Armored Division in Europe. During his service as a squad leader on a .50 caliber machine gun team, his unit saw very little combat, and Schulz later explained that during the only opportunity to fire his machine gun he discovered that he had actually forgotten to load it. 5. Schulz debuted his two most famous characters in a comic strip known as "Li'l Folks." The name of Schulz's most famous character -- Charlie Brown -- first appeared in an earlier cartoon written by the Peanuts creator titled "Li'l Folks" , which was published from 1947 to 1950. That same series also featured a dog that resembled Snoopy. 6. Schulz didn't actually name "Peanuts." In 1950, Schulz approached the United Feature Syndicate with his comic strip Li'l Folks. The syndication company accepted Schulz work but decided that the name "Li'l Folks" was too close to the names of two other comics of the time: Al Capp's "Li'l Abner" and a strip titled "Little Folks." So, to avoid confusion, United Feature Syndicate settled on the name "Peanuts" after the peanut gallery featured in the "Howdy Doody" TV show. In the end, Schulz did not name his famous work. 7. And he hated the name. Schulz always disliked the title of his famous comic strip, "Peanuts". In a 1987 interview , Schulz said of the name: "It's totally ridiculous, has no meaning, is simply confusing, and has no dignity -- and I think my humor has dignity." 8. Schulz wanted to call Snoopy "Sniffy." Schulz was originally going to call his star dog character " Sniffy" , that is until he discovered that name had already been used in a different comic strip. So the cartoonist changed it to "Snoopy" after remembering that his late mother Dena Schulz told the family that if they were ever to acquire a third dog, it should be called Snoopy, an affectionate term in Norwegian. (The word is "Snuppa".) 9. And Schulz wanted Snoopy to be entirely silent. Schulz originally imagined Snoopy as a silent character. It was only after two years of the comic that Snoopy verbalized his thoughts to readers in a thought balloon in 1952. 10. Schulz named many of the other "Peanuts


"Who is the icon of linguistics who composed the sentence ""Colorless green ideas sleep furiously"" to demonstrate the difference between structure and meaning?"

Week 3: Intro Linguistics | CCTP748: Media Theory and Digital Culture CCTP748: Media Theory and Digital Culture Spring 2013 – Communication, Culture & Technology Menu Week 3: Love Notes Introduction: There are infinite quotes about music and it’s ability to transcend your words, quench your soul, and make your feelings known.  However, it is difficult to actually grasp the meaning of the notes that strike your heartstrings and the notes that “take you to another place”.   For this week, I would like to skim the surface of music’s position in linguistic studies through the actual meaning of the language and the use of language. Use of language: When reading about symbolic language, I could not help but go back to the example of music. By looking at language as a form of expression, new definitions of meanings come out to play. These characters are useful specifically when “symbolic” language is compared with music. So I would like to look at the contruction of words and how they are paired with music. Music has many uses. It can be used to add a pinch of style to a presentation or it can be turned on for jamming in the car. But it can be used to  fill the void. When language is combined with music, it changes the form of music and adds another dimension to the music. It changes the meaning not only in the possibility of changing the  actual arrangement but it changes the meaning of the words. By adding lyrics it changes the whole feeling of the song.  Adding lyrics changes the body of the musical work. Opera-tunity: Oftentimes when a musical or an opera begins, there is a musical prologue. This prologue not only introduces the audience to the music, but the prologue gives the audience something to look for. The tease of the prologue changes when the lyrics are added. Therefore, in the beginning of the opera, the music was something to listen to detached from any meaning other than an introduction. But, during the performance, the notes from the beginning start to have depth and meaning. Toreador Song  (2:49) Pink Martini- Words vs. No Words Another area of interest, includes the power of words. These videos below exemplify the power of words compared to the power of humming. Both videos are powerful and create certain emotions. Also, both of the videos have meanings. The difference is the way that the meanings are portrayed by the voice. To connect to the theories from last week, the voice often becomes the gatekeeper. For instance, in the Lullaby song, a multitude of meanings could have stemmed from the notes. However, we are not allotted a specific meaning because of the lack of words. Therefore, the “Lullaby” meaning is up to interpretation and in a way is more marketable for corporations. Pink Martini Lullaby Language and Context: Next are examples of using the same words but in different contexts. By plucking the lyrics from the music and placing the lyrics in another environment, the creator of the remix could portray the original meaning of the lyrics, but it is difficult to bridge the gap between musical space and time. Therefore, the original meaning of the lyrics is often lost and remixed into a new meaning when it is inserted into a new musical content. However, what about the reverse. If the producer plucks the music from the lyrics is the meaning the same? For instance, the notes in the Ray Charles song “I Got a Woman” are used in the Kanye West song “Gold Digger”. The notes are similar, but the lyrics are different. The meaning of the song is changed. On Parole/The Bishop  (2:05) In the beginning of the musical, Jean Valjean meets a Bishop that introduces him to the saving power of God. Later in the musical (SPOILER ALERT) in the song “Empty Chairs at Empty Tables” the character Marius remembers his friends that fought for what they believed and how they gave up their lives for the cause. He wonders why his life was spared. Another Les Miserables example:  Look Down  (1:01) Gavroche Both of the songs use the same notes and seemingly same tempos, but the meanings of the lyrics are completely different. The Ka


Anthropologist Lévi-Strauss proposed that two animals achieved mythic status in Native American cultures as they are the mediators between life and death. Can you name one of the two?

Project MUSE - Catching Wrangham: On the Mythology and the Science of Fire, Cooking, and Becoming Human On the Mythology and the Science of Fire, Cooking, and Becoming Human Gregory Schrempp (bio) Abstract Myth and science sometimes converge—nowhere more so than in scenarios concerning the domestication of fire and its consequences for human social life. I examine this claim through an analysis of bioanthropologist Richard Wrangham’s recent book Catching Fire: How Cooking Made us Human, comparing his claims and findings with those of mythologist/anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss in The Raw and the Cooked. I examine myth-science convergences around the following topics: parochialism, narrative speculation, transformations attributed to cooking and fire, temporality in science and myth, and the human fascination with fire as a substance. As part of my analysis of temporality, I look at the projection, in both myth and science, of contemporary cultural contestations (such as gender issues and food debates) into an idealized species-formative moment set in the past. Challenging the rhetorical tendency to invoke science and myth as opposites, I consider possible factors leading to convergence and suggest that science can enrich its perspective through a sympathetic attitude toward myth and other forms of traditional wisdom. But in deeper rocks the record of our humanity dwindles until around two million years ago, when it gives way to prehuman ancestors and leaves us with a question that every culture answers in a different way, but only science can truly decide. What made us human? —R , Catching Fire (2009 , 1–2) In the 1960s there was a notion in the air that science and mythology—and everything else for that matter—somehow mystically [End Page 109] converged. Even if this notion in the context of the sixties was not especially fruitful in coming to understand what we mean by either myth or science, it does point to a genuine and fascinating epistemological issue. Claims made in the name of science do sometimes converge with visions encountered in traditional and/or ancient mythologies, a fact that at the very least should make us wary of the familiar polemical use of myth and science as mutually exclusive polar terms. No more striking instance of myth–science convergence can be found than in scenarios concerning the domestication of fire. I will illustrate and explore this claim through an analysis of the most recent major scientific work on the domestication of fire, Richard Wrangham’s Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human (2009) . Wrangham, a bioanthropologist at Harvard University, argues that cooking formed the crucial factor in our becoming human, specifically by offering habilines (the “missing link” between apes and humans [2009, 4]) a source of easily chewable and digestible nutrition that permitted rapid brain growth, allowing the emergence of Homo erectus, the precursor to Homo sapiens. In the following analysis I will summarize the several ways in which Wrangham’s analysis dovetails with the story of the domestication of fire as it is proffered in traditional origin myths. Parochialism, Mythic and Scientific In contemporary popular discourse, no term conveys the quality of parochialism more persistently than myth; it does so through two related connotations, both stemming from the opposition between the provincial and the cosmopolitan. 1 First, myth is invoked to designate ideas from the cultural backwaters that have not passed the test of cosmopolitan science. But there is a second more interesting sense, in some respects inverse to the first, in which myth designates the parochial. Here, to be parochial means to be convinced that an idea that is actually widespread or even universal is uniquely one’s own—or, in the extreme, it means to regard oneself or one’s community as the originator of all that is humanly good and true. In regard to origin scenarios recounted in traditional mythologies, the charge of parochialism in this sense may be legitimate, for there are few origin myths that, within their narrati


What was the subject of French sociologist Émile Durkheim's 1897 work that studied Catholic and Protestant populations and that resulted in sociology getting established on its own?

Suicide (1897) Suicide (1897) [Excerpt from Robert Alun Jones. Emile Durkheim: An Introduction to Four Major Works. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, Inc., 1986. Pp. 82-114.] Outline of Topics Critical Remarks What is Suicide? Explanation requires comparison; comparison requires classification;  classification requires the definition of those facts to be classified,  compared, and ultimately explained. Consistent with The Rules of Sociological Method, therefore, Durkheim began his 1897 work with a warning against notiones vulgares, together with an insistence that our first task... must be to determine the order of facts to be   studied under the name of suicide... we must inquire whether,   among the different varieties of death, some have common qualities   objective enough to be recognized by all honest observers, specific   enough not to be found elsewhere and also sufficiently kin to   those commonly called suicides for us to retain the same term   without breaking with common usage. 1 Durkheim's initial effort at such a definition indeed followed  common usage, according to which a "suicide" is any death which  is the immediate or eventual result of a positive (e.g., shooting  oneself) or negative (e.g., refusing to eat) act accomplished  by the victim himself. 2 But here Durkheim immediately ran into difficulties, for this  definition failed to distinguish between two very different sorts  of death: the victim of hallucination who leaps from an upper  story window while thinking it on a level with the ground; and  the sane individual who does the same thing knowing that it will lead to his death. The obvious solution -- i.e.,  to restrict the definition of suicide to actions intended to have this result -- was unacceptable to Durkheim for at least  two reasons. First, as we have seen (p. 64 above), Durkheim consistently  tried to define social facts by easily ascertainable characteristics,  and the intentions of agents were ill-fitted to this purpose.  Second, the definition of suicide by the end sought by the agent  would exclude actions -- e.g., the mother sacrificing herself  for her child -- in which death is clearly not "sought" but is  nonetheless an inevitable consequence of the act in question,  and is thus a "suicide" by any other name. The distinctive characteristic of suicides, therefore, is not  that the act is performed intentionally, but rather that it is performed advisedly -- the agent knows that death will be the result of his act, regardless  of whether or not death is his goal. This criterion is sufficient  to distinguish suicide, properly so-called, from other deaths  which are either inflicted on oneself unconsciously or not self-inflicted  at all; moreover. Durkheim insisted that such a characteristic  was easily ascertainable, and that such acts thus formed a definite,  homogeneous group. Hence Durkheim's definition: Suicide is applied to all cases of death resulting directly or  indirectly from a positive or negative act of the victim himself,  which he knows will produce this result. This definition, however, was subject to two immediate objections.  The first was that such foreknowledge is a matter of degree, varying  considerably from one person or situation to another. At what  point, for example, does the death of a professional dare-devil  or that of a man neglectful of his health cease to be an "accident" and start to become "suicide"? But for Durkheim to ask this question  was less to raise an objection to his definition than to correctly  identify its greatest advantage -- that it indicates the place  of suicide within moral life as a whole. For suicides, according  to Durkheim, do not constitute a wholly distinctive group of "monstrous  phenomena" unrelated to other forms of behavior; on the contrary.  they are related to other acts, both courageous and imprudent,  by an unbroken series of intermediate cases. Suicides, in short,  are simply an exaggerated form of common practices. The s


Can you connect the Dalai Lama with Curious George with a colorful 2-word term?

The Dalai Lama Gives New Yorkers A Lesson On Wisdom As Opponents Protest Outside | The Huffington Post The Dalai Lama Gives New Yorkers A Lesson On Wisdom As Opponents Protest Outside 11/04/2014 09:25 am ET | Updated Nov 06, 2014 340 Carol Kuruvilla Associate Religion Editor Antonia Blumberg Associate Religion Editor, The Huffington Post ASSOCIATED PRESS NEW YORK -- As protesters milled on the sidewalk outside, His Holiness the 14th Dalai Lama took center stage at the Beacon Theater on Monday with a lesson on how to find wisdom and recognize "ultimate truths." Surrounded by faithful monks, nuns and an audience of supporters, the Tibetan Buddhist leader urged his disciples to use reasoning when examining both scriptural texts and teachers. "Ultimate truths" can be evidenced in religious teaching, but can also be inferred through logic, he said. "Anything that is violating norms of reason or is contradictory should not be accepted, even though it is coming from a high lama," the Dalai Lama said through an interpreter. Tashi Khamshitsang, a member of the Tibetan Parliament who attended the teaching, explained it this way to The Huffington Post: "When you find a teacher, judge him by who he is, and once you are certain, then you can receive his teaching." In the same vein, the exiled leader also spoke about distinguishing between provisional and definitive truths. Provisional teachings, he explained, are those teachings that masters use to nudge their disciples a little bit further along the path to wisdom, while definitive truths are more absolute. The key is to determine whether the content of a particular scripture passage "stands to reason and validates experience," the Dalai Lama said, or whether there is another layer of truth still waiting to be uncovered. The Buddhist leader also applied that reasoning to the perceptions of individuals, which he said will always be subjective. "We tend to think we are objective," the Dalai Lama said, "but our perception field is just a projection of our own mind." No spiritual teaching can be taken "at face value," the Dalai Lama added -- a remark that may have been aimed as much at the swarms of protesters gathered outside the Beacon Theater as it was toward supporters inside the venue. Tibet House US , which hosted Monday's event, identified the protesters as followers of the New Kadampa Tradition (NKT), a breakaway sect that worships a Tibetan deity called Dorje Shugden. Tensions within Tibetan Buddhism have flared up in recent years with the rise of the NKT, whose adherents the Dalai Lama has asked "not to attend his formal religious teachings," according to his website . The Buddhist leader has cautioned that the NKT may be spiritually misguided and politically divisive, and his supporters have accused the Shugden following of acting on behalf of the Chinese government to create schisms within the Tibetan community in exile. As a result, Shugden followers have in turn accused the Dalai Lama of religious discrimination and have protested the leader's visits to the United States. They picketed with signs and chants outside recent events in Princeton, Boston and New York. "Considering the Dalai Lama travels the world on a platform of human rights and basic human values, that he's instigated this kind of segregation in his own community is outrageous," International Shugden Community spokesman Nicholas Pitts told The Huffington Post. Suzanne Newcombe is a research officer who has studied the NKT at Inform , an organization based out of the London School of Economics that aims to provide balanced information on new and alternative religious movements. Newcombe said the protests were likely set up by individuals or by front organizations, rather than by the NKT directly. "Individual members take it upon themselves to protest what they call 'gross injustices' being thrust on them because of the Dalai Lama's policy," Newcombe told HuffPost over the phone. "His advice against practicing Shugden became emphatic in 1996. Then there was a vote in the major Gelug monasteries not to allow the


The writing system of Elder Futhark (that was later simplified to Younger Futhark) is the oldest form of what alphabet?

Runes - Ancient History Encyclopedia Runes by Jenni Irving published on 18 May 2012 Futhark is a script of alphabetic runes, used to write various Germanic languages. Futhark was in use from the second century CE to the eleventh century CE. Elder Futhark The oldest form of runic scripts, Elder Futhark is named for the first six runes in its alphabet , F, U, Th, A,R, and K. It was used in the North West of Europe from around the second to the eighth centuries CE and has been found on numerous artefacts ranging from jewellry and amulets to tools, weapons and the ever-popular runestone. From the sixth century, Younger Futhark began to develop out of the Elder form before it became prominent in scandinavia from the late eighth century. Later still the Anglo- Saxons and the Frisians developed it further into Anglo- Saxon Futhark. Unlike other forms of runes, the skill of reading Elder Futhark was lost overtime until it was rediscovered with its decipherment in 1865 CE by the Norwegian Sophus Bugge. Remove Ads Advertisement The Elder Futhark alphabet consists of twenty-four runes which are traditionally set out in three groups known as aett. The Elder Futhark alphabet consists of twenty-four runes which are traditionally set out in three groups known as aett. The alphabetic order which gives the script its name is first attested from around 400 CE. The direction of the text tends to vary in the earliest inscriptions but it later appears to settle into running from left to right. There are no word divisions in the majority of inscriptions except in a few cases where a series of dots were used to separate words. The angular shapes that the runes are formed by are probably the result of the original incisions make by writing materials like those made by the reed implements to form cuneiform . The alphabet itself is believed to be a derivation from Italic alphabets, possibly a form of Etruscan or Raetic or even Latin. There was a popular theory previously that the alphabet was derived from the Greek alphabet via the Gothic. However, the date of early inscriptions predates the Gothic communications with the Greeks and so this theory has been ruled out. It is believed that development of Elder Futhark was composed by a single person or group around the first century AD. The definite purpose for its invention is unknown but epigraphic purposes have been suggested alongside the magical, practical and the playful. Baeksted (1952) suggests use in graffiti. The runes for F, A, G, T, M, and L appear to be identical to old Italic or Latin alphabetic forms. There is also some correspondence in the runes for U, R, K, H, S, B, and O. The rest of the runes are likely adaptations from other sources or original innovations with the creation of the scripts. The rune names are based on the sounds of the runes themselves but also have a basis in mythology , nature and the environment, daily life and the human condition. Remove Ads Advertisement As mentioned, inscriptions are found on a range of artefacts between the Carpathians and Lappland with the majority of examples hailing from Denmark. The oldest inscription found dates to 160 CE and is found on the Vimose Comb reading simply HARJA. The longest inscription found consists of 200 characters and dates to the eighth century Eggjum stone containing a stanza of Norse poetry. Younger Futhark Younger Futhark developed out of Elder Futhark in a transitional phase dating from around 650-800 CE. It is also known as Scandinavian runes and is referred to in the Book of Ballymore as the ‘ Ogham of the Scandinavians’. It is a reduced form of Elder Futhark and is found in inscriptions from Scandinavia and Viking Age settlements. Younger Futhark is also known as the alphabet of the Norsemen and is believed to have been developed for use in trade and diplomatic contracts. The alphabet consists of only sixteen characters which were in use from the ninth to the twelfth centuries. Its format consisted of distinct sounds and minimal pairs. One key rule in the younger Futhark texts is the avoidance of having the sa


Hibakusha is an Asian language term for the people effected by either of what violent incidents?

Inside Terrorism Inside Terrorism Read the Review Defining Terrorism     What is terrorism? Few words have so insidiously worked their way into our everyday vocabulary. Like `Internet' -- another grossly over-used term that has similarly become an indispensable part of the argot of the late twentieth century -- most people have a vague idea or impression of what terrorism is, but lack a more precise, concrete and truly explanatory definition of the word. This imprecision has been abetted partly by the modern media, whose efforts to communicate an often complex and convoluted message in the briefest amount of airtime or print space possible have led to the promiscuous labelling of a range of violent acts as `terrorism'. Pick up a newspaper or turn on the television and -- even within the same broadcast or on the same page -- one can find such disparate acts as the bombing of a building, the assassination of a head of state, the massacre of civilians by a military unit, the poisoning of produce on supermarket shelves or the deliberate contamination of over-the-counter medication in a chemist's shop all described as incidents of terrorism. Indeed, virtually any especially abhorrent act of violence that is perceived as directed against society -- whether it involves the activities of anti-government dissidents or governments themselves, organized crime syndicates or common criminals, rioting mobs or persons engaged in militant protest, individual psychotics or lone extortionists -- is often labelled `terrorism'.     Dictionary definitions are of little help. The pre-eminent authority on the English language, the much-venerated Oxford English Dictionary, is disappointingly unobliging when it comes to providing edification on this subject, its interpretation at once too literal and too historical to be of much contemporary use: Terrorism: A system of terror. 1. Government by intimidation as directed and carried out by the party in power in France during the revolution of 1789-94; the system of `Terror'. 2. gen. A policy intended to strike with terror those against whom it is adopted; the employment of methods of intimidation; the fact of terrorizing or condition of being terrorized.     These definitions are wholly unsatisfying. Rather than learning what terrorism is, one instead finds, in the first instance, a somewhat potted historical -- and, in respect of the modern accepted usage of the term, a uselessly anachronistic -- description. The second definition offered is only slightly more helpful. While accurately communicating the fear-inducing quality of terrorism, the definition is still so broad as to apply to almost any action that scares (`terrorizes') us. Though an integral part of `terrorism', this definition is still insufficient for the purpose of accurately defining the phenomenon that is today called `terrorism'.     A slightly more satisfying elucidation may be found in the OED's definition of the perpetrator of the act than in its efforts to come to grips with the act itself. In this respect, a `terrorist' is defined thus: 1. As a political term: a. Applied to the Jacobins and their agents and partisans in the French Revolution, esp. to those connected with the Revolutionary tribunals during the `Reign of Terror'. b. Any one who attempts to further his views by a system of coercive intimidation; spec. applied to members of one of the extreme revolutionary societies in Russia.     This is appreciably more helpful. First, it immediately introduces the reader to the notion of terrorism as a political concept. As will be seen, this key characteristic of terrorism is absolutely paramount to understanding its aims, motivations and purposes and critical in distinguishing it from other types of violence.     Terrorism, in the most widely accepted contemporary usage of the term, is fundamentally and inherently political. It is also ineluctably about power: the pursuit of power, the acquisition of power, and the use of power to achieve political change. Terrorism is thus violence -- or, equally important, the threat of vi


In 1962 when minister Pat Robertson decided to prop-up a failing TV channel, he set a membership goal with each member contributing $10 a month to sustain the channel. How many people did Robertson plan on making members?

The Power Hour News SEPTEMBER 2011 Syrian regime supporters pelt US envoy with eggs BEIRUT (AP) ï¿½ Angry supporters of President Bashar Assad's regime hurled  tomatoes and eggs at the U.S. ambassador to Syria on Thursday as he  entered the office of a leading opposition figure and then tried to  break into the building, trapping him inside for three hours. The Obama  administration blamed the Syrian government for the attack in Damascus,  saying it was part of an ongoing, orchestrated campaign to intimidate  American diplomats in the country. Gilo plan ï¿½a flagrant violation of international lawï¿½ Ankara- Turkish Foreign Minister Ahmet Davutoglu issued on Thursday  September 29th, 2011 statement condemning decision by Israeli occupation  authorities to permit construction of new homes in the illegal Israeli  settlement of ï¿½Giloï¿½ in the Occupied East Jerusalem. ï¿½It raises serious  suspicions about its sincerity, true intentions,ï¿½ he announced. France: Iran faces high risk of military strike. Russia practices  Iranian reprisal DEBKAfile - Ambassador Gerard Araud warned Wednesday, Sept. 28 that Iran  runs a high risk of a military strike if it continues on the path to  nuclear proliferation. "Some countries won't accept the prospect of  Tehran reaching the threshold of nuclear armament," he said. "Personally  I am convinced that it would be a very complicated operation ï¿½with  disastrous consequences in the region." Hands off our taxpayers, Flaherty tells U.S. Jim Flaherty, Canada's Finance Minister, has leapt into a simmering  battle over a U.S. tax crackdown in Canada, accusing the United States  Friday of targeting and frightening "honest and law-abiding" people who  generally owe no taxes... On a second front, "government-to-government  conversations" are underway involving the U.S. Treasury Department on  proposed U.S. legislation that will compel Canadian banks to turn over  information on their American clients to the U.S. Internal Revenue  Service, according to a source briefed on the matter. UN salaries hiked 'dramatically' The Obama administration told the United Nations that too few of its 10,307 workers are being cut and  average salaries, currently $119,000 a year, have risen ï¿½dramatically.ï¿½  The U.S. ambassador for UN management and reform, Joseph M. Torsella,  said today that the proposed $5.2 billion UN budget for the next two  years would scrap only 44 jobs, a 0.4 percent reduction. After an  ï¿½onslaughtï¿½ of add-ons, the 2012-13 budget would rise more than 2  percent to $5.5 billion, he said. Hugo Chavez in hospital 'for kidney failure' Sep 29, 2011 - The leftist, staunchly anti-US stalwart Chavez went into  the Military Hospital in Caracas on Tuesday morning, the report on the  newspaper's website said, citing anonymous sources with knowledge of the  case. "He was in fairly serious overall condition," a source told the  Miami-based Spanish-language daily. "When he arrived, he was in quite  serious shape and that is why he was brought in for emergency care."...  On Sunday, Chavez sought to assure Venezuelans he was healthy, telling  them that cancer-fighting chemotherapy treatment has not left him with  any debilitating side effects. U.S. News, Politics & Government 700 Pilots Question United Continental Merger Issues in Wall Street  Protest- Corporate Media refuses to report it More than 700 Continental and United Continental pilots took to Wall  Street on Tuesday to protest slow contract negotiations and  misinformation regarding merger integration. The demonstrating pilots  marched together, queitely, in order and in full uniform, holding two  signs. ï¿½Merger Progress is More than Painting Airplanes,ï¿½ said one sign.  ï¿½Management is Destroying our Airline,ï¿½ said another sign. See photos  here. Poll: Ron Paul v Obama a dead heat in Fla. Public Policy Polling, a Democratic-leaning polling firm, shows Rep. Ron  Paul, R-Texas, and former Gov. Mitt Romney, R-Mass., trailing President  Obama by


Which entity headquartered in Lyon, France is the second largest intergovernmental organization after the UN by member states count (190)?

Search for definitions: organization Formal organization Formal organization Formal organization is a fixed set of rules of intra-organization procedures and structures. As such, it is usually set out in writing, with a language of rules that ostensibly leave little discretion for interpretation. In some societies and in some organizations, such rules may be strictly followed; in others, they may be little more than an empty formalism. To facilitate the accomplishment of the goals of the organization: In a formal organization, the work is delegated to each individual of the organization. He/She works towards the attainment of definite goals, which are in compliance with the goals of the organization. To facilitate the co-ordination of various activities: The authority, responsibility, and accountability of individuals in the organization is very well defined. Hence, facilitating the co-ordination of various activities of the organization very effectively. To aid the establishment of logical authority relationship: The responsibilities of the individuals in the organization are well defined. They have a definite place in the organization due to a well defined hierarchical structure which is inherent in any formal organization. — Freebase International organization International organization An international organization is an organization with an international membership, scope, or presence. There are two main types: ⁕International nongovernmental organizations: non-governmental organizations that operate internationally. There are two types: ⁕International non-profit organizations. Examples include the World Organization of the Scout Movement, International Committee of the Red Cross and Médecins Sans Frontières. ⁕International corporations, referred to as multinational corporations. Examples include The Coca-Cola Company and Toyota. ⁕Intergovernmental organizations, also known as international governmental organizations: the type of organization most closely associated with the term 'international organization', these are organizations that are made up primarily of sovereign states. Notable examples include the United Nations, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, Council of Europe, European Union, and World Trade Organization. The UN has used the term "intergovernmental organization" instead of "international organization" for clarity. — Freebase Double agent Double agent A double agent, commonly abbreviated referral of double secret agent, is a counterintelligence term used to designate an employee of a secret service or organization, whose primary aim is to spy on a different target organization, but who in fact is a member of that same target organization themselves. Double agentry may be practiced by spies of the target organization who infiltrate the controlling organization, or may result from the turning of previously loyal agents of the controlling organization by the target; the threat of execution is the most common method of turning a captured agent into a double agent or a double agent into a re-doubled agent. It is unlike a defector, who is not considered an agent as agents are in place to function for an intelligence service and defectors are not, but some consider that defectors in place are agents until they have defected. Double agents are often used to transmit disinformation or to identify other agents as part of counter-espionage operations. They are often very trusted by the controlling organization since the target organization will give them true, but useless or even counterproductive, information to pass along. — Freebase Picket Picket by extension, men appointed by a trades union, or other labor organization, to intercept outsiders, and prevent them from working for employers with whom the organization is at variance — Webster Dictionary Non-profit organization Non-profit organization A nonprofit organization is an organization that uses surplus revenues to achieve its goals rather than distributing them as profit or dividen


Pitman, Gregg and Teeline are all forms of what type of 'writing'?

Shorthand (Pitman, Gregg, Teeline) Search Shorthand Shorthand is any system of rapid handwriting which can be used to transcribe the spoken word. Shorthand systems use a variety of techniques including simplifying existing letters or characters and using special symbols to represent phonemes, words and phrases. A brief history of shorthand systems Ever since the invention of writing scribes have used various techniques to enable them to take notes quickly and efficiently. The Ancient Egyptians devised two scripts, Hieratic and Demotic , as alternatives to their complex Hieroglyphic script, which was used mainly for monumental inscriptions. Both Hieratic and Demotic worked on the same principles as the Hieroglyphs but the symbols were considerably simplified. During the 4th century BC, the Greeks devised a number of symbol systems which reduced letters to a single stroke and which could also be used to represent common words, suffixes and prefixes. Such systems are generally referred to as stenography (narrow writing), brachygraphy (short writing) or tachygraphy (swift writing). Their purpose was to make writing more compact and/or faster. One shorthand system popular with the Romans was Tironian Notes or Notae Tironianae, which was invented by Cicero's secretary Tiro in order to record Cicero's speeches. It used a combination of simplified letters and special symbols and was used in Europe in various forms until the Middle Ages. During the Han Dynasty (207BC - 220AD) the Chinese devised two methods of rapid writing known as xíngshū (running script) and căoshū (draft script). In the Running script some of the strokes that make up characters are joined and others are left out. In the Draft script each character is written with a single continuous stroke and there is considerable variation in how this is done. As a result, the Draft script is very difficult to read without special training. Attempts have been made to standardise the way the characters are written in the Draft script but they have not met with popular acclaim. Modern shorthand systems There are a number of different shorthand systems currently in use. The most popular ones include: Pitman Shorthand Pitman Shorthand was devised by Sir Isaac Pitman (1813-1897) and was first published in 1837. Over the years is has been gradually improved and has been also adapted for 15 different languages. The system was widely used in the UK and USA by secretaries, reporters and writers, but lost popularity with the invention of pocket tape recorders. Notable features Pitman is phonetic: it records the sounds of speech rather than the spelling. For example, the sound [f] in form, elephant and rough is written in the same way for each word. Vowel sounds are optional and are written with small dots, dashes or other shapes next to the main strokes. This helps increase writing speed because most words can be identified from their consonants only. The thickness, length and position of the strokes are all significant. There are many special abbreviations and other tricks to increase writing speed. The record for fast writing with Pitman shorthand is 350 wpm during a two-minute test by Nathan Behrin in 1922. Pitman consonants Sample text in Pitman 'Translation' All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. (Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights) Gregg Shorthand Gregg was invented by John Robert Gregg (1867-1948) and was first published in 1888. Since then many different versions have appeared, including some for languages other than English. Gregg is still used, particularly in the USA. Notable features Gregg is phonetic: it records the sounds of speech rather than the spelling. For example, the sound [f] in form, elephant and rough is written in the same way for each word. Vowels are written as hooks and circles on the consonants. Gregg consonants


What type of relationship first explored in Symposium by a famous philosopher was described as 'Christian apology' of Greek love?

Plato on Friendship and Eros (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Plato on Friendship and Eros First published Fri Feb 20, 2004; substantive revision Wed Jun 1, 2016 Plato discusses love (erôs) and friendship (philia) primarily in two dialogues, the Lysis and the Symposium, though the Phaedrus also adds significantly to his views. In each work, Socrates as the quintessential philosopher is in two ways center stage, first, as a lover of wisdom (sophia) and discussion (logos), and, second, as himself an inverter or disturber of erotic norms. Plato’s views on love are a meditation on Socrates and the power his philosophical conversations have to mesmerize, obsess, and educate. In what follows, section 1 deals with the Lysis and Symposium. Sections 2–4 primarily with the Symposium alone. Section 5 deals with the Phaedrus. Section 6 with the closing section of the Symposium and with parts of the Ion, Protagoras, and Laws. Sections are not self-contained, however, and are intended to be read sequentially. Most scholars agree that the order of composition of the “erotic” dialogues is Lysis, Symposium, Phaedrus, though some put the Phaedrus earlier than the Symposium. 1. Socrates and the Art of Love “The only thing I say I know,” Socrates tells us in the Symposium, “is the art of love (ta erôtika) (177d8–9). Taken literally, it is an incredible claim. Are we really to believe that the man who affirms when on trial for his life that he knows himself to be wise “in neither a great nor a small way” (Apology 21b4–5) knows the art of love? In fact, the claim is a nontrivial play on words facilitated by the fact that the noun erôs (“love”) and the verb erôtan (“to ask questions”) sound as if they are etymologically connected—a connection explicitly exploited in the Cratylus (398c5-e5). Socrates knows about the art of love in that—but just insofar as—he knows how to ask questions, how to converse elenctically. Just how far that is, we discover in the Lysis, where Socrates makes a similar claim. Hippothales, like Socrates, loves beautiful boys and philosophical discussions (203b6–204a3). But he does not know the art of love and so does not know how to talk to Lysis—the boy with whom he is in love. What Hippothales does is sing eulogies to Lysis, and that, Socrates argues, no skilled lover would ever do. For if your suit succeeds “everything you’ve said and sung turns out to eulogize yourself as victor in having won such a boyfriend,” but if it fails, then “the greater your praise of his beauty and goodness, the more you will seem to have lost and the more you will be ridiculed.” Consequently, someone “who is wise in the art of love (ta erôtika) doesn’t praise his beloved until he has him: he fears how the future may turn out” (205e2–206a2). Convinced, Hippothales asks Socrates to tell him “what someone should say or do to get his prospective boyfriend to love him?” (206c1–3). As in the Symposium, Socrates is uncharacteristically forthcoming: “if you’re willing to have him talk with me, I might be able to give you a demonstration of how to carry on a discussion with him” (c4–6). What follows is an elenctic examination of Lysis. Socrates’ lessons in love, we may infer, are elenctic lessons—lessons in how to ask and answer questions. At the end of the examination, Socrates characterizes what he has accomplished: “This is how you should talk to your boyfriends, Hippothales, making them humble and drawing in their sails, instead of swelling them up and spoiling them, as you do” (210e2–5). It sounds simply chastening put like that. But in the overall context of the Lysis, where love is a desire and desire is an emptiness, it is much more. It is a step in the creation of the canonical lover—the philosopher: Those who are already wise no longer love wisdom (philosophein), whether they are gods or men. Neither do those who are so ignorant that they are bad, for no bad and stupid person loves wisdom. There remains only those who have this bad thing, ignorance, but have not yet been made ignorant and stupid by


The term 'flensing' is used to describe the processing of what creatures?

Evolution: Glossary A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | Y | Z acquired trait: A phenotypic characteristic, acquired during growth and development, that is not genetically based and therefore cannot be passed on to the next generation (for example, the large muscles of a weightlifter). adaptation: Any heritable characteristic of an organism that improves its ability to survive and reproduce in its environment. Also used to describe the process of genetic change within a population, as influenced by natural selection . adaptive landscape: A graph of the average fitness of a population in relation to the frequencies of genotypes in it. Peaks on the landscape correspond to genotypic frequencies at which the average fitness is high, valleys to genotypic frequencies at which the average fitness is low. Also called a fitness surface. adaptive logic: A behavior has adaptive logic if it tends to increase the number of offspring that an individual contributes to the next and following generations. If such a behavior is even partly genetically determined, it will tend to become widespread in the population. Then, even if circumstances change such that it no longer provides any survival or reproductive advantage, the behavior will still tend to be exhibited -- unless it becomes positively disadvantageous in the new environment. adaptive radiation: The diversification, over evolutionary time, of a species or group of species into several different species or subspecies that are typically adapted to different ecological niches (for example, Darwin's finches). The term can also be applied to larger groups of organisms, as in "the adaptive radiation of mammals ." adaptive strategies: A mode of coping with competition or environmental conditions on an evolutionary time scale. Species adapt when succeeding generations emphasize beneficial characteristics. agnostic: A person who believes that the existence of a god or creator and the nature of the universe is unknowable. algae: An umbrella term for various simple organisms that contain chlorophyll (and can therefore carry out photosynthesis ) and live in aquatic habitats and in moist situations on land. The term has no direct taxonomic significance. Algae range from macroscopic seaweeds such as giant kelp, which frequently exceeds 30 m in length, to microscopic filamentous and single-celled forms such as Spirogyra and Chlorella. allele: One of the alternative forms of a gene. For example, if a gene determines the seed color of peas, one allele of that gene may produce green seeds and another allele produce yellow seeds. In a diploid cell there are usually two alleles of any one gene (one from each parent). Within a population there may be many different alleles of a gene; each has a unique nucleotide sequence. allometry: The relation between the size of an organism and the size of any of its parts. For example, an allometric relation exists between brain size and body size, such that (in this case) animals with bigger bodies tend to have bigger brains. Allometric relations can be studied during the growth of a single organism, between different organisms within a species, or between organisms in different species. allopatric speciation: Speciation that occurs when two or more populations of a species are geographically isolated from one another sufficiently that they do not interbreed. allopatry: Living in separate places. Compare with sympatry . amino acid: The unit molecular building block of proteins , which are chains of amino acids in a certain sequence. There are 20 main amino acids in the proteins of living things, and the properties of a protein are determined by its particular amino acid sequence. amino acid sequence: A series of amino acids, the building blocks of proteins , usually coded for by DNA . Exceptions are those coded for by the RNA of certain viruses, such as HIV. ammonoid: Extinct relatives of cephalopods (squid, octopi, and chambered nautiluses), these mollusks had coiled shells and are found in the fossil reco


Imagine a society and decide on its principles for the distribution of rights, positions and resources. You must do this without knowing your position in this society. What is the term for this method of determining the morality of an issue that was first proposed by John Harsanyi and later made famous by John Rawls?

Original Position (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Original Position First published Tue Feb 27, 1996; substantive revision Tue Sep 9, 2014 The original position is a central feature of John Rawls's social contract account of justice, “justice as fairness,” set forth in A Theory of Justice (TJ). It is designed to be a fair and impartial point of view that is to be adopted in our reasoning about fundamental principles of justice. In taking up this point of view, we are to imagine ourselves in the position of free and equal persons who jointly agree upon and commit themselves to principles of social and political justice. The main distinguishing feature of the original position is “the veil of ignorance”: to insure impartiality of judgment, the parties are deprived of all knowledge of their personal characteristics and social and historical circumstances. They do know of certain fundamental interests they all have, plus general facts about psychology, economics, biology, and other social and natural sciences. The parties in the original position are presented with a list of the main conceptions of justice drawn from the tradition of social and political philosophy, and are assigned the task of choosing from among these alternatives the conception of justice that best advances their interests in establishing conditions that enable them to effectively pursue their final ends and fundamental interests. Rawls contends that the most rational choice for the parties in the original position are two principles of justice: The first guarantees the equal basic rights and liberties needed to secure the fundamental interests of free and equal citizens and to pursue a wide range of conceptions of the good. The second principle provides fair equality of educational and employment opportunities enabling all to fairly compete for powers and positions of office; and it secures for all a guaranteed minimum of all-purpose means (including income and wealth) individuals need to pursue their interests and to maintain their self-respect as free and equal persons. 1. Historical Background: the Moral Point of View The idea of a moral point of view can be traced back to David Hume's account of the “judicious spectator.” Hume sought to explain how moral judgments of approval and disapproval are possible given that people normally are focused on achieving their particular interests. He conjectured that in making moral judgments individuals abstract in imagination from their own particular interests and adopt an impartial point of view from which they assess the effects of others' actions on the interests of everyone. Since, according to Hume, we all can adopt this impartial perspective in imagination, it accounts for our agreement in moral judgments. (See Hume, 1739/1978, 581; Rawls, LHMP 84–93, LHPP 184–187.) Subsequently, philosophers posited similar perspectives for moral reasoning designed to yield impartial judgments once individuals abstract from their particular aims and interests and assess situations from an impartial point of view. But rather than being mainly explanatory of moral judgments like Hume's “judicious spectator,” the role of these impartial perspectives is to serve as a basis from which to assess and justify moral rules or principles. Kant's categorical imperative procedure, Adam Smith's “impartial spectator,” Rousseau's general will, and Sidgwick's “point of view of the universe” are all different versions of such a moral point of view. An important feature of the moral point of view is that it is designed to represent something essential to the activity of moral reasoning. For example, Kant's categorical imperative is envisioned as a point of view any reasonable person can adopt in deliberating about what he/she ought morally to do (Rawls, CP 498ff). When joined with the common assumption that the totality of moral reasons is final and override non-moral reasons, the moral point of view might be regarded as the most fundamental perspective that we can adopt in practical reasoning abo


What nuclear weapon policy was first declared by China in 1964, later adopted by India and North Korea, dropped by Russia in 1993 and has been rejected repeatedly by NATO?

India's Nuclear Policy: The Year After India's Nuclear Policy: The Year After Jasjit Singh, Director, IDSA On May 11, 1998, two events took place: (i) India carried out nuclear tests; and, (ii) India declared itself to be a state with nuclear weapons. The first demonstrated continuity in the policy of building the technological and material capabilities for an independent credible nuclear deterrent. This was in keeping with the 1964 commitment (discussed later). India had successfully demonstrated its ability to explode a nuclear device in May 1974. To that extent, the five tests in 1998 only emphasised the continuity and growth of capability over the years. The tests were predictably strongly criticised by the international community, especially by the nuclear weapon states and their military allies protected by nuclear weapons even if not legally nuclear. But the essential point is that while people may detest India's nuclear tests, they cannot be de-tested. State with Nuclear Weaponsï¿½ But the second aspect, of India declaring itself as a state with nuclear weapons (SNW), has more far-reaching implications. This was an apparent departure from the decades old declared policy. But to most Indians it seems strange that the slow but sure march of their country toward nuclearisation has been seen with such surprise. As early as 1946, in response to a question about the possibility of Indian deployment of nuclear weapons, Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru had stated his hope that "India would develop atomic power for peaceful uses but warned that, as long the world was constituted as it was, every country would have to develop and use the latest scientific devices for its protection."1 By that time Mahatma Gandhi, the great apostle of non-violence, had given a clear indication of his assessment that the atomic bomb had tremendous power to achieve political goals. After Hiroshima, although privately he expressed his strong abhorrence for the bomb, he made no public comment for almost a year because of his apprehensions that the bomb could be used to deny India its freedom! It may be useful to briefly review India's progress to becoming an SNW in order to ascertain its motivations. The Sino-Indian War of 1962 left a deep impact on Indian society and leadership and the scars have not healed still (and nor has the territory grabbed by China been restored). One day after the test the prime minister wrote to the US president:2 I have been deeply concerned at the deteriorating security environment, especially the nuclear environment, faced by India for some years past. We have an overt nuclear weapon state on our borders, a state which committed armed aggression against India in 1962. Although our relations with that country have improved in the last decade or so, an atmosphere of distrust persists mainly due to the unresolved border problem. To add to the distrust, that country has materially helped another neighbour of ours to become a covert nuclear weapon state. At the hands of this bitter neighbour, we have suffered three aggressions in the past 50 years. The Jan Sangh (an influential political party and the predecessor to the present day BJPï¿½(Bharatiya Janata Party) which currently rules India, demanded nuclear weapons for India from that time. The major political party, the Indian National Congress, considered the question of acquiring nuclear weapons after the Chinese test in 1964 but persuaded itself to defer the decision. Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri, a man deeply committed to Gandhian ideals of non-violence, however, provided a definitive thrust to nuclearisation at a future date and "launched a programme to reduce the time needed to build nuclear arms to six months."3 At the same time, dialogue was initiated with the UK and in 1966-67 with the USSR and the United States. These parleys did not lead to any definitive results and the United States made it clear that no nuclear guarantees to India (essentially against China which was a Communist country not even recognised by the United States) could be provided. In


The traje de luces that means 'suit of lights' in its native tongue is the traditional costume of whom?

1000+ images about Trajes de luces on Pinterest | Matador costume, Spain and Capes Dressed to Kill: Portraits of Bullfighters by French Painter Christian Gaillard Dressed to Kill: Portraits of Bullfighters by French Painter Christian Gaillard | Yatzer More


The policy of Songun that emphasizes the role of military guides the political and economic life in what country?

Politics of North Korea - Political Science - Oxford Bibliographies Politics of North Korea LAST REVIEWED: 04 May 2015 LAST MODIFIED: 26 August 2013 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756223-0109 Introduction Today North Korea is perhaps the world’s most closed country whose totalitarian political system is built on a family dynastic succession. Founded in 1948, the politics of the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK) or North Korea has been shaped by a constant interplay between the external security environment on the one hand, and political dynamics internal to its own history, culture, and society on the other hand. The Korean independence movement against Japanese colonialism (1910–1945), the division following the occupation by the American and Soviet forces, and the Korean War (1950–1953) are important historical experiences behind North Korean nation building. Despite predictions of the regime collapse, North Korea is one of the few remaining communist regimes after the end of the Cold War. With the cessation of Soviet aid in 1990, however, North Korea has suffered from a near-bankrupt national economy and despite the need for economic reform, has refused to contemplate significant opening. This self-imposed isolation still has not shielded the regime from a steady inflow of information from the outside world. Four major themes characterize post–Cold War North Korean politics. First, under the banner of the Military First (Songun) policy, Pyongyang’s nuclear program has become tied to the regime survival in the last twenty years. North Korea declared itself to be a nuclear power in 2005 and the international negotiations aimed at denuclearizing North Korea have yielded modest mixed results. Second, the ideology of Juche (self-reliance) has been a central theme in the domestic political process of building and consolidating the North Korean regime of a one-man rule since the Kim Il-Sung era. A third theme is the dilemma of North Korean economic reforms toward marketization. Pyongyang has tried a few measures of market economy to attract foreign investments, but remains extremely wary of the social and political ramifications of such steps. Fourth, in 2012 the future of North Korea is at a crossroads after the death of Kim Jong-Il in December 2011 and the generational succession to his young son Kim Jong-Un. General Overviews The literature that informs North Korean politics generally tends to cover both Koreas in a single publication given their intertwined modern history. More recent works have looked specifically at North Korea’s post–Cold War predicament. Oberdorfer 2001 , Cumings 2005 , and Robinson 2007 offer an excellent historical overview of Korean politics. They all rightly highlight the importance of collective historical experiences such as the Japanese colonialism, the occupation, the division and the Korean War in shaping their national politics. Kihl 1984 , Kim 1998 , and Yang 1999 offer a comprehensive overview of the political systems of the two Koreas to readers who wish to grasp some basic understanding of North Korea in comparison with South Korea. Most recently, there have been works that could serve as texts on the specific topic of North Korean politics aside from the aforementioned books on modern history. McEachern 2010 offers a comprehensive assessment of the North Korean regime from an institutional perspective. Cha 2012 is the first scholarly and public policy book on North Korea published after the death of Kim Jong-il. Cha, Victor D. The Impossible State: North Korea, Past and Future. New York: HarperCollins Ecco, 2012. Save Citation » Export Citation » E-mail Citation » The first published work on North Korea after the death of Kim Jong-il. Argues controversially the regime is under dual stresses that it ultimately cannot manage: A post–Kim Jong-il leadership that adheres to conservative Juche (self-reliance) ideals, and a society that has grown more independent with an emerging market mentality. Cha, Victor D. The Impossible State: North Korea, Past and Future. New York: HarperCollins E


Similar to thread count, mommes are units of weight traditionally used to measure the density of what?

: The Silk Factory :The Silk Factory, Silk, Sichuan Dragon, Chinese Silk, Silk Fabric, Indian Silk, Organic Silk, Silk Factory, Silk Yarn, Imported Silk, Silk Showroom, Silk Wholesaler, Silk Importer, Silk manufacturer, Silk scarves, Silk jacquard, Silk dobby, Cotton silk, Stretch silks, Satin, Georgette, Chiffon, Crepe, Habotai, Silk Garments, Silk Made ups, Silk Blankets, Silk Upholstery, Fabric Back To Story of Silk WHAT ARE MOMMES Mommes (mm) is a unit of weight traditionally used to measure the density of silk. It is similar to the use of thread count for cotton fabrics. Mommes express the weight in pounds, of a piece of material of size 45 inches by 100 yards. An easy way to convert mommes (mm) into grams per square metre (gsm) is: 1mm = 4.3056 gsm To get an indication of the weight per linear metre of a length of fabric with width of 45 inches or 114cm would be 1mm = 4.9 grams per linear metre in 45” width silk fabric


What school of philosophy of ancient Greece associated with Aristotle takes its name from a legend that he meandered while lecturing?

Greek Philosophers Biographies - Peripatetic school Part 1 - Philosophy Greek Ancient Greek Philosophers Biographies - Peripatetic school Part 1 Greek Philosophers Biographies - Peripatetic school Part 1 ***************   ***************** 2015-12-20  : the website is under construction. THE PROVERBS ARE O.K., but It will take me a few hours to re-insert the images of the greek philosophers, which for some reason were lost, after my last revision, which i have done a few days ago. so until i remove the sign 'website - under - construction' ... you can study the proverbs with safety !. Please stay on Alert !.  Notes: 1. Diogenes of Sinope ... and ... Sinope ... is the same Greek Philosopher           2. Heraclitus of Ephesus ,,, and ... Ephesus is the same Greek Philosopher ( English ) This Webpage Is Last Updated On 2016 January 13, 18:30 GMT hour. I do not have a computer. In order to access the Internet, I visit often ( once a week ) an Internet Cafe. Next Update will be done on 2016 January 31 in the afternoon !, GOD helping! Attention: It is FREE! to COPY and to PASTE and to PRINT the Greek Philosophers Biographies - Peripatetic School Part 1 in English. It is a BOOK of many PAGES. Your big ideas will become reality. The Greek Philosophers Biographies and Quotes in English will help you to transform your life, and the world. Proven to Increase Productivity, Engagement & Retention. I wanted to get the most broad foundation for a lifelong education that I could find, and that was studying Latin and the classics. Meaning Roman and Greek history and philosophy and ancient civilizations. **************************************** S T A R T   TO   COPY   FROM   HERE ...! Greek Philosophers Biographies - Peripatetic school Part 1 in English The Greek philosophers were among the most influential people in history because they invented both philosophy and science. By asking questions about themselves and the world around them, these philosophers helped create modern civilization. Interestingly enough, the Greek philosophers thought of themselves as scientists rather than thinkers. They called themselves seekers and lovers of wisdom and often studied a wide variety of subjects, including history, physics, law, sociology, politics, mathematics, and biology. The famous philosophers were also teachers, educating wealthy children and operating schools as well as thinkers. -------------------------------------------------------- 03 PERIPATETIC - Aristotle     384 BC - 322 BC -------------------------------------------------------- ΠΕΡΙΠΑΤΗΤΙΚΟΙ - Αριστοτέλης   Roman copy in marble of a Greek bronze bust of Aristotle by Lysippus, c. 330 BC. The alabaster mantle is modern. "Aristotle" by Francesco Hayez (1791–1882) Aristotle portrayed in the 1493 Nuremberg Chronicle as a scholar of the 15th century AD. Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of The School of Athens, a fresco by Raphael. Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience, while holding a copy of his Nicomachean Ethics in his hand, whilst Plato gestures to the heavens, representing his belief in The Forms, while holding a copy of Timaeus "Aristotle" by Jusepe de Ribera "Aristotle with a bust of Homer" by Rembrandt. An thirteenth-century Islamic portrayal of Aristotle (right). Statue by Cipri Adolf Bermann (1915) at the University of Freiburg Freiburg im Breisgau "ARISTOTLE" near the ceiling of the Great Hall in the Library of Congress. Aristotle writing Aristotle with Alexander the Great -------------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------- Classical Greek philosophy - Aristotle Aristotle moved to Athens from his native Stageira in 367 BCE and began to study philosophy (perhaps even rhetoric, under Isocrates), eventually enrolling at Plato's Academy. He left Athens approximately twenty years later to study botany and zoology, became a tutor of Alexander the Great, and ultimately returned to Athens a decade later to esta


The German word ahnentafel is a term for a numbering system used in what particular field? (hint: using it eliminates the need to draw a tree)

Europe Mirror Site Collection Introduction It is India that gave us the ingenious method of expressing all numbers by means of ten symbols, each symbol receiving a value of position as well as an absolute value; a profound and important idea which appears so simple to us now that we ignore its true merit. But its very simplicity and the great ease, which it has lent to computations put our arithmetic in the first rank of useful inventions. W should appreciate the grandeur of the achievement the more when we remember that it escaped the genius of Archimedes and Apollonius, two of the greatest men produced by Greek antiquity. Culturally, our discomfort with the concepts of zero (and infinite) is reflected in such humor as 2 plus 0 still equals 2, even for large values, and popular retorts of similar tone. A like uneasiness occurs in confronting infinity, whose proper use first rests on a careful definition of what is finite. Are we mortals hesitant to admit to our finite nature? Such lighthearted commentary reflects an underlying awkwardness in the manipulation of mathematical expressions where the notions of zero and infinity present themselves. Another fallacy is that the square root of a positive number yields two distinct results. It is not simply a problem of ignorance by young novices who have often been mangled. The same errors are commonly committed by seasoned practitioners. Nay, even educators! These errors can frequently be found as well in prestigious texts published by mainstream publishers. A Common Fallacy Reading the 10th edition of a book on Management Science (Taylor, 2010), I found the author dividing 2 by zero in a Linear Programming Simplex tableau performing a column ratio test, with the stated conclusion, 2 ÃÂ· 0 = infinity (Â¥). A typographical error? Confusion? Willful sin? A telephone call bringing the obvious error to the attention of the publisher for correction in future editions was met with an astonishing return call from the editor of the text still insisting that 2 ÃÂ· 0 = Â¥. Although both the author and editor insist on this computational outcome, they nonetheless somehow decline to continue the Simplex calculation based on this result, contrary to the logic of their conclusion. Questions I had were: How can you divide two by zero? Which number, when multiplied by zero, gives you 2? Dividing by Zero Can Get You into Trouble! If we persist in retaining such errata in our educational texts, an unwitting or unscrupulous person could utilize the result to show that 1 = 2 as follows: (a).(a) - a.a = a2 - a2 now, dividing by a gives 1 = 2,  Voila! This result follows directly from the assumption that it is a legal operation to divide by zero because a - a = 0. If one divides 2 by zero even on a simple, inexpensive calculator, the display will indicate an error condition. Again, I do emphasis, the question in this Section goes beyond the fallacy that 2/0 is infinity or not. It demonstrates that one should never divide by zero [here (a-a)]. If one does allow oneself dividing by zero, then one ends up in a hell. That is all. A Sample of the Grown-ups' Arguments Insisting on Dividing by Zero For your thinking pleasure while reading, below is a sample of the grown-ups' arguments that insist on their own justifications for dividing by zero, among others. A visitor of this site wrote to me that: "My argument is that if you can divide zero into a number, and come out with nothing, then you should be able to divide by zero and get nothing. I learned to divide by groups, like 20/5 is 20 put into 5 groups which equals 4 in each group. Well, if you can put nothing into groups., you should be able to put a number into no groups and come out with the same answer." Here is yet another persisting argument on a wrong argument we have been taught at early age.  However, instead of re-thinking for ourselves with a new-mind eye, unfortunately, some of us still try to justify what are unjustifiable. "I'm one of those people who doesn't see the difference between saying that "two divided by zero


Although it is erroneously believed that it was built as a teaching tool for students to understand 3D objects, its real purpose was solving the problem of moving its parts independently without the mechanism falling apart. What is this object in question that was invented at the Academy of Applied Arts and Crafts in Budapest in the 1970s?

Milon 2015 for review three by samyajit - issuu issuu A BENGALI ASSOCIATION OF SINGAPORE PUBLICATION OCTOBER 2015 Confluence of Bengal i Culture Beyond Borders 52 THE MILON INTERVIEWS Reviving a feature started two years ago, where we carry interviews of community members who have tread the uncommon path and can be an inspiration 60 THE LAST YEAR IN REVIEW The Bengali Association and its members have organised various cultural and community welfare activities. Retrospect of the last 12 months SPECIAL FEATURE The Golden Age: Yesterday, Today & Tomorrow In this special SG50 edition, reflections of the past 50 years of Bengalees in Singapore and crystal ball gazing into their future 34 82 DURGA PUJO : A UNIQUE JOURNEY A researched look at the most celebrated occasion of the Bengali community worldwide, tracing the roots of the many sections of the five day festivities With Best Compliments Tan Mondial Pte Ltd 70-A, Amoy Street, Singapore-069889 www.tanmondial.com From Tanya paul Yeena Mukherjee paul Sumit kumar paul | october 2015 Our Heartfelt thanks to following key sponsors for funding the costs of Protima,Purohit,Cultural programs and Dinners for Ashtami & Nabami 2015 Basabi Banerjee Subhalaxmi Mukherjee Anil Baran Ghosh Sandeep Sen Sandeep Chatterjee Partha Ray Abhijit Ghosh Shantanu Chatterjee & A Group of Well Wishers 3 A BENGALI ASSOCIATION OF SINGAPORE PUBLICATION OCTOBER 2015 Confluence of Bengal i Culture Beyond Borders 12 THE LAST YEAR IN REVIEW The Bengali Association and its members have been various cultural and community welfare activities. Retrospect of the last 12 months 32 DURGA PUJO : A UNIQUE JOURNEY A researched look at the most celebrated occasion of the Bengalee community worldwide, tracing the roots of the many sections of the five day festivities SPECIAL FEATURE The Golden Age: Yesterday, Today & Tomorrrow In this special SG50 edition, reflections of the past 50 years of Bengalees in Singapore and crystal ball gazing into their future 65 THE MILON INTERVIEWS Reviving a feature started two years ago, where we carry interviews of community members who have tread the uncommon path and can be a inspiration 45 Creative, Humorous & Artistic Bengali Association of Singapore wishes all its members and their families a very Happy Pujo 2015 MILON represents the archetypal Bengali O ur expectations in respect of the variety and quality of the contents in MILON are elevated and exceeded with aplomb every single year. MILON in its range of creative, humorous and artistic pages represents the archetypal Bengali. MILON 2015, like every year, contains an assortment of articles, stories, essays and poetry in English and Bengali. There is a collection of wide variety of paintings by artists young and mature and subjects that cover divinity, nature’s splendour and expression of individuality. “The Milon Interviews” introduced in 2013 has been welcomed back after a year’s hiatus. We have tried to bring to our readers facts about certain members of our community who dared to dream and live them too. We hope to keep investing more effort in this section in the future. This year’s issue contains a very special feature on the history, myths and social customs of and around the festivities of Durga Pujo. This feature will apprise the readers with the origins of some special characters accompanying the deity and clarify the significance of specific prayers and customs within the overall celebration. We have made an attempt to capture the golden jubilee celebration of our nation within the design of MILON’s cover. The contemporary look, the easily readable fonts, the headlines and highlights, the use of colours and images to imply themes or representing feelings have been incorporated for greater reading pleasure of our readers. The year just gone by has witnessed a significant number of events organized by BAS which has been captured through a splendid collection of photographs taken by members. For the first time BAS arranged a very interesting and well participated quiz competition and this year witnessed the revival of t


What popular assessment that is based on the theories of Carl Jung was created during WWII to help women identify the type of war-time jobs where they would be 'most comfortable and effective'?

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator | Psychology Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia File:Jung 1910-cropped.jpg The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) assessment is a psychometric questionnaire designed to measure psychological preferences in how people perceive the world and make decisions. [1] :1 These preferences were extrapolated from the typological theories proposed by Carl Gustav Jung and first published in his 1921 book Psychological Types (English edition, 1923 [2] ). Jung theorized that there are four principal psychological functions by which we experience the world: sensation, intuition, feeling, and thinking. [3] One of these four functions is dominant most of the time. The original developers of the personality inventory were Katharine Cook Briggs and her daughter, Isabel Briggs Myers ; these two, having studied extensively the work of Jung, turned their interest of human behavior into a devotion of turning the theory of psychological types to practical use. [4] They began creating the indicator during World War II , believing that a knowledge of personality preferences would help women who were entering the industrial workforce for the first time to identify the sort of war-time jobs where they would be "most comfortable and effective". [1] :xiii The initial questionnaire grew into the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, which was first published in 1962. The MBTI focuses on normal populations and emphasizes the value of naturally occurring differences. [5] Robert Kaplan and Dennis Saccuzzo believe "the underlying assumption of the MBTI is that we all have specific preferences in the way we construe our experiences, and these preferences underlie our interests, needs, values, and motivation" (p. 499). [6] Contents Edit As the MBTI Manual states, the indicator "is designed to implement a theory; therefore the theory must be understood to understand the MBTI". [7] :1 Fundamental to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is the theory of psychological type as originally developed by Carl Jung. [1] :xiii Jung proposed the existence of two dichotomous pairs of cognitive functions: The "rational" (judging) functions: thinking and feeling The "irrational" (perceiving) functions: sensing and intuition Jung believed that for every person each of the functions are expressed primarily in either an introverted or extraverted form. [1] :17 From Jung's original concepts, Briggs and Myers developed their own theory of psychological type, described below, on which the MBTI is based. Type Edit Jung's typological model regards psychological type as similar to left or right handedness: individuals are either born with, or develop, certain preferred ways of perceiving and deciding. The MBTI sorts some of these psychological differences into four opposite pairs, or dichotomies , with a resulting 16 possible psychological types. None of these types are better or worse; however, Briggs and Myers theorized that individuals naturally prefer one overall combination of type differences. [1] :9 In the same way that writing with the left hand is hard work for a right-hander, so people tend to find using their opposite psychological preferences more difficult, even if they can become more proficient (and therefore behaviorally flexible) with practice and development. The 16 types are typically referred to by an abbreviation of four letters—the initial letters of each of their four type preferences (except in the case of intuition, which uses the abbreviation N to distinguish it from Introversion). For instance: ESTJ : extraversion (E), sensing (S), thinking (T), judgment (J) INFP : introversion (I), intuition (N), feeling (F), perception (P) And so on for all 16 possible type combinations. A related personality type model is the Personality Assessment System developed by John Gittinger. Like the MBTI, PAS identifies people's inherited tendencies, and it goes on to describe how people either accept and foster them, or compensate and modify them as functioning adults. With compensation and modification, Gittinger's PAS gives 512 types. [8] Four dichotomies (P) Pe