What non-lethal weapon was named by its inventor Jack Cover after the teen science fiction character Tom Swift?

Ten Tech Items Inspired by Science Fiction – Eclecticism Worth Reading Ten Tech Items Inspired by Science Fiction I WAS going to ask you to research whether or not there have been any women in Sci-Fi but I have answered that myself, having found Flash Gordon’s moll. However it is a Sci-Fi question. Can you list 10 real technological ‘things’ that have reputedly come out of Sci-Fi stuff written in the 20th Century? (Originally posted on [Google Answers][1], I’ve taken the liberty of reformatting this fascinating look at past visions of the future that influenced the technology of today. Note that I am _not_ the author of this piece.) [1]: http://answers.google.com/answers/threadview?id=380625 “For Pinkfreud and Cyndi Yawper” ####Question:#### I WAS going to ask you to research whether or not there have been any women in Sci-Fi but I have answered that myself, having found Flash Gordon’s moll. However it is a Sci-Fi question. Can you list 10 real technological ‘things’ that have reputedly come out of Sci-Fi stuff written in the 20th Century? Here’s an example, computer viruses were reputedly inspired by ‘When Harlie Was One’ by David Gerrold. ####Answer:#### I have chosen ten outstanding technological concepts which had their popular origins in the world of sci-fi. It is debatable, in some cases, whether the science fiction source was the actual originator, but it’s certainly true that each of these ideas was given a boost into reality by an SF writer. #####THE GEOSTATIONARY SATELLITE: Arthur C. Clarke##### Although this concept was not described in a work of fiction, it was popularized by a man primarily known for his flights of fancy, Arthur C. Clarke: > A geostationary orbit (abbreviated GSO) is a circular orbit in the Earth’s equatorial plane, any point on which revolves about the Earth in the same direction and with the same period as the Earth’s rotation. It is a special case of the geosynchronous orbit, and the one which is of most interest to artificial satellite operators. Geosynchronous orbits and geostationary orbits were first popularised by science fiction author Arthur C. Clarke Sir Arthur C. Clarke in 1945 as useful orbits for communications satellites. As a result they are sometimes referred to as Clarke orbits. Similarly, the ‘Clarke Belt’ is the part of space approximately 35,790 km above mean sea level in the plane of the equator where near-geostationary orbits may be achieved. — [The Free Dictionary: Clarke Orbit][2] [2]: http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Clarke%20orbit “Clarke Orbit” #####THE COMPUTER WORM: John Brunner##### > 1975…John Shoch and Jon Hupp at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center discover the computer ‘worm,’ a short program that searches a network for idle processors. Initially designed to provide more efficient use of computers and for testing, the worm had the unintended effect of invading networked computers, creating a security threat. > > Shoch took the term ‘worm’ from the book ‘The Shockwave Rider,’ by John Brunner, in which an omnipotent ‘tapeworm’ program runs loose through a network of computers. Brunner wrote: ‘No, Mr. Sullivan, we can’t stop it! There’s never been a worm with that tough a head or that long a tail! It’s building itself, don’t you understand? Already it’s passed a billion bits and it’s still growing. It’s the exact inverse of a phage – whatever it takes in, it adds to itself instead of wiping… Yes, sir! I’m quite aware that a worm of that type is theoretically impossible! But the fact stands, he’s done it, and now it’s so goddamn comprehensive that it can’t be killed. Not short of demolishing the net!’ (247, Ballantine Books, 1975). — [Computer History Museum: Timeline][3] [3]: http://www.computerhistory.org/timeline/timeline.php?timeline_year=1979 “Timeline” #####ORGANLEGGING: Larry Niven##### A few organ transplants were being performed in the 1970s, but author Larry Niven was one of the first to write about some of the social problems that might accompany widespread use of this life-extending technology. Niven wrote several stories which involved hug


What is the term coined by Brown and Kulik in 1977 to explain a memory that is laid down in great detail during a significant event, often of national or international importance?

Flashbulb memory | Psychology Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia Cognitive Psychology : Attention · Decision making · Learning · Judgement · Memory · Motivation · Perception · Reasoning · Thinking  - Cognitive processes Cognition  - Outline Index A flashbulb memory is a memory laid down in great detail during a highly personally significant event, often a shocking event of national or international importance. These memories are perceived to have a "photographic" quality. The term was coined by Brown and Kulik (1977), who found highly emotional memories (e.g. hearing bad news) were often vividly recalled, even some time after the event. For example, a great many people can remember where they were when they heard of the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001 or the assassination of John F. Kennedy or John Lennon. Despite the great vividness of such memories, research suggests that compared with ordinary memories, flashbulb memories are no more likely to be remembered than ordinary memories (e.g., Weaver, 1993). The most pronounced difference between ordinary and flashbulb memory is that people believe flashbulb memories to be more accurately and vividly remembered. Part of the reason for this may be that people discuss such significant events frequently, and the after-the-fact discussion can modify what people believe they remember about the event. Neisser (1982) believes that flashbulb memories are enduring because they are constantly being reinforced by, for example, the media. Contents


The common name of what African tree comes from the mistaken belief of early settlers who thought that malaria was contracted from being around them?

Global Trees - Tree Data Sheets Global Trees     This tree is only found near permanent water sources, such as rivers, swamps and pans. One or two trees may be seen together in an area, and they occur in large numbers near the Pafuri region. No other thorn-tree in this area has a trunk and branches that are yellow-green and covered in yellow powder, making it unique in appearance. It has a straight, smooth, single trunk, and a sparse, roundish, spreading canopy. The trunk and branches "peel" in paper-thin layers. The tree is medium to tall, well shaped, and grows to a height of between 10 and 15 m. Because of growing in low-lying swampy places, these trees are associated with malaria, early pioneers believing that the tree was responsible, rather than the malaria mosquito that breed in them. Links with Animals - The characteristic holes in the bark are caused by woodboreing beetles. Monkey and baboon eat the flowers, young shoots and seeds. Elephant eat the pods, leaves and branches. Human uses - The bark is used for treating fevers and eye complaints. The wood is used in building, being a hard, heavy and a useful general purpose timber; it should be thoroughly seasoned first to avoid it cracking. Gardening - This ornamental tree can be very attractive in indigenous gardens in warmer areas. It need well-watered clay soil and cannot withstand severe frost or drought. It can be grown from seed quite easily, but they are difficult to obtain; when well watered, it is exceptionally fast growing. Leaves - Twice compound, with a single leaflet at the tip, opposite elliptic with a smooth margin. Leaves are smallish and feathery (average 7 feather pairs, 17 pairs of leaflets; leaf 100 m; leaflet 7 x 1 m) Flowers - round, golden balls on slender stalks are found in the axil of the thorns, from September to November (10 mm) Thorns - Straight, white thorns grow on a common base. Some may be under developed or absent. (80 mm) Pods - The flat, bean-like pod is papery and borne in clusters. It is brown when ripe in late summer, January to April. (100 x 15 mm)   The fever tree is an attractive, semi-deciduous to deciduous tree approximately 15 to 25 metres tall and has an open, rounded to spreading or flattish crown which is sparsely foliated. The characteristic, almost luminous, lime green to greenish-yellow bark is smooth, slightly flaking, and coated in a yellow powdery substance described by some as sulphurous. If the powdery surface is rubbed away with the finger it will reveal a green bark beneath. Young twigs have a red-brown bark which peels off leaving the twigs sulphur yellow. The long straight white thorns are arranged in pairs and although they are very significant on young trees they often become barely noticeable on mature specimens. Bright yellow, golden, ball-like flowers which are sweetly scented are borne in clusters on shortened side shoots at the nodes and towards the ends of branches. Flowering occurs from August or September to November. Flowers are followed by the production of yellowish- brown to brown pods which split open to reveal the small hard brown seeds, which may be harvested from January to April. The genus name Acacia is derived from the Greek word acantha meaning spine, thorn or prickle and the species name xanthophloea is derived from the Greek words xanthos meaning yellow and phloios meaning bark. The fever tree occurs mainly in depressions and shallow pans where underground water is present or surface water collects after summer rains. It is also found in low-lying swampy areas, along the margins of lakes and on river banks. It often forms pure, dense stands of closed woodland in seasonally flooded areas on alluvial soils. This tree can be found from Kenya in the north to KwaZulu Natal in the south. It is a prominent feature in the lowveld region of South Africa . This tree is popular amongst birds for nest building as the thorns add extra protection against predators such as snakes. Young branches and leaves are eaten by elephant and the leaves and pods are eaten by giraffe and vervet monkeys. Monk


What term is given to the biological phenomenon where the size of animals isolated on an island increases dramatically over generations?

Glossary part 1 AETHIOPID (Hamitic ( Gï¿½nther )) Negrid subtype of northeastern Africa. Aethiopids are dolichocephalic , tall and slender, with generally narrow   features, highly variable skin color and hair   texture. The nose is high and narrow, and not seldom convex, and the chin is   often strong. Whether these arguably Europoid features of the Aethiopid   physique are the result of significant Europid ( Mediterranid , Arabid ) influence, or of divergence   within the Negrid stock, is a much debated   and so far unresolved issue. Aethiopid (Iman) AFALOU BOU RUMMEL A series of skulls excavated at Afalou bou   Rummel in Algeria. The skulls are robust , and   characterized by brachycephaly , broad- and   large-headedness, a low, square face, great bigonial breadth , and a general resemblance to European Cro-Magnoids (they are not unlike the semi- alpinized Borreby crania). Afalou bou Rummel is usually   referred to merely as Afalou. Afalou bou Rummel AFGHANIAN The prehistoric skeletal type, so named by Coon , which is reflected in the living Iranid type ( Coon 's Irano-Afghan race). AFRICAN REPLACEMENT HYPOTHESIS ALLELE Alternate forms of a gene . Alleles occur at the same locus on homologous chromosomes and thus govern the same trait. However, because   they are different, their action may result in different expressions of that   trait. The term is often used synonymously with gene . ALLENï¿½S RULE The biological rule, posited   by Joel Asaph Allen in 1877, which states that endotherms (mammals and   birds) from colder climates usually have shorter and bulkier limbs than the equivalent   animals from warmer climates. This   process is directly related to the retention (in cold climates) or loss (in   warm climates) of heat, in that it effects the ratio of body mass to body   surface. Cf. Bergmann's Rule , borealization . ALLOMETRY The study of the relative growth of a part of an   organism in relation to the growth of the whole. The ï¿½modeï¿½ of speciation by which a population splits   into two (or more) geographically isolated groups, resulting in divergence   and subsequent reproductive   isolation (new biological species ). Cf. peripheral isolate   speciation . Allopatric speciation ALPINID (Ostisch ("Eastern", Gï¿½nther ); West-Alpinid; Western European ( Deniker )) Named by Ripley (Alpine), the Alpinid is an important western and central European Europid type, short- to medium-statured, brachycephalic , characteristically round-headed and -featured, broad-faced, and of intermediate to dark pigmentation. Alpinids predominate in central parts of France, and are common in southern Germany (especially Bavaria) and the Alps. the central European Alpinid is probably derived from Cro-Magnoids through a process of alpinization (cf. Borreby , Gorid ).   ANDAMANID (Mincopies (Huxley)) The pygmy -sized Negritid type of the aboriginal inhabitants of the Andaman and   Nicobar Islands, in the Bay of Bengal. Andamanids are slightly built and   dark-skinned, with tightly curled hair, and are similar in most respects to   the Semang of the Malay Peninsula and   the Aeta of the Philippines, all members of the Negritid race. There are several more or less isolated tribes, such as the Onge, the   Jarawa, the Great Andamanese and the Sentineli, which may be distinguished   by certain (very minor) differences. For instance, the Sentineli (of North   Sentinel Island) are slightly taller than the remainder of the group. Andamanid Jarawa ARMENID (Assyroid (Deniker); vorderasiatischer Typus ("Hither-Asiatic type", Gï¿½nther )) Mostly b runet , large-headed Taurid type, first carefully described by von Luschan (as Armenoid). It resembles the European Dinarid , with the main exceptions of greater absolute facial dimensions and a larger nose. Armenids are prevalent among Armenians, and common throughout the Middle East, where they blend with Arabid s to produce an easily recognizable Middle Eastern phenotype (cf. Assyrid ). According to


What potent toxin is extracted from the castor bean?

Fact Sheet About Poisoning From Ricin Toxin Ricin Poisoning Facts Fact Sheet about Poisoning from Ricin Toxin Castor beans are the source of the poison called ricin, but they are also the source of castor oil and other products. You can hold the seeds in your hand and grow the plants in your garden to repel pests.  Anne Helmenstine Ricin is a potent toxin extracted from castor beans. There is a lot of fear and misinformation associated with this poison. The purpose of this fact sheet is to help separate fact from fiction regarding ricin poisoning. What Is Ricin? Ricin is a protein that is naturally found in castor beans (Ricinus communis). It is so powerful a poison that the US Centers for Disease Control (CDC) estimate the lethal dose in humans is about the size of a grain of salt (500 micrograms injected or inhaled). How Is Ricin Used as a Poison? Ricin is poisonous if it is inhaled, eaten, or injected. It can be dissolved in water or weak acid and added to a drink. It is not absorbed through the skin, so simply touching ricin or getting ricin powder in your eyes will not cause poisoning. What Are the Symptoms of Ricin Poisoning? Symptoms of ricin poisoning show up a few hours after exposure. The symptoms depend on the route of exposure. Inhalation Symptoms from ricin inhalation would include coughing, shortness of breath, and nausea. continue reading below our video 4 Tips for Improving Test Performance Fluid would begin to accumulate in the lungs. Fever and excessive sweating would be likely. Low blood pressure and respiratory failure could lead to death. Ingestion Eating or drinking ricin would produce cramping, vomiting, and bloody diarrhea leading to extreme dehydration. Bleeding from the stomach and intestines would occur. The victim may experience hallucinations, seizures, and bloody urine. Eventually (usually after several days) the liver, spleen, and kidneys could fail. Death would result from organ failure. Injection Injected ricin produces swelling and pain in the muscles and lymph nodes near the site of the injection. As the poison worked its way outward, internal bleeding would occur and death would result from multiple organ failure. How Is Ricin Poisoning Detected and Treated? Ricin poisoning is not easy to detect, but it is not necessarily fatal, even though it is unlikely medical staff would identify the underlying cause. Treatment addresses the symptoms of ricin poisoning and includes helping the victim breathe and administering intravenous fluids to combat dehydration and low blood pressure. Death usually occurs 36-48 hours after exposure, but if a victim survives approximately 5 days, he has a good chance of recovering. Victims of ricin poisoning typically sustain permanent organ damage. How Does Ricin Work? Ricin inactivates the ribosomes in cells making them unable to produce proteins. Cells need these proteins to survive and reproduce, so when ribosomes are inactivated, cells die. What Should You Do If You Suspect Ricin Poisoning? If you believe you have been exposed to ricin you should move away from the location of the poison. Seek immediate medical attention, explaining to the medical professional that you believe you were exposed to ricin and the circumstances of the event. Remove your clothing. Cut off clothing rather than pulling it over your head, to minimize further exposure. Remove and discard contact lenses. Glasses may be thoroughly washed with soap and water and re-used. Wash your entire body with soap and water.


What substance is the basis of the gold refining technique known as 'inquartation and parting' since it can dissolve silver and other base metals but not gold?

Phys.org - gold gold Jan 17, 2017         in Analytical Chemistry 5 Jan 16, 2017         in General Physics 4056 Self-assembly of matter is one of the fundamental principles of nature, directing the growth of larger ordered and functional systems from smaller building blocks. Self-assembly can be observed in all length scales from molecules ... Jan 13, 2017         in Nanomaterials 9 Jan 12, 2017         in Materials Science 7 Jan 05, 2017         in Bio & Medicine 13 Dec 20, 2016         in Materials Science 10 Dec 19, 2016         in Bio & Medicine 11 Scientists at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) have developed a new device that measures the motion of super-tiny particles traversing distances almost unimaginably small—shorter than the diameter ... Dec 16, 2016         in Nanophysics 11 Dec 08, 2016         in Materials Science report 594 Nov 29, 2016         in Bio & Medicine 81 Next » Gold Gold (pronounced /ˈɡoʊld/) is a chemical element with the symbol Au (Latin: aurum) and an atomic number of 79. It has been a highly sought-after precious metal in jewelry, in sculpture, and for ornamentation since the beginning of recorded history. The metal occurs as nuggets or grains in rocks, in veins and in alluvial deposits. Gold is dense, soft, shiny and the most malleable and ductile pure metal known. Pure gold has a bright yellow color and luster traditionally considered attractive, which it maintains without oxidizing in air or water. It is one of the coinage metals and formed the basis for the gold standard used before the collapse of the Bretton Woods system in 1971. At the end of 2006, it was estimated that all the gold ever mined totaled 158,000 tonnes. This can be represented by a cube with an edge length of just 20.2 meters. Modern industrial uses include dentistry and electronics, where gold has traditionally found use because of its good resistance to oxidative corrosion and excellent quality as a conductor of electricity. Chemically, gold is a transition metal and can form trivalent and univalent cations upon solvation. At STP it is attacked by aqua regia (a mixture of acids), forming chloroauric acid and by alkaline solutions of cyanide but not by single acids such as hydrochloric, nitric or sulfuric acids. Gold dissolves in mercury, forming amalgam alloys, but does not react with it. Since gold is insoluble in nitric acid which will dissolve silver and base metals, this is exploited as the basis of the gold refining technique known as "inquartation and parting". Nitric acid has long been used to confirm the presence of gold in items, and this is the origin of the colloquial term "acid test", referring to a gold standard test for genuine value. This text uses material from Wikipedia ,                     licensed under CC BY-SA


What controversial form of alternative medicine that aims to treat 'like with like' traces its origins to the late 18th century when it was founded by the German physician Samuel Hahnemann?

Homeopathy Medicine Homeopathy Medicine Sunday, September 30, 2007 Introduction Homeopathy (also homœopathy or homoeopathy; from the Greek , ὅμοιος, hómoios, "similar" + πάθος, páthos, "suffering" or "disease") is a controversial form of alternative medicine that aims to treat "like with like". Substances, which in large quantities would cause symptoms similar to the disease, are administered in heavily diluted formulations, with shaking at each stage of the dilution. Homeopaths contend that the shaking causes some imprint (or memory ) of the diluted substance upon the vehicle, even though in many common homeopathic dilutions no molecules of the original substance are likely to remain. [1] Homeopathy is based on a vitalist world view, which sees the underlying causes of sickness as imbalances in a hypothetical vital force . Proponents claim that homeopathic treatment can harmonize and re-balance the vital force in the body, thus restoring health. This claim is unsupported by modern biology or medicine. Homeopathy traces its origins to the late 18th century when it was founded by German physician Samuel Hahnemann , who noted some similarity of the symptoms of undiluted cinchona bark in healthy individuals with those of malaria , which it is used to treat. Hahnemann decided that an effective drug must produce the symptoms in healthy individuals that are similar to the symptoms of the sick patient which they are supposed to be treating. [7] Based on later experiments, Hahnemann reasoned that using natural doses of substances would generally not help patients because, if they produced effects similar to those of the disease, they would only make symptoms worse, and thus proposed the dilution of substances in water or alcohol , with shaking (known as "succussion") after each dilution, in order to try and imprint the liquid with the memory of the original substance. To account for homeopathic remedies sometimes failing to produce lasting cures of long-standing chronic diseases, Hahnemann proposed that the vital force in the body has the ability to react or adapt to disturbances, referred to as the "law of susceptibility", and that various causes can attract hypothetical disease-causing entities called "miasms", which he claimed could produce symptoms of disease within the body, and formed a deeper, harder to treat cause of illness. History Modern homeopathy was created by German physician Samuel Hahnemann during the late 18th and early 19th century. The system of similars emphasized in homeopathy was first described by doctors of the vitalist school of medicine and one of the most prominent proponents of vitalism was the Renaissance physician Paracelsus . Paracelsus subscribed to many of the same principles as the modern founder of homeopathy, Samuel Hahnemann. Vienna physician Anton Freiherr von Störck and Scottish physician John Brown also held similar medical beliefs to Samuel Hahnemann prior to the conception of homeopathy. 18th century medicine In Hahnemann's day, mainstream medicine was a degenerate form of Galenism , with a theory of disease based upon the ancient Greek idea of four humours . Medicine of the time professed to restore the balance of the humours, mostly by employing such measures as bloodletting and purging, use of laxatives , enemas and substances that induced vomiting, as well as suppressing symptoms using complex mixtures of plant and mineral drugs in strong doses. Such measures often made symptoms worse or proved fatal. By contrast, Hahnemann rebelled against these methods, and the use of mixed drugs in strong doses, favoring the use of single drugs in milder doses. He later came to promote an immaterial, vitalistic view of how living organisms function and thought that diseases have spiritual , as well as physical causes. [17] [18] During the 18th century vitalism was part of mainstream science. However, in the twentieth century, medicine discarded vitalism in favor of the germ theory of disease, following the work of Robert Koch , Louis Pasteur , Alexander Fleming , Joseph Lister and many others. Ho


What is the world's biggest single structure made by living organisms?

Great Barrier Reef-world's biggest single structure made by living organisms - YouTube Great Barrier Reef-world's biggest single structure made by living organisms Want to watch this again later? Sign in to add this video to a playlist. Need to report the video? Sign in to report inappropriate content. Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Published on Nov 17, 2012 The Great Barrier Reef is the world's largest coral reef system composed of over 2,900 individual reefs and 900 islands stretching for over 2,600 kilometres (1,600 mi) over an area of approximately 344,400 square kilometres (133,000 sq mi). The reef is located in the Coral Sea, off the coast of Queensland, Australia. The Great Barrier Reef can be seen from outer space and is the world's biggest single structure made by living organisms. This reef structure is composed of and built by billions of tiny organisms, known as coral polyps. It supports a wide diversity of life and was selected as a World Heritage Site in 1981. CNN labeled it one of the seven natural wonders of the world. The Queensland National Trust named it a state icon of Queensland. A large part of the reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park, which helps to limit the impact of human use, such as fishing and tourism. Other environmental pressures on the reef and its ecosystem include runoff, climate change accompanied by mass coral bleaching, and cyclic population outbreaks of the crown-of-thorns starfish. According to a study published on 1 October 2012 by the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, the reef has lost more than half its coral cover since 1985. The Great Barrier Reef has long been known to and used by the Aboriginal Australian and Torres Strait Islander peoples, and is an important part of local groups' cultures and spirituality. The reef is a very popular destination for tourists, especially in the Whitsunday Islands and Cairns regions. Tourism is an important economic activity for the region, generating $1 billion per year. Category


In medicine, what is said to occur when an object migrates from one part of the body through circulation and causes a blockage of a blood vessel in another part of the body?

Embolisms | Psychology Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia Septic embolism – embolism of pus-containing bacteria. Tissue embolism – embolism of small fragments of tissue. Foreign body embolism – embolism of foreign materials such as talc and other small objects. Amniotic fluid embolism – embolism of amniotic fluid, foetal cells, hair, or other debris that enters the mother's bloodstream via the placental bed of the uterus and triggers an allergic reaction. Pathway The pathway of the embolus can be one of three types: Anterograde Retrograde Paradoxical In anterograde embolism, the movement of emboli is in the direction of blood flow. In retrograde embolism, however, the emboli move in opposition to the blood flow direction; this is usually significant only in blood vessels with low pressure (veins) or with emboli of high weight. In paradoxical embolism , also known as crossed embolism, an embolus from the veins crosses to the arterial blood system. This is generally found only with heart problems such as septal defects between the atria or ventricles. Pathophysiology Unverifiable material may be challenged and removed . This article has been tagged since January 2008. In thromboembolism, the thrombus (blood clot) from a blood vessel is completely or partially detached from the site of thrombosis (clot). The blood flow will then carry the embolus (via blood vessels) to various parts of the body where it can block the lumen (vessel cavity) and cause vessel obstruction or occlusion. Note that the free-moving thrombus is called an embolus. [2] A thrombus is always attached to the vessel wall and is never freely moving in the blood circulation. This is also the key difference for pathologists to determine the cause of a blood clot, either by thrombosis or by post-mortem blood clot. Vessel obstruction will then lead to different pathological issues such as blood stasis and ischemia . However, not only thromboembolism will cause the obstruction of blood flow in vessels, but also any kind of embolism is capable of causing the same problem. Fat embolism usually occurs when endogenous (from sources within the organism) fat tissue escapes into the blood circulation. The usual cause of fat embolism is therefore the fracture of tubular bones (such as the femur ), which will lead to the leakage of fat tissue within the bone marrow into ruptured vessels. There are also exogenous (from sources of external origin) causes such as intravenous injection of emulsions . An air embolism, on the other hand, is usually always caused by exogenic factors. This can be the rupture of alveoli , and inhaled air can be leaked into the blood vessels. Other more-common causes include the puncture of the subclavian vein by accident or during operation where there is negative pressure. Air is then sucked into the veins by the negative pressure caused by thoracic expansion during the inhalation phase of respiration. Air embolism can also happen during intravenous therapy, when air is leaked into the system (however this iatrogenic error in modern medicine is extremely rare). Gas embolism is a common concern for deep-sea divers because the gases in our blood (usually nitrogen and helium) can be easily dissolved at higher amounts during the descent into deep sea. However, when the diver ascends to the normal atmospheric pressure, the gases become insoluble, causing the formation of small bubbles in the blood. This is also known as decompression sickness or the Bends. This phenomenon is explained by Henry's Law in physical chemistry . The other embolisms are rather rare. Septic embolism happens when a purulent tissue ( pus -containing tissue) is dislodged from its original focus. Tissue embolism is a near-equivalent to cancer metastasis , which happens when cancer tissue infiltrates blood vessels, and small fragments of them are released into the blood stream. Foreign-body embolism happens when exogenous—and only exogenous—materials such as talc enter the blood stream and cause occlusion or obstruction of blood circulation. Amniotic-fluid embolism is a rare complica


In mathematics, what is a statement that appears likely to be true but has not been formally proven to be true under the rules of mathematical logic?

WeirsHonorsAdvancedMath1 - Unit 1 Lesson 1 Inductive & Deductive Reasoning Unit 1 Lesson 1 Inductive & Deductive Reasoning Export (PDF) Inductive & Deductive Reasoning Inductive Reasoning: reasoning from patterns based on the analysis of specific cases. You can NOT prove a conjecture using algebraic reasoning. Often times you will use inductive reasoning to come up with a conjecture. Conjecture: In mathematics, a conjecture is a mathematical statement, which appears likely to be true, but has not been formally proven to be true under the rules of mathematical logic. Ex: What is true about the sum of two odd integers? If you were using inductive reasoning you would add some pairs of odd integers and look for a pattern. 1 + 3 = 4 11 + 13 = 24 All of the sums appear to be even. So a possible conjecture would be: If you add two odd integers, then the sum will be an even integer. ➢ Remember this is only a conjecture, by trying six cases or even trying a thousand cases does not prove that this will be true for every two odd integers. Deductive Reasoning: reasoning from facts, definitions, and accepted properties to new statements using principles of logic. By using correct deductive reasoning the conclusions you reach are certain. You can prove a conjectures using deductive reasoning. Note: You should know the following relationships: Even Integers can be written in the form: 2m, where m is an integer. (Even numbers have a factor of two.) Odd Integers can be written in the form: 2n + 1, where n is an integer. (One more than an even number will always be an odd.) Consecutive Integers can be written in the form: n, n + 1, n + 2, etc, where n is an integer. (By adding one more to the previous number you will get the next consecutive integer.) Consecutive Odd Integers can be written in the form: 2n + 1, 2n + 3, 2n + 5, etc, where n is an integer. (By adding two more to the previous number you will get the next consecutive odd integer.) Consecutive Even Integers can be written in the form: 2n, 2n + 2, 2n + 4, etc, where n is an integer. (By adding two more to the previous number you will get the next consecutive even integer.) Write a deductive proof that proves that the sum of two odd integers is even. Let a and b be two odd integers such that a = 2n + 1 and b = 2m + 1, where m and n are integers. (You need to pick different variables when defining a and b, otherwise they would represent the same odd integer and we want to show that this relationship is true for any two odd integers.) If you add a and b then you will get , which is an even integer. Therefore, if you add two odd integers then the sum will be even. Ex: What happens when you multiply two even integers? Use inductive reasoning to form a conjecture (Try some cases): 2 x 4 = 8 Conjecture: If you multiply two even integers then the product will be even. Now use deductive reasoning to prove your conjecture: Three Steps: 2. Use algebra to prove the conjecture. 3. State what you have proven. Let a and b be two even integers such that a = 2n and b = 2m, where m and n are integers. ab = (2n)(2m)=2(2mn) Therefore, if you multiply two even integers then the product will be even. By showing the product has a factor of 2 you are proving that it is even.* Ex: What happens when you multiply two odd integers? Use inductive reasoning to form a conjecture (Try some cases): 1 x 3 = 3


What is the term given to uranium that has its isotope uranium-235 removed?

Uranium: Its Uses and Hazards - Institute for Energy and Environmental Research Uranium: Its Uses and Hazards Some of the terms used in this factsheet are defined in IEER’s on-line glossary . First discovered in the 18th century, uranium is an element found everywhere on Earth, but mainly in trace quantities. In 1938, German physicists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann showed that uranium could be split into parts to yield energy. Uranium is the principal fuel for nuclear reactors and the main raw material for nuclear weapons. Natural uranium consists of three isotopes: uranium-238, uranium-235, and uranium-234. Uranium isotopes are radioactive. The nuclei of radioactive elements are unstable, meaning they are transformed into other elements, typically by emitting particles (and sometimes by absorbing particles). This process, known as radioactive decay, generally results in the emission of alpha or beta particles from the nucleus. It is often also accompanied by emission of gamma radiation, which is electromagnetic radiation, like X-rays. These three kinds of radiation have very different properties in some respects but are all ionizing radiation–each is energetic enough to break chemical bonds, thereby possessing the ability to damage or destroy living cells. Summary of Uranium Isotopes 142 245,000 Uranium-238, the most prevalent isotope in uranium ore, has a half-life of about 4.5 billion years; that is, half the atoms in any sample will decay in that amount of time. Uranium-238 decays by alpha emission into thorium-234, which itself decays by beta emission to protactinium-234, which decays by beta emission to uranium-234, and so on. The various decay products, (sometimes referred to as “progeny” or “daughters”) form a series starting at uranium-238. After several more alpha and beta decays, the series ends with the stable isotope lead-206. URANIUM DECAY CHAIN — Main Branch Read from left to right. Arrows indicate decay. Uranium-238 ==> Lead-206 (stable) Uranium-238 emits alpha particles which are less penetrating than other forms of radiation, and weak gamma rays As long as it remains outside the body, uranium poses little health hazard (mainly from the gamma-rays). If inhaled or ingested, however, its radioactivity poses increased risks of lung cancer and bone cancer. Uranium is also chemically toxic at high concentrations and can cause damage to internal organs, notably the kidneys. Animal studies suggest that uranium may affect reproduction, the developing fetus, [1] and increase the risk of leukemia and soft tissue cancers. [2] The property of uranium important for nuclear weapons and nuclear power is its ability to fission, or split into two lighter fragments when bombarded with neutrons releasing energy in the process. Of the naturally-occuring uranium isotopes, only uranium-235 can sustain a chain reaction– a reaction in which each fission produces enough neutrons to trigger another, so that the fission process is maintained without any external source of neutrons. [3] In contrast, uranium-238 cannot sustain a chain reaction, but it can be converted to plutonium-239, which can. [4] Plutonium-239, virtually non-existent in nature, was used in the first atomic bomb tested July 16, 1945 and the one dropped on Nagasaki on August 9, 1945. The Mining and Milling Process Traditionally, uranium has been extracted from open-pits and underground mines. In the past decade, alternative techniques such in-situ leach mining, in which solutions are injected into underground deposits to dissolve uranium, have become more widely used. Most mines in the U.S. have shut down and imports account for about three-fourths of the roughly 16 metric tons of refined uranium used domestically each year — Canada being the largest single supplier. [5] The milling (refining) process extracts uranium oxide (U3O8) from ore to form yellowcake, a yellow or brown powder that contains about 90 percent uranium oxide. [6] Conventional mining techniques generate a substantial quantity of mill tailings waste during the milling phase, beca


When all their individual contributions are added up, what insects may constitute up to 15 to 25% of the total terrestrial animal biomass?

Pest Control - Ant and Spider Experts - Gopher and Termite Control Pest Control Fumigation   Pest Control Ants and general pest can be, well...pests! Our technicians have been serving Southern California for over 15 years and are experts at getting rid of all those little bugs. During hotter weather ants and bugs tend to look for shelter, food and water in you home, even without your approval. Because of the sheer number of ants and bugs we strongly recommend taking advantage of our monthly pest control program. The inital service will create a barrier around your home to keep the bugs out, and every month your technician will visit your home to reinforce that barrier created on the initial visit. Bugs already inside? No problem! Our trained technicians can take care of the problem no matter how bad. Interior treatment pricing is based on square footage. To find out more call us today ! The best way to defeat them though is with on-going control. Call us to schedule an appointment and put an end to your pest control problems. More Ant Control Info: Ants are eusocial insects of the family Formicidae and, along with the related families of wasps and bees, belong to the order Hymenoptera. They are a diverse group of more than 12,000 species, with a higher diversity in the tropics. They are known for their highly organized colonies and nests, which sometimes consist of millions of individuals. Individuals are divided into sub-fertile, and more commonly sterile, females ("workers"), fertile males ("drones"), and fertile females ("queens"). Colonies can occupy and use a wide area of land to support themselves. Ant colonies are sometimes described as super organisms because the colony appears to operate as a single entity. Ants have colonized almost every landmass on Earth. The only places lacking indigenous ant species are Antarctica, Greenland, Iceland, and the Hawaiian Islands. When all their individual contributions are added up, they may constitute up to 15 to 25% of the total terrestrial animal biomass. Ants are distinguished from other insects by the following traits: elbowed antennae; the presence of a metapleural gland; a strongly constricted second abdominal segment forming a distinct node-like petiole, a narrow waist between their mesosoma (thorax plus the first abdominal segment, which is fused to it) and gaster (abdomen less the abdominal segments in the petiole). The petiole can be formed by one or two nodes (only the second, or the second and third abdominal segments can form it). Ants have a wingless worker caste. Ant bodies, like those of other insects, have an exoskeleton, meaning their bodies are externally covered in a protective casing, as opposed to the internal skeletal framework of humans and other vertebrates. Ants do not have lungs. Oxygen passes through tiny valves, the spiracles, in their exoskeleton — the same holes through which carbon dioxide leaves their body. Nor do they have a heart; a colorless blood, the hemolymph, runs from their head to rear and back again along a long tube. Their nervous system is much like a human spinal cord in that it is a continuous cord, the ventral nerve cord, from head to rear with branches into each extremity. The three main divisions of the ant body are the head, mesosoma and metasoma or gaster. The head of an ant has many important parts. Ant eyes include the compound eyes, similar to fly eyes: numerous tiny lenses attached together which enables them to see movement very well. They also have three small ocelli on the top of the head, which detect light and dark. Most ants have poor to mediocre eyesight; some are blind altogether. A few have exceptional vision though, such as Australia's bulldog ant. Also attached to the head of an ant are two antennae ("feelers"). The antennae are special organs that help ants detect chemicals, including those used in communication, as well as a sense of touch. Ants release pheromones to communicate with each other and the antennae pick up these chemical signals. The head also has two strong jaws, the mandibles, which are used t


Who is the British astrophysicist who announced Einstein's Theory of General Relativity to the English-speaking world in 1919?

Eclipse that Changed the Universe - Einstein's Theory of Relativity Poems & Quotes Eclipse that Changed the   Universe The story of how a British scientist       used an eclipse to provide the evidence for Einstein's theory of general       relativity. by Peter Coles A total eclipse of        the Sun is a moment of magic: a scant few minutes when our perceptions        of the whole Universe are turned on their heads. The Suns        blinding disc is replaced by ghostly pale tentacles surrounding        a black heart  an eerie experience witnessed by hundreds of        millions of people throughout Europe and the Near East last August. But one particular        eclipse of the Sun, eighty years ago, challenged not only peoples        emotional world. It was set to turn the science of the Universe        on its head. For over two centuries, scientists had believed Sir        Isaac Newtons view of the Universe. Now his ideas had been        challenged by a young German-Swiss scientist, called Albert Einstein.        The showdown - Newton vs Einstein  would be the total        eclipse of 29 May 1919. Newtons position        was set out in his monumental Philosophiae Naturalis Principia        Mathematica, published in 1687. The Principia  as its familiarly known - laid down a set of mathematical        laws that described all forms of motion in the Universe. These rules        applied as much to the motion of planets around the Sun as to more        mundane objects like apples falling from trees. At the heart of Newtons        concept of the Universe were his ideas about space and time. Space        was inflexible, laid out in a way that had been described by the        ancient Greek mathematician Euclid in his laws of geometry. To Newton,        space was the immovable and unyielding stage on which bodies acted        out their motions. Time was also absolute, ticking away inexorably        at the same rate for everyone in the Universe. Sir Isaac Newton by Sir Godfrey Kneller Courtesy of the National Portrait Gallery, London Sir            Isaac Newton proposed the first theory of gravity. For over 200 years, scientists saw the        Cosmos through Newtons eyes. It was a vast clockwork machine,        evolving by predetermined rules through regular space, against the        beat of an absolute clock. This edifice totally dominated scientific        thought, until it was challenged by Albert Einstein. In 1905, Einstein dispensed        with Newtons absolute nature of space and time. Although born        in Germany, during this period of his life he was working as a patent        clerk in Berne, Switzerland. He encapsulated his new ideas on motion,        space and time in his special theory of relativity. But it took        another ten years for Einstein to work out the full consequences        of his ideas, including gravity. The general theory of relativity,        first aired in 1915, was as complete a description of motion as        Newton had prescribed in his Principia. But Einsteins        description of gravity required space to be curved. Whereas        for Newton space was an inflexible backdrop, for Einstein it had        to bend and flex near massive bodies. This warping of space, in        turn, would be responsible for guiding objects such as planets along        their orbits. Royal Observatory Greenwich Albert            Einstein and Arthur Eddington: the father of relativity            and the man who proved him right. By the time he developed        his general theory, Einstein was back in Germany, working in Berlin.        But a copy of his general theory of relativity was soon smuggled        through war-t


What biological term from the Greek for 'virgin creation' denotes the growth and development of an embryo or seed without fertilization by a male?

Fertilization - Embryology Fertilization     Expand to Translate   Google Translate - select your language from the list shown below (this will open a new external page) Human Fertilization Early Human Zygote Fertilization is the fusion of haploid gametes, egg and sperm, to form the diploid zygote. Note though there can be subtle differences in the fertilization process which occurs naturally within the body or through reproductive technologies outside the body, the overall product in both cases is a diplod zygote. In fertilization research, after humans the mouse is the most studied species followed by domestic and farm animals. The process of fertilization involves components of, and signaling between, both sperm (spermatozoa) and egg (oocyte). In addition to in vivo fertilization there are many new in vitro technologies related to human infertility ( Assisted Reproductive Technology ) and animal production somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) to generate a zygote. Note different spelling - USA spelling "Fertilization", Australian spelling "Fertilisation". The first polar body deforms the mammalian egg away from its encapsulating zona pellucida Fertilization Links: Fertilization | Oocyte | Spermatozoa | Cell Division - Meiosis | Zona pellucida | Zygote | Lecture - Fertilization | Cell Division - Mitosis | Lecture - Week 1 and 2 | Hydatidiform Mole | Assisted Reproductive Technology | Lecture - Genital Development | Menstrual Cycle | Morula | Blastocyst Some Recent Findings Versatile action of picomolar gradients of progesterone on different sperm subpopulations [1] "High step concentrations of progesterone may stimulate various sperm physiological processes, such as priming and the acrosome reaction. However, approaching the egg, spermatozoa face increasing concentrations of the hormone, as it is secreted by the cumulus cells and then passively diffuses along the cumulus matrix and beyond. ... The results suggest a versatile role of the gradual distribution of very low doses of progesterone, which selectively stimulate the priming and the acrosome reaction in different sperm subpopulations." Juno is the egg Izumo receptor and is essential for mammalian fertilization "Fertilization occurs when sperm and egg recognize each other and fuse to form a new, genetically distinct organism. The molecular basis of sperm–egg recognition is unknown, but is likely to require interactions between receptor proteins displayed on their surface. Izumo1 is an essential sperm cell-surface protein, but its receptor on the egg has not been described. Here we identify folate receptor 4 (Folr4) as the receptor for Izumo1 on the mouse egg, and propose to rename it Juno. We show that the Izumo1–Juno interaction is conserved within several mammalian species, including humans. Female mice lacking Juno are infertile and Juno-deficient eggs do not fuse with normal sperm. Rapid shedding of Juno from the oolemma after fertilization suggests a mechanism for the membrane block to polyspermy, ensuring eggs normally fuse with just a single sperm." Nature 16 April 2014 Non-genetic contributions of the sperm nucleus to embryonic development [2] "Recent data from several laboratories have provided evidence that the newly fertilized oocyte inherits epigenetic signals from the sperm chromatin that are required for proper embryonic development. For the purposes of this review, the term epigenetic is used to describe all types of molecular information that are transmitted from the sperm cell to the embryo. There are at least six different forms of epigenetic information that have already been established as being required for proper embryogenesis in mammals or for which there is evidence that it may do so. These are (i) DNA methylation; (ii) sperm-specific histones, (iii) other chromatin-associated proteins; (iv) the perinuclear theca proteins; (v) sperm-born RNAs and, the focus of this review; and (vi) the DNA loop domain organization by the sperm nuclear matrix. These epigenetic signals should be considered when designing protocols for the manipulation and cr


What is the most abundant protein in mammals making up about 25% of their total protein content?

Most Abundant Protein: What Is the Most Common Protein? Most Abundant Protein What Is the Most Common Protein? This is a space-filling model of RuBisCO or ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase, the most common protein in the world.  ARP, public domain Have you ever wondered what the most abundant protein is? The answer depends on whether you want to know the most common protein in the world, in your body or in a cell. Most Abundant Protein in the World The most abundant protein in the world is RuBisCO , which is an enzyme that catalyzes the first step in carbon fixation. RuBisCO is found in plants, algae, cyanobacteria and certain other bacteria. Carbon fixation is the main chemical reaction responsible for inorganic carbon entering the biosphere. In plants, this is part of photosynthesis, in which carbon dioxide is made into glucose. Most Abundant Protein in the Human Body The most abundant protein in your body is collagen . Around 25% to 35% of protein in your body is collagen. It is the most common protein in other mammals, too. Collagen forms connective tissue. It is found primarily in fibrous tissue, such as tendons, ligaments and skin. Collagen is a component of muscle, cartilage, bone, blood vessels, the cornea of the eye, intervertebral discs and the intestinal tract. Most Common Protein in Cells It's a little harder to name a single protein as the most common protein in cells because the protein composition of cells depends on their function. continue reading below our video Test Your General Science Knowledge Actin is a very common "housekeeping" protein that is found in all eukaryotic cells. Tubulin is another important and abundant protein, used in cellular division, among other purposes. Histones, associated with DNA, are expressed in all cells. Ribosomal proteins are abundant, since they are needed to produce other proteins. The type of cell matters. Red blood cells contain high concentrations of the protein hemoglobin, while muscle cells contain high level of the protein myosin.


Found in suitable habitat throughout Southeast Asia and Northern Australia, what is largest of all living reptiles?

Crocodile Skull | Salt Water Crocodile Crocodile skull. Salt Water Crocodile Skull Replica. Crocodylus porosus. SE Asia and Northern Austrailia. The world's largest Crocodilian Private collection. * Size: 27.6 inch (70cm) * Material: Museum quality replicas are cast in durable Polyurethane resins. * Made in USA The Saltwater or Estuarine Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) is the largest of all living crocodilians and reptiles. It is found in suitable habitat throughout Southeast Asia and northern Australia. Saltwater crocodiles are known in the Northern Territory of Australia as "salties". The Alligator Rivers are misnamed after the resemblance of the "saltie" to alligators as compared to freshwater crocodiles, which also inhabit the Northern Territory. An average adult male saltwater crocodile is typically 15.75 to 16.6 feet (4.8 to 5 meters) long, and weighs roughly 770 kilograms (1,700 pounds). Females are much smaller than males, with typical female body lengths in the range of 7 to 9 ft (2.1 to 2.7 m). The saltwater crocodile has fewer armor plates on its neck than other crocodilians, and its broad body contrasts with that of most other lean crocodiles, leading to early unverified assumptions that the reptile was an alligator. The largest size saltwater crocodiles can reach is the subject of considerable controversy. The longest crocodile ever measured snout-to-tail was the skin of a deceased crocodile, which was 20.3 ft (6.2 m) long. Since skins tend to shrink slightly after removal from the carcass, this crocodile's living length was estimated at 20.6 ft (6.3 m), and it probably weighed well over 1,200 kg (2,600 lbs). Incomplete remains (the skull of a crocodile shot in Orrissa have been claimed to come from a 25 ft (7.6 m) crocodile, but scholarly examination suggested a length no greater than 23 ft (7 m). The life expectancy of a Saltwater crocodile is approximately 70 years. Shop more Crocodile Skulls Replicas in Crocodylia Skulls Store When will it be shipped? This product is in stock and will ship the same business day. How long will it take to be delivered? Click here to get estimated delivery date. I have a question about this product. Can I talk to a real person? Our experts are standing by to answer your questions 9 am to 5pm Pacific Time. You can email us or call us toll-free at 1-800-970-1128.


What is the common name of the Adansonia species of tree native to Africa and Australia that is noted for its capacity to store enormous quantity of water?

Africa’s wooden elephant: the baobab tree (Adansonia digitata L.) in Sudan and Kenya: a review     | SpringerLink March 2016 , Volume 63, Issue 3 , pp 377–399 Africa’s wooden elephant: the baobab tree (Adansonia digitata L.) in Sudan and Kenya: a review Authors DOI :       10.1007/s10722-015-0360-1 Cite this article as: 252 Downloads Abstract Wild edible fruits hold great potential for improving human diets, especially in agricultural societies of the developing world. In Africa, a well-known supplier of such fruits is the baobab (Adansonia digitata L., Malvaceae), one of the most remarkable trees of the world. Several studies in different African countries have highlighted this indigenous fruit tree as a priority species for domestication and expanded use. However, internationally available information on baobab in East Africa, particularly in Sudan and Kenya, remains scarce. This review aims to shed light on the ecology, diversity and current level of utilization of baobab in East Africa in order to facilitate domestication and conservation of the species. A list of priority research areas is provided at the end of the review to encourage further studies and investment in this unique plant taxon. Keywords Adansonia digitataAgroforestryEthnobotanyFruitIndigenous fruit tree (IFT)NutritionUp-side down treeSub-Sahara Authors between the first and the last author are in alphabetic order according to their last name. Introduction According to recent estimates, about 805 million people around the world are chronically undernourished (FAO 2014 ) and 162 million children under five years of age are stunted, particularly in poor families living in rural areas (UNICEF 2014 ). Out of the 21 high-burden countries with child stunting rates of >40 %, as many as 15 are located in sub-Saharan Africa (UNICEF 2013 ). This frightening situation coincides with rapid biodiversity loss (Jackson et al. 2005 ; Chappell and La Valle 2011 ). Great potential exists in supplementing agriculture-based food supply by promotion of edible wild foods (Chaudhary and Sthapit 2013 ). This also implies potential for the exploration and utilization of the rich diversity of flavours, textures and aromas available in plants (Collins and Qualset 1999 ). In many rural communities of the developing world, livelihoods depend on exploration of natural resources for income, food and other products. In time of hardship, wild products often constitute security options, for example when shortfalls in agricultural crop production are compensated through gathering and processing of wild edible fruits or other products from woodlands and forests (Becker 1986 ; Mithöfer and Waibel 2003 ; Akinnifesi and Leakey 2008 ; Vinceti et al. 2013 ). Worldwide, only about 50 fruit tree species have been highly domesticated so far (Leakey and Tomich 1999 ) and are produced on a commercial scale. Compared to tropical America and Asia, Africa has the highest number of wild edible fruit species (about 1200 species; Paull and Duarte 2011 ). The diversity of Africa’s wild edible fruits indicates high horticultural potential and valuable genetic resources that—after their domestication—could become the basis for integrating new commercial high-value species and cultivars into existing farming systems. Their use and conservation belong to the most important tasks for mankind within the international CWR (Crop Wild Relatives) initiative (Ford-Lloyd et al. 2011 ). Across sub-Saharan Africa wild indigenous fruit trees (IFTs) are used for a wide range of purposes, fulfilling subsistence as well as commercial objectives (Bennett 2006 ; Jamnadass et al. 2011 ; Leakey 2003 , 2012 ). IFTs improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development and support sustainable landscape management (Gebauer et al. 2007 ; Mithöfer and Waibel 2008 ; Saied et al. 2008 ; Pye-Smith 2010 ; Ræbild et al. 2011 ). Especially during periods of famine and food scarcity, IFTs provide crucial services to rural communities through the provision of energy and nutrients, including vitamins, minerals and pro


What organic compound is the primary structural component of green plants and also makes-up their primary cell wall?

An Introduction to Molecular Biology/Macromolecules and Cells - Wikibooks, open books for an open world An Introduction to Molecular Biology/Macromolecules and Cells From Wikibooks, open books for an open world Jump to: navigation , search The term Molecular biology was first used by Warren Weaver in 1938. Molecular biology is the study of molecular underpinnings of the processes of replication, transcription, translation, and cellular function. A typical animal cell. Within the cytoplasm, the major organelles and cellular structures include: (1) nucleolus (2) nucleus (3) ribosome (4) vesicle (5) rough endoplasmic reticulum (6) Golgi apparatus (7) cytoskeleton (8) smooth endoplasmic reticulum (9) mitochondria (10) vacuole (11) cytosol (12) lysosome (13) centriole. Contents Macromolecules[ edit ] The term macromolecule was coined by Nobel laureate Hermann Staudinger in the 1920s, although his first relevant publication on this field only mentioned high molecular compounds (in excess of 1,000 atoms). At that time the phrase polymer as introduced by Berzelius in 1833 had a different meaning from that of today: it simply was another form of isomerism, such as an enzene or acetylene, and had little to do with size. Some examples of organic macromolecules are bio-polymers (carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids) or polymers (plastics, synthetic fiber and rubber). Carbohydrates[ edit ] A carbohydrate (kɑ:bəˈhaɪdreɪt/) is an organic compound which has the empirical formula Cm(H2O)n; that is, consists only of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, with a hydrogen:oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water). Carbohydrates can be viewed as hydrates of carbon, hence their name. Structurally however, it is more accurate to view them as polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones. Historically nutritionists have classified carbohydrates as either simple or complex, however, the exact delineation of these categories is ambiguous. Today, the term simple carbohydrate typically refers to monosaccharides and disaccharides, and complex carbohydrate means polysaccharides (and oligosaccharides). a.Monosaccharides[ edit ] Monosaccharides (from Greek monos: single, sacchar: sugar) are the most basic units of biologically important carbohydrates. They are the simplest form of sugar and are usually colorless, water-soluble, crystalline solids. Some monosaccharides have a sweet taste. Examples of monosaccharides include glucose (dextrose), fructose (levulose), galactose, xylose and ribose. Monosaccharides are the building blocks of disaccharides such as sucrose and polysaccharides (such as cellulose and starch). Further, each carbon atom that supports a hydroxyl group (except for the first and last) is chiral, giving rise to a number of isomeric forms all with the same chemical formula. For instance, galactose and glucose are both aldohexoses, but have different chemical and physical properties. b.Disaccharide[ edit ] A disaccharide or biose is the carbohydrate formed when two monosaccharides undergo a condensation reaction which involves the elimination of a small molecule, such as water, from the functional groups only. Like monosaccharides, disaccharides also dissolve in water, taste sweet and are called sugars. The glycosidic bond can be formed between any hydroxyl group on the component monosaccharide. So, even if both component sugars are the same (e.g., glucose), different bond combinations (regiochemistry) and stereochemistry (alpha- or beta-) result in disaccharides that are diastereoisomers with different chemical and physical properties. Depending on the monosaccharide constituents, disaccharides are sometimes crystalline, sometimes water-soluble, and sometimes sweet-tasting and sticky-feeling. Disaccharide c.Oligosaccharide[ edit ] An oligosaccharide (from the Greek oligos, a few, and sacchar, sugar) is a saccharide polymer containing typically three to ten component sugars, also known as many as 8 sugars, or polysaccharides. Oligosaccharides can have many functions; for example, they are commonly found on the plasma membrane of animal cells where they


Which element is added to rubber in the vulcanization process?

Rubber vulcanization | Article about Rubber vulcanization by The Free Dictionary Rubber vulcanization | Article about Rubber vulcanization by The Free Dictionary http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Rubber+vulcanization vulcanization (vŭl'kənəzā`shən), treatment of rubber rubber, any solid substance that upon vulcanization becomes elastic; the term includes natural rubber (caoutchouc) and synthetic rubber. The term elastomer is sometimes used to designate synthetic rubber only and is sometimes extended to include caoutchouc as well. ..... Click the link for more information.  to give it certain qualities, e.g., strength, elasticity, and resistance to solvents, and to render it impervious to moderate heat and cold. Chemically, the process involves the formation of cross-linkages between the polymer chains of the rubber's molecules. Vulcanization is accomplished usually by a process invented by Charles Goodyear Goodyear, Charles, 1800–1860, American inventor, b. New Haven, Conn., originator of vulcanized rubber. He failed in his earlier business ventures and was in jail for debt when he began his experiments with rubber, searching for a way to prevent it from sticking and melting ..... Click the link for more information.  in 1839, involving combination with sulfur and heating. A method of cold vulcanization (treating rubber with a bath or vapors of a sulfur compound) was developed by Alexander Parkes in 1846. Rubber for almost all ordinary purposes is vulcanized; exceptions are rubber cement, crepe-rubber soles, and adhesive tape. Hard rubber is vulcanized rubber in which 30% to 50% of sulfur has been mixed before heating; soft rubber contains usually less than 5% of sulfur. After the sulfur and rubber (and usually an organic accelerator, e.g., an aniline compound, to shorten the time or lower the heat necessary for vulcanization) are mixed, the compound is usually placed in molds and subjected to heat and pressure. The heat may be applied directly by steam, by steam-heated molds, by hot air, or by hot water. Vulcanization can also be accomplished with certain peroxides, gamma radiation, and several other organic compounds. The finished product is not sticky like raw rubber, does not harden with cold or soften much except with great heat, is elastic, springing back into shape when deformed instead of remaining deformed as unvulcanized rubber does, is highly resistant to abrasion and to gasoline and most chemicals, and is a good insulator against electricity and heat. Many synthetic rubbers undergo processes of vulcanization, some of which are similar to that applied to natural rubber. The invention of vulcanization made possible the wide use of rubber and aided the development of such industries as the automobile industry. Vulcanization   a technological process in rubber production in which raw rubber is made into cured rubber. Vulcanization increases the durability, hardness, elasticity, and heat and cold resistance of raw rubber and lowers its degree of swelling and solubility in organic solvents. The essence of vulcanization is the joining of the linear macromolecules of raw rubber into a single, “sewn” system—the so-called vulcanization network. As a result of vulcanization, cross-links are formed between the macromolecules; the number and structure of the cross-links depend on the method of vulcanization. During vulcanization certain properties of the vulcanized mixture change with time, but they pass through a maximum or minimum rather than change constantly. The degree of vulcanization at which the rubber achieves the best combination of various physical and mechanical properties is called the optimal vulcanization. Mixtures of raw rubber with various substances that ensure the necessary useful qualities of the cured rubber (fillers such as carbon black, chalk, and kaolin; softeners; and preservatives) are usually vulcanized. In most instances, raw rubber for general use (natural rubber, butadiene, or butadiene-styrene) is vulcanized by heating it with elemental sulfur to 140°-160° C (sulfur vulcanization).


Because of his advocation for the use of direct current (DC) for electric power distribution, Thomas Edison developed a bitter rivalry with which other genius who advocated alternating current (AC)?

Tesla's Biography          THE GENIUS WHO LIT     THE WORLD     Nikola     Tesla symbolizes a unifying force and inspiration for all nations in the     name of peace and science. He was a true visionary far ahead of his     contemporaries in the field of scientific development.  New York State and many other states in the USA proclaimed July     10, Teslaï¿½s birthday- Nikola Tesla Day. Many     United States Congressmen gave speeches in the House of Representatives     on July 10, 1990 celebrating the 134th anniversary of scientist-inventor     Nikola Tesla. Senator Levine from Michigan spoke in the US Senate on the     same occasion.             The     street sign ï¿½Nikola Tesla Cornerï¿½ was recently placed on the corner     of the 40th Street and 6th Avenue in Manhattan. There is a large photo     of Tesla in the Statue of Liberty Museum. The Liberty Science Center in     Jersey City, New Jersey has a daily science demonstration of the Tesla     Coil creating a million volts of electricity before the spectators eyes.     Many books were written about Tesla : Prodigal     Genius: The Life of Nikola Tesla by John J. Oï¿½Neill  and Margaret Cheneyï¿½s book Tesla:     Man out of Time has contributed significantly to his fame. A     documentary film Nikola Tesla, The Genius Who Lit the World, produced by the Tesla     Memorial Society and the Nikola Tesla Museum in Belgrade, The Secret of Nikola Tesla (Orson Welles), BBC Film Masters     of the Ionosphere are other tributes to the great genius.             Nikola     Tesla was born on July 10, 1856 in Smiljan, Lika,     which was then part of  the Austo-Hungarian Empire, region of Croatia. His father, Milutin Tesla was a Serbian Orthodox Priest and     his mother Djuka Mandic was an inventor in her own right of household     appliances. Tesla studied at the Realschule, Karlstadt in 1873, the     Polytechnic Institute in Graz, Austria and the University of Prague. At     first, he intended to specialize in physics and mathematics, but soon he     became fascinated with electricity. He began his career as an electrical     engineer with a telephone company in Budapest in 1881. It was there, as     Tesla was walking with a friend through the city park that the elusive     solution to the rotating magnetic field flashed through his mind. With a     stick, he drew a diagram in the sand explaining to his friend the     principle of the induction motor. Before going to America, Tesla joined     Continental Edison Company in Paris where he designed dynamos. While in     Strassbourg in 1883, he privately built a prototype of the induction     motor and ran it successfully. Unable to interest anyone in Europe in     promoting this radical device, Tesla accepted an offer to work for     Thomas Edison in New York. His childhood dream was to come to America to     harness the power of Niagara Falls.             Young     Nikola Tesla came to the United States in 1884 with an introduction     letter from Charles Batchelor to Thomas Edison: ï¿½I know two great     men,ï¿½ wrote Batchelor, ï¿½one is you and the other is this young     man.ï¿½ Tesla spent the next 59 years of his productive life living in     New York. Tesla set about improving Edisonï¿½s line of dynamos while     working in Edisonï¿½s lab in New Jersey.  It was here that his divergence of opinion with Edison over     direct current versus alternating current began. This disagreement     climaxed in the war of the currents as Edison fought a losing battle to     protect his investment in direct current equipment and facilities.             Tesla     pointed out the inefficiency of Edisonï¿½s direct current electrical     powerhouses  that have been     build up and down the Atlantic seaboard. The secret, he felt, lay in the     use of alternating current ,because to him all energies were cyclic. Why     not build ge


Endemic to nine islands of an archipelago in the Pacific Ocean, what is the largest living tortoise?

Wikiwix » Wikipedia - Galápagos_Islands Galápagos Islands The Galápagos Islands (official name: Archipiélago de Colón ; other Spanish names: Islas de Colón or Islas Galápagos ) are an archipelago of volcanic islands distributed around the equator in the Pacific Ocean , 972 km (525 nmi) west of continental Ecuador , of which they are Galapagos Islands The Galapagos Islands (official name: Archipiélago de Colón ; Spanish Galápagos , other Spanish names: Islas de Colón or Islas Galápagos ) are an archipelago of volcanic islands distributed around the equator in the Pacific Ocean , 972 km (525 nmi) west of continental Ecuador Galápagos tortoise The Galápagos tortoise or Galápagos giant tortoise ( Chelonoidis nigra ) is the largest living species of tortoise , reaching weights of over 400 kg (880 lb) and lengths of over 1.8 meters (5.9 ft). With life spans in the wild of over 100 years, it is one of the longest-lived vertebrates La Cumbre (Galápagos Islands) disrupt and destroy unique flora and fauna of the area. La Cumbre is the most active volcano of the Galapagos Islands , and is a high occupancy volcano. It is a shield volcano, with a height of 1,476 m (4,842 feet). It has experienced several collapses of the caldera floor, often following Bartolomé Island formations. Bartolomé has a volcanic cone that is easy to climb and provides great views of the other islands . Bartolomé is famous for its Pinnacle Rock, which is the distinctive characteristic of this island, and the most representative landmark of the Galápagos . [ citation needed ] Santa Cruz Island (Galápagos) largest island after Isabela . Its capital is Puerto Ayora , the most populated urban centre in the islands . On Santa Cruz there are some small villages, whose inhabitants work in agriculture and cattle raising. This island is a large dormant volcano. It is estimated that the last eruptions Endemism in birds . [ edit ] Patterns of endemism A single tribe, the Geospizini is endemic to the Galápagos Islands .   This section requires expansion .  [ edit ] Endemic Bird Areas Birdlife International has defined the following Endemic Bird Areas (EBAs) in the Galápagos wikipedia.org |       2010/9/27 2:34:08 Darwin's finches During the survey voyage of HMS Beagle , Darwin had no idea of the significance of the birds of the Galápagos . He had learned how to preserve bird specimens while at the University of Edinburgh and had been keen on shooting, but he had no expertise in ornithology and by this stage of the Falkland Islands Wolf The Falkland Islands Wolf ( Dusicyon australis ), also known as the Warrah and occasionally as the Falkland Islands Dog , Falkland Islands Fox or Antarctic Wolf , was the only native land mammal of the Falkland Islands . This endemic canid became extinct in 1876 (on West Falkland Isabela Island (Galápagos) One of the youngest islands , Isabela is located on the western edge of the archipelago near the Galápagos hotspot . At approximately 1 million years old, the island was formed by the merger of 6 shield volcanoes - Alcedo, Cerro Azul, Darwin, Ecuador, Sierra Negra and Wolf . All of these 1


What type of viper named for an African country has the highest venom yield of any snake?

MANGAT: A fascinating tour of the snake park - Daily Nation A fascinating tour of the snake park Saturday July 25 2015 A tortoise and a snake in Nairobi Snake Park in central snake pit on July 25, 2015. PHOTO | RUPI MANGAT   In Summary The snake park still houses Kenya’s five most venomous snakes besides the Gabon viper – the puff adder, the black mamba, the four species of cobras. The next batch of glass cages are those of the non-venomous reptiles like the rock pythons, sand boas and a monitor lizard. The sand boas snuggle in the sand. A tiny reddish snake coils under the hollowed burrow – it’s a milk snake from America. It was confiscated at the airport probably while being smuggled in as a pet. It’s physically damaging for the snakes to strike the hard glass. Simple warnings by the cages would stop this and updated information would excite the youth more; for instance, information that the Gabon viper is the world’s heaviest viper and has the longest fangs of up to five centimetres and the highest venom yield of any venomous snake. Advertisement Even as a child, the Nairobi Snake Park at the Nairobi National Museum was one of the most fascinating places I had been to. Back then, I would stand transfixed by the glass terrariums, staring at the scales and patterns of snakes in motion and discovering a range of reptiles that I would ordinarily never have known about. One of the most fascinating snakes was the Gabon viper, which my friend recently saw in the wild in Kakamega Forest, its last stronghold. For all my trampling around in that same forest, I have never seen a Gabon viper there. The Gabon viper has a skin pattern that looks like dry fallen leaves on a forest floor. It is such an amazing camouflage that people can pass it without realising it – which is a good thing for the reptile because most people have a fear of snakes (ophidiophobia). It had been 20 years since I last went to the snake park, and my recent visit was disappointing. I remember that the place used to be vibrant and had clean glass cages which housed healthy-looking snakes. Snakes in Nairobi Snake Park in central snake pit on July 25, 2015. PHOTO | RUPI MANGAT THE GLORIOUS PAST While I am reminiscing about the good old days, Raphael Salepal, the snake handler from Baringo, who was trained by Jonathan Leakey, the first curator of the snake park which was opened to the public in 1961, appears with his snake-handling stick, which leads all snakes in the central snake pit to make a beeline towards the stick. Boomslang in Nairobi Snake Park in central snake pit on July 25, 2015. PHOTO | RUPI MANGAT  “They think I am bringing food,” he says. This leads me to think that snakes have some intelligence. I move away from the snake pit towards the cage which hosts the Gabon viper. It is a handsome snake slithering slowly in its cage. Being a Thursday when hordes of schoolchildren visit the museum, the few snake guides are outnumbered by the crowd. The youngsters are fascinated by the snakes, but being ill-informed, they ignorantly tap the glass, leading the snakes to strike. It’s physically damaging for the snakes to strike the hard glass. Simple warnings by the cages would stop this and updated information would excite the youth more; for instance, information that the Gabon viper is the world’s heaviest viper and has the longest fangs of up to five centimetres and the highest venom yield of any venomous snake. The snake park still houses Kenya’s five most venomous snakes besides the Gabon viper – the puff adder, the black mamba, the four species of cobras (black-necked spitting cobra, the red spitting cobra, the forest cobra and the Egyptian cobra), the boomslang and the green mamba. In 2007, the world’s largest spitting cobra was discovered in Kenya and named Naja ashei, after the legendary James Ashe, who was the curator of the snake park at that time. He later started Bio-Ken Snake Farm in Watamu. Blood and tissue samples from the Naja ashei helped to confirm what James Ashe long believed – that the cobra was a different species. To see it you have to


Due to its use by the ruling class to murder one another and for its potency and discreetness, which element has been called the 'Poison of Kings'?

Arsenic | Exodus3000 Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia Edit The word arsenic is borrowed from the Persian word Zarnikh meaning "yellow orpiment". Zarnikh was borrowed by Greek as arsenikon. Also from the similar Greek word "arsenikos" which means masculine or potent. Arsenic compounds (orpiment, realgar) have been known and used since ancient times. As the symptoms of arsenic poisoning were somewhat ill-defined, it was frequently used for murder until the advent of the Marsh test, a sensitive chemical test for its presence. (Another less sensitive but more general test is the Reinsch test.) Due to its use by the ruling class to murder one another and its potency and discreetness, arsenic has been called the Poison of Kings and the King of Poisons. During the Bronze Age, arsenic was often included in bronze, which made the alloy harder (so-called "arsenical bronze"). Arsenic was first isolated by Geber (721–815), an Arabian alchemist Albertus Magnus (Albert the Great, 1193–1280) is believed to have been the first European to isolate the element in 1250 by heating soap together with arsenic trisulfide. In 1649, Johann Schröder published two ways of preparing arsenic. Cadet's fuming liquid (impure cacodyl), the first organometallic compound, was synthesized in 1760 by Louis Claude Cadet de Gassicourt by the reaction of potassium acetate with arsenic trioxide. In the Victorian era, "arsenic" (colourless, crystalline, soluble "white arsenic" trioxide) was mixed with vinegar and chalk and eaten by women to improve the complexion of their faces, making their skin paler to show they did not work in the fields. Arsenic was also rubbed into the faces and arms of women to "improve their complexion". The accidental use of arsenic in the adulteration of foodstuffs led to the Bradford sweet poisoning in 1858, which resulted in approximately 20 deaths and 200 people taken ill with arsenic poisoning. Value The base value of each unit of ranges between 1 and 15Ð per unit, with up to 3 units being found at any one time. Presence on Mars: Common


What 'Z' mineral found in Yilgarn Craton, Western Australia with an age of 4.404 billion years might be the oldest mineral on earth?

Welcome to WWW.RMCGEMS.com || Specialized in Swiss Blue Topaz, Sky Blue Topaz, Tourmaline, Tourmaline Beads, Semi Precious Stones, Precious Beads, Gemstones, AMETHYST, CITRINE, GARNET, IOLITE, PERIDOT, PINK TOURMOULINE, RHODOLITE, SWISS BLUETOPAZ, SKY BLUE-TOPAZ, WHITE TOPAZ, IOLITE SMALLROUND, SWISS BLUETOPAZ SMALLROUND, CABOUCHONES, TOURMOULINE BEADS, SEMI-PRECIOUS BEADS, PRECIOUS BEADS .Zircons and the age of Earth An Overview of Zircon Zircon is a beautiful gemstone with a high refractive index and strong dispersion. (It should not be confused with Cubic Zirconia because the two are completely unrelated.) Zircon exhibits a range of colors including yellow, brown, orange, red, violet, blue, green and colorless. On Mohs’ scale of hardness, it is 6.5-7. It has a vitreous to brilliant luster and sources include Burma (Myanmar), Cambodia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Australia, Brazil, Korea, Madagascar, Mozambique, Nigeria, Tanzania and Vietnam. Zircon is a mineral belonging to the group of nesosilicates. Its chemical name is zirconium silicate and its corresponding chemical formula is ZrSiO4. Hafnium is almost always present in quantities ranging from 1 to 4%. The crystal structure of zircon is tetragonal crystal class. The natural color of zircon varies between colorless, yellow-golden, red, brown, and green. Colorless specimens that show gem quality are a popular substitute for diamond; these specimens are also known as "Matura diamond". It is not to be confused with cubic zirconia, a synthetic substance with a completely different chemical composition. The name either derives from the Arabic word zarqun, meaning vermilion, or from the Persian zargun, meaning golden-colored. These words are corrupted into "jargoon", a term applied to light-colored zircons. Yellow zircon is called hyacinth, from a word of East Indian origin; in the Middle Ages all yellow stones of East Indian origin were called hyacinth, but today this term is restricted to the yellow zircons. Zircon is regarded as the traditional birthstone for December. Properties Zircon is a remarkable mineral, if only for its almost ubiquitous presence in the crust of Earth. It is found in igneous rocks (as primary crystallization products), in metamorphic rocks and in sedimentary rocks (as detrital grains). Large zircon crystals are seldom abundant. Their average size, e.g. in granite rocks, is about 100–300 µm, but they can also grow to sizes of several centimeters, especially in pegmatites. Owing to their uranium and thorium content, some zircons may undergo metamictization. This partially disrupts the crystal structure and explains the highly variable properties of zircon. Zircon is a common accessory mineral and found worldwide. Noted occurrences include: in the Ural Mountains; Trentino, Monte Somma; and Vesuvius, Italy; Arendal, Norway; Sri Lanka, India; Thailand; Ratanakiri, Cambodia; at the Kimberley mines, Republic of South Africa; Madagascar; and in Canada in Renfrew County, Ontario, and Grenville, Quebec. In the United States: Litchfield, Maine; Chesterfield, Massachusetts; in Essex, Orange, and St. Lawrence Counties, New York; Henderson County, North Carolina; the Pikes Peak district of Colorado; and Llano County, Texas. Thorite (ThSiO4) is an isostructural related mineral. Zircon can come in red, brown, yellow, green, black, or colorless. The color of zircons below gem quality can be changed by heat treatment. Depending on the amount of heat applied, colorless, blue, and golden-yellow zircons can be made. Uses Zircons are commercially mined for the metal zirconium, and are used for abrasive and insulating purposes. It is the source of zirconium oxide, one of the most refractory materials known. Crucibles of ZrO are used to fuse platinum at temperatures in excess of 1755 oC. Zirconium metal is used in nuclear reactors due to its neutron absorption properties. Large specimens are appreciated as gemstones, owing to their high refractive index Occurrence Zircon is a common accessory to trace mineral constituent of most granite and felsic igneous rocks. Due t


What nutrients required by the human body for metabolic reactions are classified as water-soluble and fat-soluble? Did you take yours today?

Micronutrients | Learn All About Essential Vitamins & Minerals Trace Minerals Water-Soluble Vitamins If you look to vitamins for a jolt of energy, you are looking in the wrong place – even if a supplement bottle says, “promotes energy,” or makes some other similar vague statement. Vitamins are not energy boosters. Many B vitamins do, however, participate in energy-yielding chemical reactions in the body. This is confusing because calorie is another word for energy. It’s clearer to say that B vitamins help the body get calories from food. While you’re unlikely to get more pep by taking vitamins, eating vitamin-rich foods will certainly help you maintain health. Vitamin B1 - Thiamin Functions: Assists in carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism Recommended Intakes of Thiamin: Your thiamin needs are proportional to your energy or calorie needs. The more calories you consume, the greater your need for this vitamin. The beauty is that the more calories you consume, the more thiamin you automatically consume anyway. The RDA for adult women and men is 1.1 and 1.2 mg, respectively. Sources of Thiamin: Though thiamin is found in most food groups, Americans get most of their thiamin from fortified breakfast cereals and enriched grains such as rice and pasta. Pork, beans and peas are additional sources. When You Get Too Much or Too Little Thiamin: There are no known toxicity symptoms of thiamin. Thiamin deficiency is not common in the U.S., however alcoholics and those who eat a junk food-heavy diet are at risk. A diet of highly processed, but unenriched foods provides ample calories with little thiamin. Additionally, alcohol contributes calories without providing good nutrition, and it interferes with thiamin absorption. Thiamin deficiency disease is called beriberi and is characterized by weight loss, confusion, irritability, nerve damage and muscle wasting. Beriberi became understood in the nineteenth century when refining grains became popular. Populations whose major source of energy was white or polished rice became inflicted with a fatal nerve disease thought to be an infection, but it was really a lack of this B vitamin. Vitamin B2 - Riboflavin Functions: Assists in carbohydrate and fat metabolism Recommended Intakes of Riboflavin: The RDA for riboflavin also reflects energy needs with higher riboflavin intakes recommended for those whose calorie needs are higher. The RDA for adult women and men is 1.1 and 1.3 mg, respectively. Sources of Riboflavin: Diary products, fortified cereals and enriched grains are major contributors of dietary riboflavin. Mushrooms and organ meats such as liver are additional sources. When You Get Too Much or Too Little Riboflavin: The body readily excretes excess riboflavin, so there are no apparent toxicity symptoms. Like thiamin deficiency, riboflavin deficiency is uncommon, but alcoholism increases an individual’s risk. The symptoms include swollen mouth and throat, dermatitis and anemia. Niacin - Nicotinamide, Nicotinic Acid Plays a role in immune function Assists in the synthesis of neurotransmitters, DNA and hormones Special interest in vitamin C in the treatment or prevention of the common cold: A review of the research does not suggest that vitamin C supplements prevent colds in the general public. However, among those subjected to extreme cold or engaging in extreme physical activity, vitamin C doses ranging between 250 mg/day to 1000 mg/day reduced the incidence of colds by 50%. Taken before the onset of a cold, supplemental vitamin C appears to slightly reduce the length of the cold. Recommended Intakes of Vitamin C: The RDA for men and women is 90 and 75 milligrams respectively. Smokers should add and additional 35 milligrams per day. Sources of Vitamin C: Vitamin C is present in fruits and vegetables. Rich sources include bell peppers, citrus fruits, strawberries, pineapple, kiwifruit, potatoes, tomatoes, broccoli and leafy greens. When You Get Too Much or Too Little Vitamin C: The UL is 2,000 mg. Excess vitamin C may cause nosebleeds, nausea and gastrointestinal distress including cra


What is the largest living sub-species of the tiger?

Iconic Cats: All 9 Subspecies of Tigers Iconic Cats: All 9 Subspecies of Tigers By Live Science Staff | November 16, 2010 02:39pm ET MORE Sumatran Tiger Credit: © Iorboaz, dreamstime Tigers are the largest members of the cat family (Felidae) and one of the most charismatic endangered species on the planet. Over the last century, tiger numbers have fallen by about 95 percent and tigers now survive in 40 percent less of the area they occupied just a decade ago, according to the World Wildlife Fund (WWF). Tigers have the species name Panthera tigris. There are nine subspecies of tigers, three of which are extinct. A meeting set to begin in Russia on Sunday (Nov. 21) will examine some of the issues facing tigers in the wild and efforts to better conserve the six surviving tiger subspecies. Here we look at what sets each of these species apart. Amur (or Siberian) tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) Credit: David Lawson / WWF-UK. Amur tigers (also known as Siberian, Manchurian, Ussurian, or Northeast China tigers) are the largest of the tiger subspecies. Males can grow up to more 10.5 feet (3.3 m) from head to tail and weigh up to 660 pounds (300 kilograms). Females are smaller, reaching just 8.5 feet (2.6 m) in length and about 200 to 370 pounds (100 to 167 kilograms) in weight. Amur tigers have paler orange fur than the other tiger species and brown instead of black stripes. They have white chests and bellies and a white ruff of fur around their necks. According to the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation's Save the Tiger Fund, wild Amur tigers are found in two main populations in in the Russian Far East, the primary population of about 450 individuals covers 60,000 square miles (156,000 sq km) in Primosky and Khabarovski Krais, and another small population of about 35 individuals occurs on the Russia-China border and into northeast China. Officials representing China's Jilin province and Russia's Primorsky province, areas just north of the Korean peninsula, recently signed an agreement to set up a protected area straddling their countries' common border to safeguard the tiger, which is listed as Endangered on the International Union for the Conservation of Nature's Red List of Threatened Species. Like many other threatened species, Amur tigers are being bred in zoos around the world to boost their populations and maintain healthy genetic stocks. Amur tiger triplets born in September recently made their public debut at the Pittsburgh Zoo. The Wildlife Conservation Society's Bronx Zoo also has a set of Amur tiger cubs. Indian (or Bengal) tiger (Panthera tigris tigris) Credit: stock.xchng The most numerous of the tiger species, the Bengal tiger is found in India, Bangladesh, Nepal and Bhutan. India is home to the largest population, estimated to between 2,500 and 3,750 individuals, according to the Save the Tigers Fund. While most Bengal tigers have the coloration typically associated with their species, a recessive gene for coloration causes some to be cream or white in color instead of orange, according to the WWF. These "white" tigers are rarely found in the wild. Wild tigers dwell in dry and wet deciduous forests, grassland and temperate forests and mangrove forests. While this subspecies has more individuals left in the wild than its brethren, it is still listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List. South China tiger (Panthera tigris amoyensis) Credit: © Xiaobin Qiu, dreamstime Found in central and eastern China, the South China tiger is listed as Critically Endangered on the Red List one step higher than Endangered. According to the WWF, the South China tiger is estimated to be functionally extinct. Currently 47 South China tigers live in 18 zoos, all in China, the WWF says. Exact numbers of wild tigers, if there are any left, are unknown. Only 40 years ago there were reputed to be more than 4,000 tigers, but the government declared them pests, and they were hunted, according to the Save the Tigers Fund. Field surveys conducted in 1987 and 1990 found evidence of a few tigers in the remote mountains of Guangdong, Hunan, and F


What is the largest species of the salmon family that also shares its name with an Indian tribe?

Chinook Salmon - National Wildlife Federation Chinook Salmon Genus:  Oncorhynchus   Species: tshawytscha The Chinook salmon is an important keystone species of the Pacific Northwest. It is a vital food source for a diversity of wildlife, including orca whales, bears, seals and large birds of prey. Chinook salmon is also prized by people who harvest salmon both commercially and for sport. The health of Chinook salmon depends entirely on your location – Alaskan stocks are very healthy, while those in the Columbia River are in danger. Protection of Chinook salmon is crucial to maintain healthy Pacific Northwest ecosystems and to provide a delicious food source for years to come.  Description:  Chinook salmon are blue-green on the head and back. The sides are silvery. The tail, back and upper fin have irregular, black spots. There are also black markings around the gums. During the mating season the salmon develop a reddish tint around the back fins and tail. It is possible to tell the difference between males and females. Male Chinook salmon have a distinctive hooked nose at the top of the mouth. Less noticeable is the male's ridged back. Females do not have a ridge. Size:  Chinook salmon are big fish! They are the largest Pacific salmon species. On average, Chinook salmon are 3 feet long and approximately 30 pounds. But some Chinook salmon can grow to over 5 feet long and 110 pounds! Diet:  Young Chinook salmon will eat small invertebrates, including crustaceans, and amphipods. Adult salmon dine on smaller fish.  Typical Lifespan:  Chinook salmon live about 3-7 years. For the first year or so the juvenile salmon stays in freshwater habitat. Soon it will move to the estuaries and then the open ocean. Estuaries provide a lot of food and nutrients to the developing salmon. The fish will spend approximately 2-4 years feeding in the ocean before returning to the spawning grounds to breed and die.  Habitat:  Chinook salmon utilize many different habitats during their lives. Adults lay salmon eggs in fast moving, freshwater streams and rivers. Juvenile salmon spend some time in the freshwater streams before moving to mixed salt and freshwater estuaries. As the salmon reach adulthood, they move out into the open ocean. Range:   Chinook salmon live in the colder, upper reaches of the Pacific Ocean. They live around the coasts of Alaska, western Canada, Oregon, Idaho, Washington and northern California. Chinook salmon can also be found in Russian and Japanese waters. Chinook salmon breed in the freshwater rivers and streams of the Pacific Northwest. Chinook salmon have been introduced into numerous water bodies including the Great Lakes, where it is not native.  Life History and Reproduction:  Chinook salmon are diadromous, which means that they spend part of their life in the salt-water of the ocean and the other part of their life in freshwater rivers and streams. Chinook salmon are born in freshwater streams and they travel to the open ocean to grow into adulthood. At reproductive maturity, they will swim back to their birth stream and produce young.  When an adult Chinook salmon reaches maturity at about 3-7 years of age, it makes the long migratory journey back to the site of its birth. After so many years, some salmon can be hundreds of miles away from their birth stream. The time of the breeding depends on the river and population of salmon. Typically, they breed in the summer and autumn. At their birth stream, male and female salmon pair up to breed. The female digs a nesting hole (also called a redd). She deposits thousands of eggs in the redd before the male releases his sperm. After mating, the male and females stand guard over the eggs to protect them from predators. Chinook salmon burn a lot of energy migrating to the nesting grounds, breeding and protecting the eggs. Both parents will die before the eggs even hatch. Threats to Chinook Salmon: