In what country is Khmer the primary language?

Cambodia - LANGUAGES LANGUAGES Cambodia Table of Contents The majority of Cambodians, even those who are not ethnic Khmer,     speak Khmer, the official language of the country. Ethnic Khmer living     in Thailand, in Vietnam, and in Laos speak dialects of Khmer that are     more or less intelligible to Khmer speakers from Cambodia. Minority     languages include Vietnamese, Cham, several dialects of Chinese, and the     languages of the various hill tribes. Austroasiatic-Mon-Khmer Khmer belongs to the Mon-Khmer family of the Austroasiatic phylum of     languages. American linguists David Thomas and Robert Headley have     divided the Mon-Khmer family into nine branches: Pearic in western     Cambodia and eastern Thailand; Khmer in Cambodia, Thailand, Vietnam, and     Laos; Bahnaric in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia; Katuic in Vietnam, Laos,     and Cambodia; Khmuic in Laos, Thailand, and China; Monic in Burma and     Thailand; Palaungic in Burma, China, and Thailand; Khasi in Assam     (India); and Viet-Muong in Vietnam. Of the languages in the Mon-Khmer     family, Vietnamese has the largest number of speakers (about 47     million); Khmer, has the next largest (about 8 million). Khmer, in contrast to Vietnamese, Thai, Lao, and Chinese, is     nontonal. Native Khmer words may be composed of one or two syllables.     Khmer is uninflected, but it has a rich system of affixes, including     infixes, for derivation. Generally speaking, Khmer has nouns (including     pronouns as a special subcategory), verbs (including stative verbs or     adjectives), adverbs, and various kinds of words called particles     (including verbal auxiliaries, prepositions, conjunctions, final     particles, and interjections). Many Khmer words change, chameleon-like,     from one part of speech to another, depending on the context. The normal     word order is subject-verb-object. Adjectival modifiers follow the nouns     they modify. Khmer, like its neighbors, Thai, Lao, and Burmese, has borrowed     extensively from other languages, especially the Indic languages of     Sanskrit and Pali. Khmer uses Sanskrit and Pali roots much as English     and other West European languages use Latin and Greek roots to derive     new, especially scientific, words. Khmer has also borrowed terms--     especially financial, commercial, and cooking terms--from Chinese. In     the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Khmer borrowed from French as     well. These latter borrowings have been in the realm of material     culture, especially the names for items of modern Western technology,     such as buuzii (spark plug) from the French bougie. Khmer is written in a script derived from a south Indian alphabet.     The language has symbols for thirty-three consonants, twenty-four     dependent vowels, twelve independent vowels, and several diacritic. Most     consonants have reduced or modified forms, called subscripts, when they     occur as the second member of a consonant cluster. Vowels may be written     before, after, over, or under a consonant symbol. Some efforts to standardize Khmer spelling have been attempted, but     inconsistencies persist, and many words have more than one accepted     spelling. A two-volume dictionary prepared under the direction of the     Venerable Chuon Nath of the Buddhist Institute in Phnom Penh is the     standard work on Khmer lexicography. Khmer is divided into three stages--Old Khmer (seventh to twelfth     century A.D.), Middle Khmer (twelfth to seventeenth century A.D.), and     Modern Khmer (seventeenth century to the present). It is likely that Old     Khmer was the language of Chenla. What the language of Funan was, but it     was is not at all certain, probably a Mon-Khmer language. The earliest     inscription in Khmer, found at Angkor Borei in Takev Province south of     Phnom Penh, dates from A.D. 611. Austronesian The Austronesian


The Great Water Highway through New York State, 1829 Volume I. LIFE IN THE EAST, chapter 7, pp. 104-114 The Great Water Highway through New York State, 1829 The following account is not technically a travel "book," for it was published in a Philadelphia periodical, The Ariel, in 1829-30 under the title, "Notes on a Tour through the Western Part of the State of New York." The author is unknown, though the narration makes it clear he was a Pennsylvanian, probably from Bristol. It is an unvarnished, unadorned record, with out pretension to literary style. Yet, despite the plain manner in which it is presented, it contains an extremely vivid picture of the modes of travel between New York City and the West. For purposes of comparison, two brief notes, one on Hudson River steamboats and the other on the canal and stage route from Albany to Buffalo, are appended. These excerpts come from a manuscript diary written by Thomas S. Woodcock in 1836 but not printed until 1938 by the New York Public Library under the editorship of Deoch Fulton. Steamboats had been running since 1807 on the Hudson, and by the time the "Notes" were written in 1829 such transportation had been well developed. Both day and night steamers made the voyage, but it is apparent from our two accounts that travelers wishing to see the sights preferred the former. The Erie Canal had only been opened along its complete length for four years when the traveler of the "Notes" used it. Though we have today the impression that tourists went on board in Albany and remained until Buffalo was reached, it is clear from the two accounts that a combination of stage-coaches was frequently made with the canal boats because of the slowness of the latter. Two types of canal boat existed. The slow-moving, less-expensive, freight-and-passenger combination, known as "Line Boats," was used by our traveler of 1829; the faster, more luxurious, passenger service, known as "Canal Packets," was employed by Woodcock. ------------------------------------- May 5th. -- In New York I took my lodging at Mrs. Man's boarding house, No. 61, Broadway. After making some improvements in my appearance, such as brushing up my hat and coat, and brushing off my beard, I issued forth into the splendid avenue, where all the beauty and fashion of this gay city daily promenade, to enjoy the pleasure of a walk. After walking and walking, and walking further, until my feet exhibited an alarming regiment of blisters, I wended my tedious way back to my lodgings -- took a peep at the medley of boarders that thronged the house -- looked at (but did no more than taste) the shaved dried beef and prepared bread-and-butter on the supper-table for the former was cut in true Vauxhall style, one pound to cover half an acre, and the latter was only alarmed by butter -- sipped a dish of tea, and made my escape to bed, ruminating on the horrors of an empty stomach tantalized by a New York supper. May 6th. -- Got up early, fresh and active had a good night's rest, in spite of a slim supper paid for that and my bed -- one dollar -- just four times as much as the whole was worth. Pushed off to the North America steamboat, and took passage to Albany -- fare, two dollars. The night boats, as they are called, that is, the boats which go in the night, are some of them as low as one dollar, board included; but you lose the pleasure which even common minds must feel when gazing on the glorious scenery that fringes the borders of the mighty Hudson, and which, to a stranger, fully makes up the difference. The North America is a splendid and superior boat, far surpassing all others that ply upon the Hudson, and ploughs her majestic course through the waves at the rate of fifteen miles an hour. I should estimate the number of passengers on board to day at three hundred, all of whom had the appearance of belonging to the higher order of society, as the low priced boats are favored with the rabble, who move about here so often, and in such numbers, as to give those boats a good support. We left the wharf about seven and passed by the g


Florence, Italy Currency and Costs - ISA Money Matters Currency The Euro is the official currency of Italy. The euro (€) was launched in two stages. First, in January 1999, to became the new official currency of 11 EU Member States, replacing the old national currencies - such as the Italian lira. It was introduced in the virtual form for bank transactions. The second stage, in January 2002, was when the euro officially appeared in circulation. The euro is not the currency of all EU Member States. Two countries, Denmark and the United Kingdom, agreed to opt-out, while many of the newest EU members have yet to meet the conditions for adopting the currency. Once they do so, they will replace their national currency with the euro. There are 8 different euro coin denominations and 7 different euro bill denominations in circulation. Coins are denominated in 2 and 1 euro, then 50, 20, 10, 5, 2 and 1 cents. Each member state decorated their own coins, but all coins are interchangeable within the countries. Bills are denominated in 500, 200, 100, 50, 20, 10 and 5 and they vary in color and size. Conversion Rates What is the Euro worth compared to the dollar? With the euro in constant flux, please see www.oanda.com for up-to-date exchange rates. While traveling, it may be helpful to carry a portable currency converter (found at travel stores). Sometimes in the form of a key-chain, this is a handy gadget (like a calculator) into which you enter the exchange rate (depending on the exchange rate at the time and the country in which you are located) save, and then simply enter prices and the device converts the amounts into dollars. Cost of Living While areas in Florence can be expensive, there are many ways to live comfortably on a budget, if you pay attention to what you spend and look out for different deals and events offered throughout the city. Budgeting Due to the change in exchange rates and vast differences in individual spending habits, we can only give you estimated figures, however, most students seem to spend around $300 per week. This figure does not include extra traveling, heavy shopping, or frequent restaurant dining. Please keep in mind that some students spend less and others spend more. When budgeting, keep in mind that it is always better to overestimate than to underestimate. Please see the brief list below for an idea of approximate expenses for the most common items a typical student will encounter. Food/Drinks Entertainment ≈ €20-40 / week (varies greatly per student) Travel Train Ticket ≈ €10-75 one way (varies according to destination) Hotel: ≈ €80-110 / night


On what Turkish mountain is Noah's ark often said to have landed?

Noah's Ark Found in Turkey? Noah's Ark Found in Turkey? The expedition team is "99.9 percent" sure. Others, well, aren't. View Images Near the top of Mount Ararat (seen from Armenia in a file photo) in Turkey, explorers claim to have found Noah's ark. Photograph by Martin Gray, National Geographic A team of evangelical Christian explorers claim they've found the remains of Noah's ark beneath snow and volcanic debris on Turkey 's Mount Ararat (map) . Related Content (See "Noah's Ark Discovered in Iran?" and "Noah's Ark Quest Dead in Water—Was It a Stunt?" ) "I don't know of any expedition that ever went looking for the ark and didn't find it," said Paul Zimansky , an archaeologist specializing in the Middle East at Stony Brook University in New York State. Turkish and Chinese explorers from a group called Noah's Ark Ministries International made the latest discovery claim Monday in Hong Kong, where the group is based. "It's not 100 percent that it is Noah's ark, but we think it is 99.9 percent that this is it," Yeung Wing-cheung, a filmmaker accompanying the explorers, told The Daily Mail. Raw Video: Purported Site of Noah's Ark in Turkey (Courtesy Noah's Ark Ministries International) Noah's Ark Location in Turkey a Secret The team claims to have found in 2007 and 2008 seven large wooden compartments buried at 13,000 feet (4,000 meters) above sea level, near the peak of Mount Ararat. They returned to the site with a film crew in October 2009. Many Christians believe the mountain in Turkey is the final resting place of Noah's ark, which the Bible says protected Noah, his family, and pairs of every animal species on Earth during a divine deluge that wiped out most of humanity. "The structure is partitioned into different spaces," said Noah's Ark Ministries International team member Man-fai Yuen in a statement. "We believe that the wooden structure we entered is the same structure recorded in historical accounts. ... " The team says radiocarbon-dated wood taken from the discovery site—whose location they're keeping secret for now—shows the purported ark is about 4,800 years old, which coincides roughly with the time of Noah's flood implied by the Bible. (Related: "'Noah's Flood' May Have Triggered European Farming." ) "Noah's Ark" Wood "Way, Way, Way Too Young" Skepticism of the new Noah's ark claim extends to at least one scholar who interprets the Bible literally. Biologist Todd Wood is director of the Center for Origins Research at Bryan College in Tennessee, which pursues biology in a creationist framework. As a creationist, Wood believes God created Earth and its various life-forms out of nothing roughly 6,000 years ago. "If you accept a young chronology for the Earth ... then radiocarbon dating has to be reinterpreted," because the method often yields dates much older than 6,000 years, Wood said. Radiocarbon dating estimates the ages of organic objects by measuring the radioisotope carbon 14, which is known to decay at a set rate over time. The method is generally thought to reach its limit with objects about 60,000 years old. Earth is generally thought to be about four and a half billion years old. Across the board, radiocarbon dates need to be recalibrated, Wood believes, to reflect shorter time frames. Given this perceived overestimation in radiocarbon dating, the wood the Noah's Ark Ministries International team found should have a "traditional" radiocarbon date of several tens of thousands of years if the wood is truly 4,800 years old, Wood said. "I'm really, really skeptical that this could possibly be Noah's Ark," he added. The wood date is "way, way, way too young." Wood thinks Noah's ark will never be found, because "it would have been prime timber after the flood," he said. "If you just got off the ark, and there's no trees, what are you going to build your house out of? You've got a huge boat made of wood, so let's use that," he said. "So I think it got torn apart and scavenged for building material basically." (Related: National Geographic's search for Noah's flood .) "Noah's Ark" Found in Right Country, on


Capital of West Germany - definition of Capital of West Germany by The Free Dictionary Capital of West Germany - definition of Capital of West Germany by The Free Dictionary http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Capital+of+West+Germany Also found in: Thesaurus , Encyclopedia , Wikipedia . Bonn  (bŏn, bôn) A city of west-central Germany on the Rhine River. Founded as a Roman garrison in the first century ad, it is noted as the birthplace of Ludwig van Beethoven (1770) and was the capital of West Germany (1949-1990). Bonn (bɒn; German bɔn) n (Placename) a city in W Germany, in North Rhine-Westphalia on the Rhine: the former capital (1949–90) of West Germany; university (1786). Pop: 311 052 (2003 est) Bonn (bɒn, bɔn) n. a city in W Germany, on the Rhine: the capital of West Germany 1949–90; capital of Germany 1990–99. 293,072. ThesaurusAntonymsRelated WordsSynonymsLegend: Noun 1. Bonn - a city in western Germany on the Rhine River; was the capital of West Germany between 1949 and 1989 Deutschland , FRG , Germany , Federal Republic of Germany - a republic in central Europe; split into East Germany and West Germany after World War II and reunited in 1990 Translations


What's the Spanish name for the United States?

Spanish Word for united-states | united-states in Spanish Spanish Word for united-states   Spanish Word: los estados unidos Now you know how to say united states in Spanish. :-) Translated sentences containing 'united states' I'm looking for the address of the United States Embassy. Busco la dirección de la Embajada de Estados Unidos. She had called the President of the United States. Ella hubo llamado al presidente de los Estados Unidos. He visited the United States of America. Él visitó Estado Unidos de América. Do you want to send it inside the United States or to another country? ¿Lo quiere mandar adentro de Los Estados Unidos o a otro país? Can you send it to me in the United States? Me lo puede mandar a los estados unidos? In the United States it's common to leave a 15 to 20 percent tip. En los Estados Unidos es común dejar una propina de 15 a 20 por ciento de la cuenta. I will take a guided tour in the Great Lakes of United States Yo voy a hacer un circuito turístico por los Grandes Lagos de Estados Unidos Is the flight to the United States direct or does it makes any stopover? ¿El vuelo a Estados Unidos es directo, o hace alguna escala? How long would it take for this letter to arrive in the United States? ¿Cuánto tiempo tardaría esta carta en llegar a los Estados Unidos? How long would it take for this package to arrive in the United States? ¿Cuánto tiempo tardaría este paquete en llegar a los Estados Unidos? This tendency has propagated throughout the United States. Esta tendencia se ha propagado por todo Estados Unidos. the United States


What island is divided between Greek and Turkish factions?

Cyprus - a divided island Cyprus - a divided island "Excited voices roared across the walls of the other courtyards ... War! Ecevit had ordered Turkish troops into Cyprus to protect the rights of Turkish Cypriot citizens, who were being oppressed by the Greeks. At least that was the 'truth' as seen by the Turkish journalists." -- Midnight Express, Billy Hayes On the 20th of July 1974 Turkey invaded Cyprus. On the 18th of November 1983 the North was unilaterally declared as the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus . A state that no other country with the exception of Turkey recognises. Cyprus today is a divided island. A Green Line divides the island. On the Turkish side razor wire, minefields, watch-towers every few hundred metres. A scene reminiscent of the Cold War and the Iron Curtain dividing East and West Germany. Famagusta is a ghost town. Many refugees , both Turkish and Greek Cypriots fled to the South. An estimated 40-50,000 Turkish troops illegally occupy Northern Cyprus. Possibly as many as 100,000 Turkish settlers, many against their will, have moved into Northern Cyprus. Stories of atrocities filter across the border. Reports filter out of systematic and widespread plunder and destruction of Greek archaeological sites. It takes two to tango. In the early 1970's Turkey was looking for an excuse to invade. A handful of Greek Cypriots gave Turkey that excuse. Spurred on by a fascist military junta in Greece they mounted an abortive coup against the legitimate government of Cyprus. With genuine fears for the Turkish Cypriot minority Turkey initially had the tacit approval of the International Community. In the first invasion (20 July 1974) Turkey secured an area around Kyrenia. In defiance of a UN Security Council resolution to withdraw its forces, Turkey mounted a second invasion on the 14th of August 1974. Within two days, Turkey had captured more than a third of the territory of Cyprus. The fascist junta in Greece has long given way to a democratic regime, the Turkish occupying forces remain in place. Turkey occupies 37% of the island's land. 165,000 people fled from the North of the island, not only Greek Cypriots but also Turkish Cypriots. 45,000 Turkish Cypriots were 'helped' to flee to the North by attacks by out-of-control Greek Cypriot paramilitary units and attacks by Turkish Cypriot terror units. More than 200,000 people became refugees in their own land. A tiny handful of Greek Cypriots remain in the North , determined not to be driven from their homes. Many of those that remain are elderly and in their 60s, 70s and 80s. A steady stream of Turkish Cypriots has continued to leave the North to live abroad. They find that their cosmopolitan world view is increasingly at odds with the repressive regime back home. Denktash has called these migrants 'traitors', conveniently forgetting that it is his repressive regime that is driving these people to leave their own country. A Turkish Cypriot opponent of Denktash described occupied Cyprus as 'a prison in the sun'. He was one of many Turkish Cypriot critics of Denktash, who is seen by many Turkish Cypriots as nothing more than a puppet of Ankara. Tourists who visit occupied Northern Cyprus describe on their return to freedom a holiday spent in a Police State - soldiers and police everywhere, watching every movement. Turkey is a repressive, brutal, Islamic regime, on a par with Indonesia, Iran or Iraq. Repression against its own people is well documented. Repression of lawyers, writers, intellectuals, students, trade union officials, human rights campaigners, minority groups within Turkey, especially Christian, Armenian, Greek and Kurdish minorities.  Human rights groups who monitor the level of abuse and attempt to collect evidence find themselves in turn subjected to harassment and abuse. Human rights offices are closed or threatened with closure. Officials are threatened and intimidated. On Tuesday 12 May 1998, Akin Birdal, head of the Turkish Human Rights Association (IHD) was gunned down at his office in Ankara. Early May 199


"What is another name for a ""Brownshirt""?"

Blackshirts - definition of Blackshirts by The Free Dictionary Blackshirts - definition of Blackshirts by The Free Dictionary http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Blackshirts Also found in: Thesaurus , Encyclopedia , Wikipedia . Related to Blackshirts: Brownshirts also Black·shirt  (blăk′shûrt′) n. A member of a fascist party organization having a black shirt as part of its uniform, especially an Italian fascist. Blackshirt (ˈblækˌʃɜːt) n (Historical Terms) (in Europe) a member of a fascist organization, esp a member of the Italian Fascist party before and during World War II ThesaurusAntonymsRelated WordsSynonymsLegend: Blackshirt - a member of the Italian fascist party before World War II fascist - an adherent of fascism or other right-wing authoritarian views Translations [ˈblækʃɜːt] N (Pol) → camisa negra mf Blackshirt Want to thank TFD for its existence? Tell a friend about us , add a link to this page, or visit the webmaster's page for free fun content . Link to this page: SS References in periodicals archive ? For by 1936, Mosley's Blackshirts were known for their virulent anti-semitism - and the route of the march would take them straight through Whitechapel, home to thousands of Jews. Copyright © 2003-2017 Farlex, Inc Disclaimer All content on this website, including dictionary, thesaurus, literature, geography, and other reference data is for informational purposes only. This information should not be considered complete, up to date, and is not intended to be used in place of a visit, consultation, or advice of a legal, medical, or any other professional.


What group sacked Baghdad in 1258, ending the Islamic Golden Age?

Siege of Baghdad (1258) | Military Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia Siege of Baghdad (1258) Part of the Mongol invasions Hulagu's army conducting a siege on Baghdad walls Date January 29 – February 10, 1258 Location 1,000 Chinese bombardiers and engineers Turkic and Persian soldiers Cavalry Infantry Strength 120,000 [3] -150,000 [4] 50,000 Casualties and losses Unknown but believed to be minimal 50,000 soldiers, Levant The Siege of Baghdad, occurring from January 29 until February 10, 1258, entailed the investment , capture, and sacking of Baghdad, the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate, by Ilkhanate Mongol forces and allied troops. The Mongols were under the command of Hulagu Khan , brother of the khagan Möngke Khan , and had intended to further extend their rule into Mesopotamia but not to directly overthrow the Caliphate. Möngke, however, had instructed Hulagu to attack Baghdad if the Caliph Al-Musta'sim refused Mongol demands for his continued submission to the khagan and the payment of tribute in the form of military support for Mongol forces in Iran. Hulagu had begun his campaign in Iran with several offensives against Nizari groups, including the Assassins , whose stronghold of Alamut his forces seized. He then marched on Baghdad, demanding that Al-Musta'sim accede to the terms imposed by Möngke on the Abbasids. Although the Abbasids had failed to prepare for the invasion, the Caliph believed that Baghdad could not fall to invading forces and refused to surrender. Hulagu subsequently besieged the city, which surrendered on February 10. During the next week, the Mongols sacked Baghdad, committing numerous atrocities and destroying the Abbasids' vast libraries, including the House of Wisdom . The Mongols executed Al-Musta'sim and massacred many residents of the city, which was left greatly depopulated. The siege is considered to mark the end of the Islamic Golden Age , during which the caliphates had extended their rule from the Iberian Peninsula to Sindh, and which was also marked by many cultural achievements. [7] Contents Edit Baghdad had for centuries been the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate, the third caliphate and whose rulers were descendants of Abbas , uncle of Muhammad . In 751, the Abbasids had overthrown the Umayyads, and had moved the Caliph's seat from Damascus to Baghdad. At the city's peak, it was populated by approximately one million people and was defended by an army of 60,000 soldiers. By the middle of the 13th century, however, the power of the Abbasids had declined and Turkic and Mamluk warlords often held power over the Caliphs. The city still retained much symbolic significance, however, and it remained a rich and cultured city. The Caliphs of the 12th and 13th centuries had begun to ally with the expanding Mongol Empire in the east, and Caliph an-Nasir li-dini'llah , who reigned from 1180-1225, may have attempted to ally with Genghis Khan when Muhammad II of Khwarezm threatened to attack the Abbasids. [8] It has been rumored [9] that some Crusader captives may have been sent as tribute to the Mongol khagan. According to The Secret History of the Mongols , Genghis and his successor, Ögedei Khan , ordered their general Chormaqan to attack Baghdad. [10] In 1236, Chormaqan led a division of the Mongol army to Irbil , [11] which remained under Abbasid rule. Further raids on Irbil and other regions of the caliphate became nearly annual occurrences. [12] Some raids were alleged to have reached Baghdad itself, [13] but these Mongol incursions were not always successful, with Abbasid forces defeating the invaders in 1238 [14] and 1245. [15] Despite their successes, the Abbasids hoped to come to terms with the Mongols and by 1241 they had adopted the practice of sending annual tribute to the court of the khagan. [13] Envoys from the Caliph were present at the coronation of Güyük Khan as khagan in 1246 [16] and that of Möngke Khan in 1251. [17] During his brief reign, Güyük insisted that the Caliph Al-Musta'sim fully submit to Mongol rule and come personally to Karakorum . Blame for the Caliph's refusal a


Who did Rome fight against in the Punic Wars?

Punic Wars - Ancient History - HISTORY.com Google Background and First Punic War (264-241 B.C.) Tradition holds that Phoenician settlers from the Mediterranean port of Tyre (in what is now Lebanon) founded the city-state of Carthage on the northern coast of Africa, just north of modern-day Tunis, around 814 B.C. (The word “Punic,” later the name for the series of wars between Carthage and Rome, was derived from the Latin word for Phoenician.) By 265 B.C., Carthage was the wealthiest and most advanced city in the region, as well as its leading naval power. Though Carthage had clashed violently with several other powers in the region, notably Greece, its relations with Rome were historically friendly, and the cities had signed several treaties defining trading rights over the years. Did You Know? The Greek historian Polybius, one of the main sources of information about the Punic Wars, was born around 200 B.C. A friend of and mentor to Scipio Aemilianus, he was an eyewitness to the siege and destruction of Carthage in 146 B.C. In 264 B.C., Rome decided to intervene in a dispute on the western coast of the island of Sicily (then a Carthaginian province) involving an attack by soldiers from the city of Syracuse against the city of Messina. While Carthage supported Syracuse, Rome supported Messina, and the struggle soon exploded into a direct conflict between the two powers, with control of Sicily at stake. Over the course of nearly 20 years, Rome rebuilt its entire fleet in order to confront Carthage’s powerful navy, scoring its first sea victory at Mylae in 260 B.C. and a major victory in the Battle of Ecnomus in 256 B.C. Though its invasion of North Africa that same year ended in defeat, Rome refused to give up, and in 241 B.C. the Roman fleet was able to win a decisive victory against the Carthaginians at sea, breaking their legendary naval superiority. At the end of the First Punic War, Sicily became Rome’s first overseas province. Second Punic War (218-201 B.C.) Over the next decades, Rome took over control of both Corsica and Sardinia as well, but Carthage was able to establish a new base of influence in Spain beginning in 237 B.C., under the leadership of the powerful general Hamilcar Barca and, later, his son-in-law Hasdrubal. According to Polybius and Livy in their histories of Rome, Hamilcar Barca, who died in 229 B.C., made his younger son Hannibal swear a blood oath against Rome when he was just a young boy. Upon Hasdrubal’s death in 221 B.C., Hannibal took command of Carthaginian forces in Spain. Two years later, he marched his army across the Ebro River into Saguntum, an Iberian city under Roman protection, effectively declaring war on Rome. The Second Punic War saw Hannibal and his troops–including as many as 90,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry and a number of elephants–march from Spain across the Alps and into Italy, where they scored a string of victories over Roman troops at Ticinus, Trebia and Trasimene. Hannibal’s daring invasion of Rome reached its height at Cannae in 216 B.C., where he used his superior cavalry to surround a Roman army twice the size of his own and inflict massive casualties. After this disastrous defeat, however, the Romans managed to rebound, and the Carthaginians lost hold in Italy as Rome won victories in Spain and North Africa under the rising young general Publius Cornelius Scipio (later known as Scipio Africanus). In 203 B.C., Hannibal’s forces were forced to abandon the struggle in Italy in order to defend North Africa, and the following year Scipio’s army routed the Carthaginians at Zama. Hannibal’s losses in the Second Punic War effectively put an end to Carthage’s empire in the western Mediterranean, leaving Rome in control of Spain and allowing Carthage to retain only its territory in North Africa. Carthage was also forced to give up its fleet and pay a large indemnity to Rome in silver. Third Punic War (149-146 B.C.) The Third Punic War, by far the most controversial of the three conflicts between Rome and Carthage, was the result of efforts by Cato the Elder and other hawkish


What yellow gas was famously used in WWI?

Trenches on the Web - Armory: Gas Warfare The use of gas at Langemarck ø as reported in the New York Tribune, April 27, 1915 The horrors of gas warfare had never been seen on a battlefield until 1915. The Germans have been credited with the first use, but the French and English were not far behind. Gas was a nuisance, a crippling nuisance, often only wounding and causing widespread panic instead of outright killing. Add a gas mask to the already surreal atmosphere of an offensive's rolling bombardments and heavy machine gun fire, and what you got must have been close to hell. (See the paintings "Hell" by Leroux and "Soldats Masques" by Zingg in The Fractal Gallery . They convey the experience of gas warfare better than any photographs.) The first army issue gas masks were little more than gauze bandages with ties. These would be moistened with water to improve their effectiveness in filtering out the gas. The cannister gas mask was developed to protect the soldier from the use of chlorine gas and tearing agents such as xylyl bromide. This type of mask was not effective in filtering out the more deadly phosgene and diphosgene gases. There was no mask that could offer protection from the blistering mustard gas which attacks all exposed flesh. The first reported use of gas was by the Germans on the eastern front on 3-Jan-1915. It was a tearing agent dispersed by artillery shell. The first use on the western front came several months later on 22-Apr-1915 at the village of Langemarck near Ypres. At 1700 hours the Germans released a 5 mile wide cloud of chlorine gas from some 520 cylinders (168 tons of the chemical). The greenish-yellow cloud drifted over and into the French and Algerian trenches where it caused wide spread panic and death. The age of chemical warfare had begun. See also: ø Newspaper articles on the gas attack at Langemarck An aerial view of the beginning of a gas attack. Large gas cylinders were brought up to the front where the gas would be released under favorable wind conditions. On more than one occasion the wind would change direction and blow the gas back into the attacker's trenches. British gas casualties near Bois de l'Abbe France, May 1918. The eye bandages indicate that a blistering agent such as mustard gas was used. This gas was named for it's similarity in both faint smell and color to mustard. The British were ready to return the favor by early autumn. On 25-Sep-1915 they released chlorine gas from cylinders against the German trenches at Loos. Unfortunately a shift in the wind blew the gas laterally across the trench lines so that it also gassed some British troops. The use of cylinder gas was replaced with the safer gas artillery shell and projector. The projector was a device that lobbed a football size gas projectile into the enemy trench. The idea with both was to get the gas as far from friendly forces as possible before releasing it. Artillery men were soon referring to "yellow crosses" and "white crosses" - these were the markings used to differentiate the various gas shell types. A makeshift German gas laboratory near the front. The gas concentrate is stored in bottles for placement near enemy trenches. Sniper fire would then be used to break the bottle and release the gas. Gas was invented (and very successfully used) as a terror weapon meant to instill confusion and panic among the enemy prior to an offensive. It was a sort of physiological weapon with the non-lethal tearing agents inflicting as much panic as the dreaded mustard gas. Gas was available in three basic varieties: Lachrymator (tearing agent) Much like today's tear gas and mace, this gas caused temporary blindness and greatly inflamed the nose and throat of the victim. A gas mask offered very good protection from this type of gas. xylyl bromide was a popular tearing agent since it was easily brewed. Asphyxiant These are the poisonous gases. This class includes chlorine, phosgene and diphosgene. Chlorine inflicts damage by forming hydrochloric acid when coming in contact with moisture such as found in the lungs and eyes.


"Who famously said ""I am not a crook""?"

Nixon Tells Editors, ‘I’m Not a Crook’ - The Washington Post Nixon Tells Editors, ‘I’m Not a Crook’ The inside track on Washington politics. Be the first to know about new stories from PowerPost. Sign up to follow, and we’ll e-mail you free updates as they’re published. You’ll receive free e-mail news updates each time a new story is published. You’re all set! Got it By Carroll Kilpatrick By Carroll Kilpatrick November 18, 1973 Orlando, Fla, Nov. 17 -- Declaring that “I am not a crook,” President Nixon vigorously defended his record in the Watergate case tonight and said he had never profited from his public service. “I have earned every cent. And in all of my years of public life I have never obstructed justice,” Mr. Nixon said. “People have got to know whether or not their President is a crook. Well, I’m not a crook. I’ve earned everything I’ve got.” In an hour-long televised question-and-answer session with 400 Associated Press managing editors, Mr. Nixon was tense and sometimes misspoke. But he maintained his innocence in the Watergate case and promised to supply more details on his personal finances and more evidence from tapes and presidential documents. The President was loquacious in his answers and at the end solicited a question on the charges that the administration raised milk support prices in exchange for campaign contributions from the milk lobby. Denying the charge, the President said Democrats led the fight in the House and Senate for higher support prices and pointed a gun at his head requiring him to boost support prices. The President acknowledged that he had “made a mistake” in not more closely supervising campaign activities. In a question on what he may do after he leaves office, he quipped that it depended on when he left. Then, becoming serious, he said that he would write but not speak, practice law or serve on boards of directors. One thing he will do is work for new rules of campaign procedures. He said he did not want to be remembered as a President who did many things but let his own campaign get out of hand. Mr. Nixon acknowledged under questioning that he paid only nominal income taxes in 1970 and 1971 but he did not give figures. He also said that his brother Donald’s phone was tapped for unexplained security reasons. Discussing energy conservation, Mr. Nixon drew laughter when he said that he had made a saving by refusing to allow a back-up aircraft to follow him on this trip. “If this one goes down,” he said in reference to his Air Force plane, “they don’t have to impeach.” While the President was nervous, he was not floored by any of the questions but answered them much as he does in any press conference. He flew here tonight from his Key Biscayne, Fla., home for the much-heralded question-and-answer period. He was well prepared, remembering dates and times when he held key meetings with various aides on Watergate matters. Summing up, he declared that the White House tape recordings would prove that he had no prior knowledge of the Watergate break-in, that he never offered executive clemency for the Watergate burglars, and in fact turned it down when it was suggested, and had no knowledge until March 21, 1973, of proposals that blackmail money be paid a convicted Watergate conspirator. Regarding the June 20, 1972, brief telephone conversation with former Attorney General John N. Mitchell, Mr. Nixon said no tape was made because the call was from the family quarters in the White House. He said he called to cheer up Mitchell because Mitchell was chagrined because he had not properly controlled those under him -- in the re-election campaign, which he once headed, and the burglary was embarrassing the administration. Mr. Nixon said he was very greatly disappointed that the tapes of the Mitchell conversation and the April 15, 1973, conversation with former counsel John W. Dean III did not exist. He was told first on Sept. 29 or 30 this year that the tapes in question might not exist, the President said. After a search, it was determined on Oct. 26 that they did not exist, he said. He said h


Who supposedly fiddled while Rome burned (but actually didn't)?

Did Nero really fiddle while Rome burned? - Ask History Ask History Did Nero fiddle while Rome burned? Get the full story Share this: Did Nero really fiddle while Rome burned? Author Did Nero really fiddle while Rome burned? URL Google In July of 64 A.D., a great fire ravaged Rome for six days, destroying 70 percent of the city and leaving half its population homeless. According to a well-known expression, Rome’s emperor at the time, the decadent and unpopular Nero, “fiddled while Rome burned.” The expression has a double meaning: Not only did Nero play music while his people suffered, but he was an ineffectual leader in a time of crisis. It’s been pretty easy to cast blame on Nero, who had many enemies and is remembered as one of history’s most sadistic and cruelest leaders—but there are a couple of problems with this story. For one thing, the fiddle didn’t exist in ancient Rome. Music historians believe the viol class of instruments (to which the fiddle belongs) was not developed until the 11th century. If Nero played anything, it would probably have been the cithara, a heavy wooden instrument with four to seven strings—but there is still no solid evidence that he played one during the Great Fire. The Roman historian Tacitus wrote that Nero was rumored to have sung about the destruction of Troy while watching the city burn; however, he stated clearly that this was unconfirmed by eyewitness accounts. When the Great Fire broke out, Nero was at his villa at Antium, some 35 miles from Rome. Though he immediately returned and began relief measures, people still didn’t trust him. Some even believed he had ordered the fire started, especially after he used land cleared by the fire to build his Golden Palace and its surrounding pleasure gardens. Nero himself blamed the Christians (then an obscure religious sect) for the fire, and had many arrested and executed. But while Nero may have been guilty of many things, the story of him fiddling while Rome burned belongs firmly in the category of popular legend rather than established truth. Tags


"What father and son Prime Ministers are referred to as ""The Elder"" and ""The Younger""?"

Leave a reply William Pitt (the Elder) / commons.wikimedia.org William PItt, 1st Earl of Chatham, sometimes known as Pitt the Elder, was born in 1708, narrowly avoiding the tumultuous seventeenth century in Europe. He joins the brief list of brilliant orators and parliamentarians who rose to become Prime Minister (1756-61, 1766-68). Politically, he was Whig – a liberal of the original stamp who earned the mistrust of Hanoverian George II. At least George spoke English, whereas George I (his father, qv.) had arrived in England from Hanover without a word of English, to take the throne on the strength of having a mother who was the granddaughter of a Stuart king – James I (and VI of Scotland). In 1746 heavy court influences forced George II to give the thirty-eight year old William a ministerial post. The prime mover in this political manoeuvre had been the Duke of Newcastle, but it was not long before William Pitt was engaging the Duke in semi-permanent argument. The Seven Years War put them together, however cautiously, in a coalition government in 1757. Pitt controlled this war for seven years. No-one really knows by what means he had learned about war (he had no military or naval training), but he was a supreme strategist, and fully understood the importance and paramountcy of sea power. Throughout these seven years of open war involving Prussia, Britain and Hanover on one side, and Austria, France, Russia, Sweden and Spain on the other – public opinion in Britain venerated Pitt as a national hero, while fellow parliamentarians found him bullying and aloof. The fact remains that he might have been a domineering tyro, but Britain sailed out of the war victorious. Pitt instantly resigned, after becoming hopelessly involved in disagreement with other ministers over what their actions should be with Spain. In 1764 and the following year he was twice invited by the king to form a government, but (rather gracelessly) he declined. In 1766 however he accepted and formed a government. But his premiership of 1766 – 68 was not successful, mostly because of failing health and strength. Pitt’s past years were negatively influenced by illness. As a revered elder statesman he sympathised with the American revolutionaries; he saw their point of view, but found it impossible to reconcile himself to colonists’ independence, somnething he made abundantly clear in the last speech he was able to make in Parliament before his death at the age of seventy in 1778. William Pitt (Pitt the Younger) was the second son of the Earl of Chatham. This quite remarkable parliamentarian became Chancellor of the Exchequer at twenty-three! Though hardly out of his teens, he refused to betray Lord Shelburne in his conflict with Charles James Fox, starting rivalry between the younger Pitt and Fox which lasted years. In 1783 the Fox/North coalition was overthrown and Pitt became Prime Minister at the age of twenty-four. During the years of peace until 1793 Pitt the Younger concentrated on nurturing Britain’s expanding economy, following the loss of the American colonies. In fact he was the first in a line of economic wizards that includes Disraeli. From 1793 he stood with the rest of Britain against every tenet of the French Revolution, and Bonaparte himself, rising like a rotund phoenix from the ashes. Pitt had no illusions however, and though he raised three coalitions to fight Napoleon and gave subsidies to the enemies of France, Pitt never fought to restore the Frenchy monarchy; he did it to defend Britain. This is made perfectly clear in his speeches. In Ireland, trouble was brewing; the Irish agreed with French revolutionaries, with the added aggravation of conflicting religious argument. Pitt believed Irish feuding could only be halted by the political union of Britain and Ireland. He proposed an Act of Union, but George III refused to consider it. Pitt resigned in consequence (1801) in the first year of the nineteenth century. It was not long before he was back in office, though his second term was not as spectacular as the first, despite Nelson’s vic


What bird product was an important fertilizer in the 19th century?

FERTILIZERS HISTORY FERTILIZERS HISTORY     Neolithic man probably used fertilizers, but the first fertilizer produced by chemical processes was ordinary superphosphate, made early in the 19th century by treating bones with sulfuricacid. Coprolites and phosphate rock soon replaced bones as theP source. The K fertilizer industry started in Germany in 1861.In North America the K industry started during World War I andexpanded with development of the New Mexico deposits in 1931 and the Saskatchewan deposits in 1958. Modern K fertilizers are more the product of physical than of chemical processes.The first synthetic N fertilizer was calcium nitrate, made in 1903 from nitric acid produced by the electric arc process. The availability of synthetic ammonia after 1913 led to manynew N fertilizers, but physical quality was poor. In 1933 TVA was formed with a national responsibility to increase the efficiencyof fertilizer manufacture and use. More than 75% of the fertilizerproduced in the United States is made with processes developed by TVA (Tenesee Valley Authority).  Major fertilizers and fertilizer intermediates introduced by TVA include ammonium nitrate, high-analysis phosphates, diammonium phosphate, nitric phosphates, ammonium polyphosphate, urea ammonium phosphates, 11-16-0 and other liquid base solutions, superphosphoric acid, wet-process superphosphoric acid, suspensions, granular urea, and S-coated urea. These have had major impact upon the production of mixed fertilizers, bulk blending, and the fluid fertilizer industry. Future fertilizers not only must be technologically feasible, economical, and agronomically suitable—as have been past fertilizers—but also must meet various air and water pollution standards during production and have reduced total energy requirements.                                                                             In the 1730s, Viscount Charles Townshend (1674–1738) first studied the improving effects of the four crop rotation system that he had observed in use in Flanders. For this he gained the nickname of Turnip Townshend. Chemist Justus von Liebig (1803–1883) contributed greatly to the advancement in the understanding of plant nutrition. His influential works first denounced the vitalist theory of humus, arguing first the importance of ammonia, and later promoting the importance of inorganic minerals to plant nutrition. Primarily Liebig's work succeeded in exposition of questions for agricultural science to address over the next 50 years. In England, he attempted to implement his theories commercially through a fertilizer created by treating phosphate of lime in bone meal with sulfuric acid though it was much less expensive than the guano that was used at the time, it failed because it was not able to be properly absorbed by crops]. At that time in England, Sir John Bennet Lawes (1814–1900) was experimenting with crops and manures at his farm at Harpenden and was able to produce a practical superphosphate in 1842 from the phosphates in rock and coprolites. Encouraged, he employed Sir Joseph Henry Gilbert, who had studied under Liebig at the University of Giessen, as director of research. T o this day, the Rothamsted research station the pair founded still investigates the impact of inorganic and organic fertilizers on crop yields. In France, Jean Baptiste Boussingault (1802–1887) pointed out that the amount of nitrogen in various kinds of fertilizers is important. Metallurgists Percy Gilchrist (1851–1935) and Sidney Gilchrist Thomas (1850–1885) invented the Thomas-Gilchrist converter, which enabled the use of high phosphorus acidic Continental ores for steelmaking. The dolomite lime lining of the converter turned in time into calcium phosphate, which could be used as fertilizer, known as Thomas-phosphate. In the early decades of the 20th Century, the Nobel prize-winning chemists Carl Bosch of IG Farben and Fritz Haber developed the process that enabled nitrogen to be synthesised cheaply into ammonia, for subsequent oxidation into nitrates and nitrites.


Who is the namesake of the country of Bolivia?

Venezuelan leader Hugo Chávez dies FacebookEmail Twitter Google+ LinkedIn Pinterest Venezuelan leader Hugo Chávez dies Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez, the socialist leader who assailed U.S. influence in Latin America in his campaign against capitalism and democratic freedoms, has died. Post to Facebook Venezuelan leader Hugo Chávez dies Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez, the socialist leader who assailed U.S. influence in Latin America in his campaign against capitalism and democratic freedoms, has died. Check out this story on USATODAY.com: http://usat.ly/WtmpXX CancelSend A link has been sent to your friend's email address. Posted! A link has been posted to your Facebook feed. 468 To find out more about Facebook commenting please read the Conversation Guidelines and FAQs Venezuelan leader Hugo Chávez dies Girish Gupta, Special for USA TODAY Published 5:00 p.m. ET March 5, 2013 | Updated 9:00 p.m. ET March 5, 2013 CLOSE x Share Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez has died. The fiery socialist leader who declared a socialist revolution in Venezuela died Tuesday at 58. Chavez succumbed to cancer after months of treatments in Cuba. VPC Chávez's political moves brought criticism from the United States and his ties with some of the world's most notorious leaders exacerbated his relationship with Washington. Venezuelan President Chavez waves to supporters during a break at the XIV Summit of Andean Presidents on June 27, 2003, in Rionegro, Colombia. (Photo: Javier Galeno, AP) Chávez succumbed to cancer after months of treatment in Cuba He took office in 1999 after running on campaign to end corruption A number of people detested Chávez for repressing political opposition CARACAS, Venezuela — Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez, the socialist leader who assailed U.S. influence in Latin America in his campaign against capitalism and democratic freedoms, died Tuesday. He was 58. Chávez succumbed to cancer after months of treatments in Cuba, whose communist leaders he admired and propped up with cheap Venezuelan oil. In power for 14 years, Chávez used oil money and vitriol to spread his "Bolivarian revolution" to neighboring states, playing a role in bolstering leftward turns in Ecuador and Bolivia and backing revolutionaries in Colombia. He hectored the United States often, belittling its leaders and cozying up to its adversaries. In Venezuela, Chávez was a hero to impoverished villagers who had never shared in the country's oil wealth and benefited from housing improvements and health clinics. Detractors saw him as a dictator, packing the oil industry with incompetent cronies, repressing political opponents and ruining Venezuela's attempts to modernize and democratize. Last Slide Next Slide Chávez dismantled Venezuela's democratic political system, rewrote the country's constitution in his favor, clamped down on freedom of expression and tried to spread his version of socialism throughout the continent. Some scholars said his claim to be working for the poor rang hollow. "He deserves credit for putting his finger on a legitimate grievance in Venezuela about social exclusion and injustice," said Michael Shifter, president of the Inter-American Dialogue. However, "Chávez will be remembered as a leader who squandered a rare opportunity to transform his country in a positive way." Chávez was born to schoolteacher parents in July 1954. As a young man, he entered the Venezuelan Academy of Military Sciences and joined the army when leftists were pushing for radical alternatives to growing poverty. A decline in oil prices in the 1980s caused a drop in social spending and riots in which hundreds died, and Chávez drifted toward left-wing groups outside the military that supported a violent takeover of the government. STORY: 'Who will take care of us?' poor say after Chávez dies In 1992, Chávez, a lieutenant colonel, attempted a coup with others but failed, and he was jailed until 1994. Upon release, he ran for president and won on a vow to end corruption. Faced with strong political opposition, Chávez used referendums to strengthen his powe


What epic poem is thought to be the oldest in the English language?

Beowulf - What You Need to Know About the Epic Poem Beowulf - What You Need to Know about the Epic Poem First Page of the Beowulf Manuscript.  Public Domain By Melissa Snell Updated July 07, 2016. Beowulf is the oldest surviving epic poem in the English language and the earliest piece of vernacular European literature. It was written in the language of the Saxons, "Old English," also known as "Anglo-Saxon." Originally untitled, in the 19th century the poem began to be called by the name of its Scandinavian hero, whose adventures are its primary focus. Historical elements run through the poem, yet both the hero and the story are fiction. Origins of the Beowulf Poem: Beowulf may have been composed as an elegy for a king who died in the seventh century, but there is little evidence to indicate who that king may have been. The burial rites described in the epic show a great similarity to the evidence found at Sutton Hoo , but too much remains unknown to form a direct correlation between the poem and the burial site. The poem may have been composed as early as c. 700, and evolved through many retellings before it was written down. Whoever the original author may have been is lost to history. continue reading below our video Test Your General Science Knowledge History of the Beowulf Manuscript: The sole manuscript of the Beowulf poem dates to c. 1000. Handwriting style reveals that it was inscribed by two different people. Whether either scribe embellished or altered the original story is unknown. The earliest known owner of the manuscript is the 16th century scholar Lawrence Nowell. In the 17th century it became part of Robert Bruce Cotton's collection and is therefore known as Cotton Vitellius A.XV. It is now in the British Library. In 1731, the manuscript suffered irreparable damage in a fire. The first transcription of the poem was made by Icelandic scholar Grímur Jónsson Thorkelin in 1818. Since the manuscript has decayed further, Thorkelin's version is highly prized, yet its accuracy has been questioned. In 1845, the pages of the manuscript were mounted in paper frames to save them from further damage. This protected the pages, but it also covered some of the letters around the edges. In 1993, the British Library initiated the Electronic Beowulf Project . Through the use of special infrared and ultraviolet lighting techniques, the covered letters were revealed as electronic images of the manuscript were made. The Author or Authors of Beowulf: Beowulf contains many  pagan  and folkloric elements, but there are undeniable Christian themes as well. This dichotomy has led some to interpret the epic as the work of more than one author. Others have seen it as symbolic of the transition from paganism to Christianity in early medieval Britain . The extreme delicacy of the manuscript, the two separate hands that inscribed the text, and the complete lack of clues to the identity of the author make a realistic determination difficult at best. The Beowulf Story: Beowulf is a prince of the Geats of southern Sweden who comes to Denmark to help King Hrothgar rid his fabulous hall, Heorot, of a terrible monster known as Grendel. The hero mortally wounds the creature, who flees the hall to die in its lair. The next night, Grendel's mother comes to Heorot to avenge her offspring and kills one of Hrothgar's men. Beowulf tracks her down and kills her, then returns to Heorot where he receives great honors and gifts before returning home. After ruling the Geats for half a century in peace, Beowulf must face a dragon who threatens his land. Unlike his earlier battles, this confrontation is terrible and deadly. He is deserted by all his retainers except his kinsman Wiglaf, and though he defeats the dragon he is mortally wounded. His funeral and a lament end the poem. For a more comprehensive overview of the plot, descriptions of characters and explanations of terms, see: Terms Used in Beowulf The Impact of Beowulf: Much has been written about this epic poem, and it will surely continue to inspire scholarly investigation and debate, both literar


What country used Molotov cocktails in their war with the Soviets?

History of the Molotov Cocktail from Nazi Germany to Ferguson | New Republic By Josh Kovensky August 18, 2014 In their tear-gassed standoffs with police in Ferguson, Missouri, some protesters have retaliated with the weapon of urban revolutionaries and improvisational militaries alike: the Molotov cocktail. Easy and cheap to make, the Molotov cocktail is thought to have been invented during the Spanish Civil War, where it was used by the Republicans against Nationalist tanks. The original design was a mixture of tar, ethanol, and gasoline in a beer bottle, creating a substance that's both sticky and flammable; either an oil-soaked rag or a long, wind-proof match is inserted into the bottle’s mouth to act as a wick. When the "bottle bomb" hits its target, the sticky mixture of fuel and flame ignite, causing a large fireball and coating whatever it hits with fire. But why is the weapon named after Vyacheslav Molotov, the Soviet foreign minister who signed the secret 1939 Nazi-Soviet non-aggression pact that heralded World War Two? The answer comes from Finland. The Molotov-Ribbentrop pact divvied Europe up into “spheres of influence,” carving Poland into Nazi and Soviet territory, while ceding Finland to the Soviets, who had previously controlled it under the Russian Empire. In the winter of 1939, after seizing eastern Poland and leaving the country’s west to the Third Reich, the Soviets invaded Finland. Molotov (“Hammer” in Russian) then said in a speech, “Tomorrow we will dine in Helsinki!” After Soviet bombs began to fall on Finnish troops, Molotov insisted that the Soviets were dropping food and drink instead. Exhibiting a keen wit, the Finns thus dubbed Soviet cluster bombs “Molotov bread baskets” (the food) and named the improvised weapons that they were using against Soviet armor “Molotov cocktails" (the drink). The Finnish Alko corporation , a liquor conglomerate, mass-produced 450,000 Molotov cocktails during the war. The weapon proved instrumental in halting the Soviet advance toward the Finnish capital. The use of Molotov cocktails spread during the war, among Allied and Axis forces alike. In 1940, as Nazis threatened to invade the United Kingdom, the British armed home guard units with the weapon as a form of civil defense. So Molotov, the war-mongering Bolshevik, ended up lending his name to a bomb known for its popularity in anti-Communist protests behind the Iron Curtain . Fast forward to today in the United States. The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms considers Molotov cocktails a “destructive device” under the National Firearms Act . This does not mean that the weapon is banned—only that you must register your Molotov cocktail with the ATF. Of course, you will  be prosecuted for hurling one at a police car. Correction: A previous version of this article described the Molotov cocktail as a "centuries-old weapon." In fact, it is believed to have been invented during the Spanish Civil War of the 1930s. Read More Sign up for your daily dose of politics, culture, and big ideas. Sign Up


What ancient empire was led by Xerxes, Cyrus, and Darius?

Achaemenid Empire, Cyrus the Great, Darius the Great, Xerxes the Great - Crystalinks Achaemenid Empire Achaemenid Family Tree The Achaemenid Empire (c. 550-330 BCE), sometimes known as First Persian Empire, was an empire in Southwest Asia, founded in the 6th century BCE by Cyrus the Great who overthrew the Median confederation. It expanded to eventually rule over significant portions of the ancient world which at around 500 BCE stretched from the Indus Valley in the east, to Thrace and Macedon on the northeastern border of Greece making it the biggest empire the world had yet seen. The Achaemenid Empire would eventually control Egypt as well. It was ruled by a series of monarchs who unified its disparate tribes and nationalities by constructing a complex network of roads. Calling themselves the Parsa after their original Aryan tribal name Parsua, Persians settled in a land which they named Parsua, bounded on the west by the Tigris River and on the south by the Persian Gulf. This became their heartland for the duration of the Achaemenid Empire. It was from this region that eventually Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II of Persia) would advance to defeat the Median, the Lydian, and the Babylonian Empires, opening the way for subsequent conquests into Egypt and Asia minor. At the height of its power after the conquest of Egypt, the empire encompassed approximately 8 million km2 spanning three continents: Asia, Africa and Europe. At its greatest extent, the empire included the modern territories of Iran, Turkey, parts of Central Asia, Pakistan, Thrace and Macedonia, much of the Black Sea coastal regions, Afghanistan, Iraq, northern Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Israel, Lebanon, Syria, and all significant population centers of ancient Egypt as far west as Libya. It is noted in Western history as the antagonist foe of the Greek city states during the Greco-Persian Wars, for emancipation of slaves including the Jewish people from their Babylonian captivity, and for instituting infrastructures such as a postal system, road systems, and the usage of an official language throughout its territories. The empire had a centralized, bureaucratic administration under the Emperor and a large professional army and civil services, inspiring similar developments in later empires. Traditional view is that the Persian Empire's vast size and its extraordinary ethnocultural diversity would prove to be its undoing as delegation of power to local governments would eventually weaken the king's central authority, causing much energy and resources to be wasted in attempts to subdue local rebellions explaining why when Alexander the Great (Alexander III of Macedon) invaded Persia in 334 BCE he was faced by a disunified realm under a weak monarch, ripe for destruction. This viewpoint however is challenged by some modern scholars who argue that the Achaemenid Empire was not facing any such crisis around the time of Alexander, and that only internal succession struggles within the Achaemenid family ever came close to weakening the Empire. Alexander, an avid admirer of Cyrus the Great, would eventually cause the collapse of the empire and its disintegration around 330 BCE into what later became the Ptolemaic Kingdom and Seleucid Empire, in addition to other minor territories which gained independence at that time. The Iranian Culture of the central plateau, however, continued to thrive and eventually reclaimed power by the 2nd century BCE. The historical mark of the Achaemenid Empire went far beyond its territorial and military influences and included cultural, social, technological and religious influences as well. Many Athenians adopted Achaemenid customs in their daily lives in a reciprocal cultural exchange, some being employed by, or allied to the Persian kings. The impact of Cyrus the Great's Edict of Restoration is mentioned in Judeo-Christian texts and the empire was instrumental in the spread of Zoroastrianism as far east as China. Even Alexander the Great, the man who would set out to conquer this vast empire, would respect its customs, by enforcing respect fo


What empire had its capital at Tenochtitlan?

Aztec Empire for Kids: Tenochtitlan Tenochtitlan was the capital city and center of the Aztec Empire. It was founded in 1325 and served as the capital until the Aztecs were conquered by Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes in 1520. Where was it located? Tenochtitlan was located on a swampy island in Lake Texcoco in what is today south central Mexico . The Aztecs were able to settle there because no one else wanted the land. At first, it wasn't a great place to start a city, but soon the Aztecs built up islands where they could grow crops. The water also worked as a natural defense against attacks from other cities. Map of Tenochtitlan by Hanns Prem Click picture for larger view Causeways and Canals Early on in the history of the city the Aztecs built causeways and canals for transportation to and from the city. A causeway is a raised road that allowed the people to easily travel over the swampy and wet areas. There were three major causeways that led from the island city to the mainland. There were also bridges built into the causeways that allowed small boats and canoes to travel under them. These bridges could be removed when the city was being attacked. The Aztecs also built many canals throughout the city. The canals acted like water roads that allowed people to easily travel around the large city in boats. The city was well planned and laid out in a grid that made traveling around the city easy. City Center At the center of the city there was a large area where many of the public activities took place. The temples to the Aztec gods were built here as well as a court where they played a ballgame called Ullama. The largest temple was a pyramid called the Templo Mayor. It was the tallest building in the city in order to be closest to the gods. Other buildings in the city center included the priests' quarters, schools, plus a rack of human skulls called the Tzompantli. Marketplace There were markets throughout the city where people would trade goods and food. There was one main marketplace where up to 40,000 people would visit during feast days to buy goods and food for celebrations. Why did the Aztecs settle on a swampy island? When the Aztecs were driven from their valley home by the Culhuacan they needed a new place to stay. The priests said they had a sign from the gods. The Aztecs should settle where they saw an eagle holding a snake while standing on a cactus. They saw this sign on a marshy island in the lake and began to build a new town on the spot. How big was it? Tenochtitlan was a large city that covered around 5 square miles. Some historians estimate that nearly 200,000 people lived in the city during its peak. Is it still there today? Most of the Tenochtitlan's buildings were destroyed by the Spanish and Hernan Cortes. The current capital of Mexico, Mexico City, is located at the same location. Archeologists have uncovered the ruins of Tenochtitlan near the center of Mexico City. Model version of how Tenochtitlan looked at its peak by Thelmadatter Interesting Facts about Tenochtitlan There were two aqueducts over 2.5 miles long leading into the city that provided fresh water to the people living there. Large crowds of as many as 8,000 people would sometimes gather in the central area. The city was divided into four zones and twenty districts. The Aztec Emperors built their palaces near the temple district. They were large stone structures with as many as 50 rooms as well as their own gardens and ponds. The Aztecs built a 10 mile long dike that sealed off a portion of the lake. It helped keep the water fresh and protected the city from flooding. Activities Take a ten question quiz about this page. Aztecs


The British Burn Washington, D.C., 200 Years Ago - History in the Headlines The British Burn Washington, D.C., 200 Years Ago August 22, 2014 By Jesse Greenspan Burning of the White House, 1814 Share this: The British Burn Washington, D.C., 200 Years Ago Author The British Burn Washington, D.C., 200 Years Ago URL Google On August 24, 1814, British troops recently arrived from the Napoleonic Wars in Europe easily overran the inexperienced U.S. militiamen tasked with defending Washington, D.C. They then set much of the city ablaze, thereby humiliating the administration of President James Madison. The British only occupied Washington for 24 hours, however, and soon after suffered major defeats of their own that helped bring the War of 1812 to a close. When the War of 1812 first broke out, the fighting centered on the border between the United States and Canada, then a British colony. Before long, however, other fronts had opened up, including the Chesapeake Bay, where a British squadron led by Rear Admiral George Cockburn spent much of 1813 terrorizing coastal communities. After spending the winter in Bermuda with his troops, the brash-talking Cockburn returned in February 1814 with his eyes set on Washington, D.C., telling a superior that the city “might be possessed without difficulty or opposition of any kind.” In order to further along his scheme, Cockburn built a base on Tangier Island in the middle of the Chesapeake and distributed a proclamation inviting all slaves to join with the British. Meanwhile, in April 1814, Napoleon abdicated the French throne, freeing up boatloads of battle-hardened British troops to cross the Atlantic Ocean. About 4,000 arrived in the Chesapeake in mid-August, along with numerous frigates, schooners, sloops and other warships, whereas an even bigger force went to Canada. By that time, President Madison had established a new military district for the D.C. area for which he wanted at least 2,000 U.S. Army regulars, plus 10,000 to 12,000 militiamen ready in reserve. Yet only a fraction of this force was ever rounded up, in part because Secretary of War John Armstrong insisted until the last possible moment that the British would not attack the capital. Not even an anonymous letter detailing Cockburn’s invasion plans spurred the administration to action, nor did a plea from Washington’s mayor, who called the city “defenseless.” While the Americans dawdled, the British got moving, with their main fleet setting sail for the Patuxent River on August 17. At the same time, diversionary forces headed for the Potomac River, a more direct route to Washington, and for the northern Chesapeake above Baltimore. Although the British initially struggled with adversarial tides and winds in the Patuxent, they soon began making reasonable progress. A few of the bigger warships dropped out as the river became narrower and shallower, but the majority made it to Benedict, Maryland, where approximately 4,500 troops disembarked. The following day, August 20, a makeshift scouting party led by Secretary of State James Monroe reached the outskirts of Benedict but, having forgotten a spyglass, couldn’t gauge the size of the invading force. The British then marched north on a road running parallel to the Patuxent, with a fleet of small ships keeping pace. Over the next couple of days, the British briefly exchanged fire with a few Americans, including Monroe’s party, but overall faced virtually no resistance. They also managed to corner a flotilla commanded by Commodore Joshua Barney, forcing the Americans to blow up their own gunboats rather than hand them over to the enemy. As the British drew closer, the panicked residents of Washington began to depart in mass, and clerks began whisking important papers out of town, such as the Declaration of Independence. Finally, on August 24, after a series of disorganized maneuvers, American forces hastily dug in outside of Bladensburg, Maryland, a crossroads town six miles northeast of the Capitol. Borrowing a pair of pistols from his treasury secretary, Madison rode out to witne


Who was the most notorious member of the Ba'ath Party?

BBC NEWS | Middle East | The Iraqi Baath party The Iraqi Baath party By Tarik Kafala BBC News Online The Iraqi Baath party was one of the tools by which Saddam Hussein maintained a tight grip on his country. The Arab Socialist Baath Party, to give it its full name, was founded in Syria in the 1940s by a small group of French-educated Syrian intellectuals - Michel Aflaq, a Greek Orthodox, and Salah al-Din al-Bitar, a Sunni Muslim. Baath party members are said to be preparing to defend Iraq The word Baath means renaissance in Arabic. The party's ideology is pan-Arab, secular nationalism. A committed Baathist should see individual Arab states as regions or provinces of the larger Arab nation. The party is secular, and in the beginning, was steeped in Socialist ideology. The Baath party also became the ruling party and bureaucracy in Syria - a fact that led to great rivalry between Damascus and Baghdad, rather than alliance. Coups and counter-coups The Iraqi Baath party was founded in 1951 and had 500 members three years later. Saddam Hussein joined it as a 20-year-old in 1956. BAATH PARTY Founded in 1940s in Syria Advocated Arab unity and secularism Iraqi branch established in 1951 Saddam joined in 1956 Came to power in Iraq through coups in 1963 and 1968 The party came to power on 8 February 1963 in a coup backed by the Army, overthrowing Brigadier Abdel Karim Qasim - who himself overthrew the British-installed Iraqi monarchy in 1958. The Baathist hold on power did not last long. Within months, Brigadier Qasim's ally, Colonel Abdel Salam Muhammad Aref, seized power. Saddam Hussein was elected assistant general secretary of the party in 1966 and staged a successful coup in 1968. General Ahmad Hasan al-Bakr, also from Tikrit and a relative of the Saddam Hussein's, took power. The two worked closely together and became the dominant force in the Baath party, with Saddam Hussein gradually outstripping the president's leadership. Baathist rule Though the Baath party was formally the institution that ruled Iraq, actual power, even in the early days, was in the hands of a narrow elite united by family and tribal ties, not ideology. UK soldiers pose with a picture of Saddam Hussein taken from a Baath party building on Basra During the 1970s surnames were abolished to attempt to disguise this - ID cards and birth certificates recorded only the individuals first name and father's name. Baathism was associated with radical Arab nationalism - a key barometer for this was a hardline approach to the Palestinian issue. In the late 1980s, the party claimed more than 1.5 million members, about 10% of Iraqis. The party had a highly regimented structure. At the lowest level - the village - it had cells of between three and seven people, rising up to regional commands and a national command. The Baath was meant to rule and make policy by consensus. In Iraq, all major decisions went through Saddam Hussein who from 1979 was president, head of the Revolutionary Command Council and secretary general of the Baath party. In 1979 several high-ranking Baathists were tried and were executed for allegedly planning a coup. Other prominent party members were forcibly retired in 1982. In the 1980's, the socialist ideology of the party accommodated itself to capitalism. Nationalised industries were privatised. Iraqi businessmen trying to take advantage of the country's oil wealth often pursued their ambitions through the party. Dismantling the Baath As part of Saddam Hussein's power structure and complicit in his brutal rule, the Baath party was expected to disintegrate with the end of his rule. Revenge attacks against Baath officials and party buildings were widely predicted and have happened. US plans for Iraq after Saddam Hussein are assumed to include the dismantling of the Baath. Analysts have warned though that the destruction of the Baath might lead to the destruction of the vast numbers of civil organisations swallowed up by the Baath during years of totalitarian rule.


What English King fought in the Crusades and battled against Saladin?

TheMedievalEra - The Crusades - 3rd Crusade The Crusades Key people http://www.google.com/imgres?q=richard+1&hl=ko&...ress.com/2 King Richard I: (September 8, 1157 – July 6, 1189) Nicknamed “The Lionheart of England” for his great bravery and leadership during the Third Crusade, he is noted highly for battling Saladin and recapturing many lands in Asia Minor. King Richard I was the son of King Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine. As soon as his elder brother, Henry the Young King died and he was crowned king, he began preparing for the Third Crusade. He raised a great deal of money, to support his army for the crusade, by undergoing three actions: 1. persecuting and stealing from the Jews 2. raising the taxes of all of his subjects 3. selling offices, high ranking titles, and royal land. [1] http://www.google.com/imgres?q=Philip+II&hl=ko&...9,r:10,s:0 King Philip II: (August 21, 1165- July 14, 1223) Otherwise known as King Philip Augustus of France, this King was the leader of the French Crusaders who fought alongside King Richard I and his army. He constructed large siege equipments which played a major role in the capturing of Acre. After the surrender of Acre on July 11, 1191, Philip parted the Holy Land to go back to France due to a sickness. His leave played a major role in the Third Crusade because this meant that the rest of the Crusade was in the hands of King Richard I. Also his leave played a major role in that his crusaders did not want to fight without their leader; this played a major role in why Richard was not able to capture Jerusalem from the Muslims. [2] http://www.google.com/imgres?q=Frederick+Barbar...9,r:10,s:0 Frederick Barbarossa: (1122 – June 10, 1190) Otherwise known as Frederick Red-Beard, Frederick was the German king of Germany and the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Born as the son of Duke Frederick II of Swabia and Judith of Baravia, Frederick is noted highly for aiding King Richard I in the Third Crusade. After the Third Crusade was launched by Pope Gregory VIII in 1187, Frederick began to accumulate his army of 150,000 immediately. After he finished raising his army, he headed off to the Holy Land and won two fierce battles against the Muslims. Frederick drowned on his way to Antioch when he tried to cross a fast flowing river; his heavy armor prevented him from being able to swim. http://www.google.com/imgres?q=Saladin&hl=ko&bi...9,r:2,s:19 Saladin- (1137-March 4, 1193) The leader of the Muslims, Saladin fought against the crusaders that were led by King Richard I. The primary reason for the Third Crusade was because Saladin captured Jerusalem in 1187. Saladin is the son of Najm ad- Din Ayyub. Saladin’s name means “righteousness of faith”. He captured numerous cities such as Damascus, Acre and Mosul. Saladin is noted highly for his generosity during the war. For example, when King Richard was sick, Saladin sent him a basket of fruit, to nurse the King into good health. In the end of the Third Crusade, both King Richard I and Saladin signed a peace treaty that permitted Christians to visit Jerusalem without having to pay tribute; the treaty also gave the possession of the coast,from Jaffa to Tyre, to the Christians. [3] Important Events http://www.themoralliberal.com/2011/06/14/richa...lionheart/ 1187- Saladin, the sultan, or absolute ruler, of Egypt took and captured, from the Christians, Jerusalem and most of the Holy land in the battle of Hattin; Saladin’s army defeated King Guy in this battle. Pope Urban III was said to have died of shock when word spread to Europe that Muslims had conquered Jerusalem. Pope Gregory VIII, the next Pope after Pope Urban III, called on Kings and other Christian leaders to fight. The Kings that answered the call were the three European leaders King Philip Augustus of France, King Richard I of England and Emperor Frederick Barbarossa of Germany. [4] 1189- Frederick Barbarossa with his large army journeyed to the Holy Lands. Although met with resistance early on his exploit, Barbarossa is able to quickly subdue his enemies. Frederick and his army are struck


What creature was used for the medical treatment of bloodletting?

The history of bloodletting | BC Medical Journal The history of bloodletting Gerry Greenstone, MD With a history spanning at least 3000 years, bloodletting has only recently—in the late 19th century—been discredited as a treatment for most ailments. The practice of bloodletting began around 3000 years ago with the Egyptians, then continued with the Greeks and Romans, the Arabs and Asians, then spread through Europe during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. It reached its peak in Europe in the 19th century but subsequently declined and today in Western medicine is used only for a few select conditions. Humors, Hippocrates, and Galen To appreciate the rationale for bloodletting one must first understand the paradigm of disease 2300 years ago in the time of Hippocrates (~460–370 BC). He believed that existence was represented by the four basic elements—earth, air, fire, and water—which in humans were related to the four basic humors: blood, phlegm, black bile, yellow bile.  Each humor was centred in a particular organ—brain, lung, spleen, and gall bladder—and related to a particular personality type—sanguine, phlegmatic, melancholic, and choleric.[ 1 ] Being ill meant having an imbalance of the four humors. Therefore treatment consisted of removing an amount of the excessive humor by various means such as bloodletting, purging, catharsis, diuresis, and so on. By the 1st century bloodletting was already a common treatment, but when Galen of Pergamum (129–200 AD) declared blood as the most dominant humor, the practice of venesection gained even greater importance.[ 2 ] Galen was able to propagate his ideas through the force of personality and the power of the pen; his total written output exceeds two million words. He had an extraordinary effect on medical practice and his teaching persisted for many centuries. His ideas and writings were disseminated by several physicians in the Middle Ages when bloodletting became accepted as the standard treatment for many conditions. Methods of bloodletting Bloodletting was divided into a generalized method done by venesection and arteriotomy, and a localized method done by scarification with cupping and leeches. Venesection was the most common procedure and usually involved the median cubital vein at the elbow, but many different veins could be used. The main instruments for this technique were called lancets and fleams.[ 3 ] Thumb lancets were small sharp-pointed, two-edged instruments often with an ivory or tortoise shell case that the physician could carry in his pocket. Fleams were usually devices with multiple, variably sized blades that folded into a case like a pocketknife.  Localized bloodletting often involved scarification, which meant scraping the skin with a cube-shaped brass box containing multiple small knives, followed by cupping, which involved placing a dome-shaped glass over the skin and extracting the air by suction or prior heating.[ 4 ] Leeches used for bloodletting usually involved the medicinal leech, Hirudo medicinalis. At each feeding a leech can ingest about 5 to 10 ml of blood, almost 10 times its own weight. The use of leeches was greatly influenced by Dr François Broussais (1772–1838), a Parisian physician who claimed that all fevers were due to specific organ inflammation. He was a great proponent of leech therapy along with aggressive bloodletting. He believed in placing leeches over the organ of the body that was deemed to be inflamed.[ 5 ] his therapy was very popular in Europe in the 1830s, especially France, where 5 to 6 million leeches per year were used in Paris alone and about 35 million in the country as a whole. By the late 1800s, however, enthusiasm for leech therapy had waned, but leeches are still used today in select situations. Famous bleedings When Charles II (1630–1685) suffered a seizure he was immediately treated with 16 ounces of bloodletting from the left arm followed by another 8 ounces from cupping.[ 6 ] Then he endured a vigorous regimen of emetics, enemas, purgatives, and mustard plasters followed by more bleeding from the jugul


What plant, imported from the New World, changed the face of Italian cooking?

Tomato History | A Brief History Lesson about the Tomato Tomato History   The Tomato History has origins traced back to the early Aztecs around 700 A.D; therefore it is believed that the tomato is native to the Americas. It was not until around the 16th century that Europeans were introduced to this fruit when the early explorers set sail to discover new lands. Throughout Southern Europe, the tomato was quickly accepted into the kitchen, yet as it moved north, more resistance was apparent. The British, for example, admired the tomato for its beauty, but believe that it was poisonous, as its appearance was similar to that of the wolf peach. (A visitor named David had this to add to the history of the Tomato. Thanks David!) "...most Europeans thought that the tomato was poisonous because of the way plates and flatware were made in the 1500's. Rich people in that time used flatware made of pewter, which has a high-lead content. Foods high in acid, like tomatoes, would cause the lead to leech out into the food, resulting in lead poisoning and death. Poor people, who ate off of plates made of wood, did not have that problem, and hence did not have an aversion to tomatoes. This is essentially the reason why tomatoes were only eaten by poor people until the 1800's, especially Italians. What changed in the 1800's? First, and most significantly, was the mass immigration from Europe to America and the traditional blending of cultures. Many Italian-Americans ate tomatoes and brought that food with them. But also, and perhaps equally as important, was the invention of pizza. There is no pizza without tomato sauce, and pizza was invented around Naples in the late 1880's. The story goes that it was created by one restaurateur in Naples to celebrate the visit of Queen Margarite, the first Italian monarch since Napoleon conquered Italy. The restaurateur made the pizza from three ingredients that represented the colors of the new Italian flag: red, white, and green. The red is the tomato sauce, the white was the mozzarella cheese, and the green was the basil topping. Hence, Pizza Margarite was born, and is still the standard for pizza. And what could have led more to the popularity of the tomato than pizza!" It was not regarded as a kitchen vegetable until the times preceding The Civil War Period in the United States. From this point forward, tomatoes have become a staple item in the kitchen throughout the world. Each area of the world has its own tomato history and how it is used in everyday dining. It appears though that tomatoes have had the largest impact on American eating habits, as they are responsible for enjoying over 12 million tons of tomatoes each year. Fruit or Vegetable? An interesting aspect of tomato history is the classic debate: Is the Tomato a Fruit or Vegetable? I guess that depends on whom you are asking. By definition, a fruit is the edible plant structure of a mature ovary of a flowering plant, usually eaten raw; some are sweet like apples, but the ones that are not sweet such as tomatoes, cucumbers, peppers, etc. are commonly called vegetables. Botanists claim that a fruit is any fleshy material that covers a seed or seeds where as a horticulturists point of view would pose that the tomato is a vegetable plant. Until the late 1800's the tomato was classified as a fruit to avoid taxation, but this was changed after a Supreme Court ruling that the tomato is a vegetable and should be taxed accordingly. When it is all said and done, the history of the tomato has classified as a poisonous beautiful plant, a tax-avoiding fruit, and a taxable vegetable. Nonetheless, the tomato is the most popular vegetable in America and enjoyed by millions all over the world.


What composer died while composing a Requiem in 1791?

MLIT 10.7 - 1791- Died from illness while composing his Requiem Mass or Mass View Full Document October 7, 2013 Music Lecture  Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart  Born 1756-1791  ***Country of Origin: Austria  Born in Salzburg, Austria  Child Prodigy – toured Europe from age 6 to 17  Father was Leopold Mozart, also a court musician  Court musician (organist) at the court in Salzburg which was ruled by an archbishop who didn’t like him  Mozart’s Life  1781- quit his court position and became a freelance musician  1782- Married This is the end of the preview. Sign up to                   access the rest of the document. Unformatted text preview: 1791- Died from illness while composing his Requiem Mass or Mass for the Dead ***First musician to achieve musical independence Died penniless buried in an unmarked grave Supreme in all forms of music: opera, symphony, concerto Musical genius: finest keyboardist in Europe, had perfect pitch, photographic memory Arrogant, tactless but great friends with Haydn... October 9, 2013 Music Lecture Musical Forms Binary= A-B Ternary= A-B-A Theme and V MLIT 10.9


What fur-trading company, founded in 1670, once owned about 1/3rd of Canada's land?

Unique Facts about Canada: The Hudson Bay Company Hudson Bay Company The Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) is the oldest corporation in Canada (and North America) and is one of the oldest in the world still in existence. Its initials have often been farcically interpreted as "Here Before Christ". From its longtime headquarters at York Factory on Hudson Bay it controlled the fur trade throughout much of British-controlled North America for several centuries, undertaking early exploration and functioning as the de facto government in many areas of the continent prior to the arrival of large-scale settlement. Its traders and trappers forged early relationships with many groups of First Nations/Native Americans and its network of trading posts formed the nucleus for later official authority in many areas of western Canada and the United States. In the late 19th century its vast territory became the largest component in the newly formed Dominion of Canada, in which the company was the largest private landowner. With the decline of the fur trade, the company evolved into mercantile business selling vital goods to settlers in the Canadian West. Today the company is best known for its department stores throughout Canada. In the 17th century the French had a monopoly on the Canadian fur trade. However, two French traders, Pierre-Esprit Radisson and Médard des Groseilliers, feeling themselves to have been victimized by the French aristocracy, approached a group of businessmen in Boston, Massachusetts to help finance their explorations. The route Radisson and Groseilliers discovered led to rich trading grounds to the north and west of Lake Superior, which they said could be reached from the north through Hudson Bay instead of over land from New France. The Bostonians readily agreed and brought the two to England to elicit financing. In 1668, the English commissioned two ships, the Nonsuch and the Eaglet to explore possible trade into Hudson Bay. The Nonsuch was commanded by Captain Zachariah Gillam and accompanied by Groseilliers, while the Eaglet was commanded by Captain William Stannard and accompanied by Radisson. On June 5, 1668, both ships left port at Deptford, England, but the Eaglet was forced to turn back off the coast of Ireland. After a successful trading expedition over the winter of 1668–1669, the Nonsuch returned to England. "The Governor and Company of Adventurers of England trading into Hudson's Bay" was incorporated on May 2, 1670, with a Royal Charter from King Charles II. The charter granted the company a monopoly over the IndianĂ Trade, especially the fur trade, in the region watered by all rivers and streams flowing into Hudson Bay in northern Canada, an area known as Rupert's Land after the first director of the Company, Prince Rupert of the Rhine. This region constitutes 3.9 million km² (1.5 million square miles) in the watershed of Hudson Bay, comprising over one-third the area of modern-day Canada and stretching into the north central United States, but the specific boundaries were unknown at the time. Rupert's Land, once controlled by the Hudson's Bay Company The company founded its first headquarters at Fort Nelson at the mouth of the Nelson River in present-day northeastern Manitoba. The location afforded convenient access to the fort from the vast interior waterway systems of the Saskatchewan and Red rivers. Other posts were quickly established around the southern edge of Hudson Bay in Manitoba and present-day Ontario and Quebec. Called "factories", these posts operated in the manner of the Dutch fur trading operations in New Netherland. During the spring and summer First Nations traders, who did the vast majority of the trapping itself, travelled by canoe and were received at the fort to sell their pelts. In exchange they typically received metal tools and hunting gear, often imported by the company from Germany, the centre of inexpensive manufacturing in that era. Alcohol became another payment mechanism. Native addiction to alcohol became another inducement to fur trading, with their lack of European cultu


What was the state religion of the Persian empires?

Zoroastrianism - Religion of the Persian Empire Zoroastrianism - Religion of the Persian Empire MB Faith ^ | 6/25/05 | MB Faith Posted on 06/25/2005 8:31:30 PM PDT by freedom44 During the 7th and 6th centuries BC the ancient polytheistic religion of the Iranians was reformed and given new dimensions by the prophet Zoroaster (or Zarathusthra). Zoroaster's life dates have been traditionally given as (c. 628 - 551 BC), but many scholars argue for earlier dates. Linguistic evidence suggests that he was born in northeastern Iran, but the prophet's message was to spread throughout the Persian Empire. Adopted as the faith of the Persian kings, Zoroastrianism became the official religion of the Achaemenid empire and flourished under its successors, the Parthian and Sassanian empires. Its theology and cosmology may have influenced the development of Greek, later Jewish, Christian, and Muslim thought. The Muslim conquest of the 7th century AD marked the beginning of a steady decline of Zoroastrianism. Persecution resulted in the migration (about the 10th century) of the majority of Zoroastrians to India, where the Parsis of Bombay are their modern descendants. The religion of ancient Iran was derived from that of the ancient Indo Europeans, or Aryans. The language of the earliest Zoroastrian writings is close to that of the Indian Vedas, and much of the mythology is recognizably the same. Two groups of gods were worshiped, the ahuras and the daevas. The worship of the ahuras (lords) may have reflected the practice of the pastoral upper classes, and tradition holds that Zoroaster was born into a family that worshiped only the ahuras. The message of the prophet, however, was that Ahura Mazda, the Wise Lord, was the sole creator and lord of the world and that the worship of the daevas was the worship of evil. In Zoroaster's theology the Amesha Spentas, or Bountiful Immortals, were divine beings who acted essentially as agents of the power of Ahura Mazda; they were traditionally seven in number: Bounteous Spirit, Good Mind, Truth, Rightmindedness, Dominion, Health, and Life. The first of these, Spenta Mainyu, is of special importance in that he is paired with a "twin," Angra Mainyu, or Hostile Spirit. When given a choice between good and evil, or truth and the lie, Bounteous Spirit chose truth and Hostile Spirit the lie. Creation becomes a battleground, with the demoted ahuras invoked for the doing of good and the daevas enlisted by Angra Mainyu in the doing of evil. Nevertheless, Ahura Mazda has decreed that truth will triumph, and the old world will be destroyed by fire and a new creation instituted. In the period following Zoroaster, for which little evidence remains, Zoroastrianism consolidated its position and spread throughout Iran. The rise of the southern Persians and Medes seems to have been accompanied by the reinstatement of many of the ahuras, although Ahura Mazda is still recognized as supreme god. Among the most important figures to revive at this time were Mithra (Mithraism), usually associated with the sun, and Anahita, associated with the waters and fertility. Ahura Mazda (who becomes Ormazd) becomes identified with Spenta Mainyu, and Angra Mainyu (Ahriman) remains his antagonist. Ahura Mazda has relinquished some of his absolute supremacy and appears to need the assistance of the lesser ahuras, particularly Mithra, who appears as mediator and protector of the created world. This dualist view eventually became the orthodox position. Its development may have owed much to the Magi, a hereditary priestly caste, although their role is unclear. From them, however, the Greco Roman world learned much of what it knew of the religion. An important reform movement, however, arose within Zoroastrianism - the movement around Zurvan. The Zurvanites posited a supreme god, Zurvan (Infinite Time), who had sacrificed for 1,000 years in order to gain offspring. At the end of that time he experienced momentary doubt, and from that doubt arose Ahriman; at the same time, Ormazd came into being because of the efficacy of the sacrifices. A