Geographic features called rilles that come in sinuous, arcuate and straight types are a prominent part of the landscape where?

Astronomy 101/111 Second Third Part II - Lectures 13 - 28 Lecture 13 - Light and the Electromagnetic Spectrum: The Astronomer's Tools Electromagnetic Waves and Photons Until the development of the space program, virtually all of the astronomers' information came in the form of light from distant objects. It is natural that they would have played an important role in the investigations of the nature of light, just as they did in the development of Newton's mechanics. Many of the pioneers in the development of the modern theory of light were keenly interested in astronomical problems. The true nature of light wasn't really understood until the 20th century. Experiments done in the 19th century indicated that light was a form of wave motion. For many purposes, it is sufficient to describe light as a combined electrical and magnetic wave, or an electromagnetic wave. In the decade following 1964, the great English physicist James Clerk Maxwell was able to describe all electrical and magnetic phenomena with the help of four differential equations. They are now called Maxwell's equations, and every student of physics must learn to work with them. It's quite amazing that phenomena as varied as starlight, and children's magnets could be described by four relatively short equations, but this is the case. Perhaps the simplest way to think of these waves is to first picture ``lines of force'' about an electrical charge.  Nearly everyone has seen the lines of force about the poles of a magnet demonstrated with the help of iron filings and a glass plate. The concept of lines of force arose as a way of eliminating the problem that arose with the attraction of two bodies separated by some distance. It's easy enough to understand how something will move if you grab it and push or pull. On the other hand, how can two bodies separated by "nothing" attract or repel one another? This difficulty is known as the problem of action at a distance. It can be solved, after a fashion, with the notion of lines of force. Think of electrical charges or magnetic poles as being surrounded by lines of force, like those demonstrated for a bar magnetic. Then the lines of force fill in the void between the bodies. They will grab the other body, and there is no more action at a distance. Maxwell's equations described these lines of electrical or magnetic force. They showed that if you accelerated a charge, for example, if you wiggled it up and down, a wave would run out the electrical line of force. The same equations showed that the electrical wave would have to be accompanied by a magnetic wave. That's a little hard to see, and we won't go into it here. Take our word for it. But the electrical wave can be pictured as something similar to the wave that would travel down a rope. Stretch a rope out horizontally, and wiggle one end of it, and a wave will run down the rope away from your hand. Pretend that you fasten the far end way away, so you don't have to worry about what happens when the wave gets to that end. The electromagnetic wave is a form of light. It turns out that light is most conveniently described as a wave when the wavelength is relatively long, say of the order of a centimeter or more. Radio waves can be tens or even hundreds of meters in wavelength. All wave motion travels with a velocity equal to it's frequency (units are per second, or sec-1) multiplied by its wavelength. Astronomers traditionally use the Greek letter for frequency, and for wavelength. The symbol `c' is used for the velocity of light, thus: = c When the wavelength of light is shorter, a millimeter or less, say, a rather different picture is better--the photon picture. According to the quantum theory, the energy in electromagnetic waves comes in little bundles that are called photons. The shorter the wavelength, the better it is to think of the photon as a kind of particle--rather than a wave. It isn't that the wave picture becomes invalid, it's just that for many purposes, it's better to think in terms of photons. The Electromagnetic Spectrum Light, X-rays


Petaloudes Valley, whose name translates to Valley of the Butterflies in Greek is a tourist attraction of what 'wondrous' Dodecanese island?

Greece Holidays - Package Holidays in Greece and Greek Islands | Find Holiday Packages, Flights & Hotels | Olympic Holidays Picturesque countryside, dramatic cliff sides, glorious golden sandy beaches and crystal-clear waters make Zante an irresistible holiday. Make the most of your trip Things to see & do Samaria Gorge The longest gorge in Europe, and second longest is the world after the Grand Canyon, is to be found on the largest of the Greek islands,  Crete . The gorge cuts a swathe through the White Mountains and is teeming with wildlife including an incredible display of wildflowers in spring. Melissani Cave Take a boat trip underground in  Kefalonia  to experience the magic atmosphere of this cave enclosing a subterranean lake surrounded by trees. Named after the nymph Melissanthi, sunlight streams through the cave top illuminating the shimmering, turquoise water on which boats appear to levitate. The other-worldliness is enhanced by relics featuring nymphs and dolphin-shaped stalactites. Visit between noon and 2pm to catch the light effects. Hippocrates Plane Tree Picnic at the foot of the oldest tree in Europe, located in  Kos . Still standing thanks to extensive supports, this tree is said to be the Tree of Hippocrates where he once taught his students. ancient ruins give history lovers a treat. Waterskiing Watersports: In almost every resort you will find a range of watersport facilities ranging from paragliding to windsurfing with Vassiliki, Lefkada hosting one of Europe's largest windsurfing centres. Waterskiing is very popular in Greece and there are over 30 waterskiing schools in Greece. Another great way to spend the day is to hire a small boat and picnic on isolated beaches only accessible by sea. Olympia Rediscovered in 18th century in the West  Peloponnese , Olympia is the birthplace of the Olympic Games started in 776 BC to honour the god, Zeus. The area is full of historical attractions including The Temple of Hera, Stadium, a holy place for sport activities dedicated to Zeus holding about 20,000 spectators, the temple of Zeus, Prytaneion (site of the eternal flame) and many more Medieval Rhodes Town The old town area of  Rhodes  is a UNESCO World Heritage site. Between the Palace of the Grand Master and the Archaeological Museum, the Street of the Knights, was the main street of administrative and military buildings and functions in the Knights' era. The city of Rhodes is dominated by the medieval castle which overlooks the harbour, built in the 14th century by the Knights of St John. Useful Information


The historic Charles Bridge that crosses the Vlatava river connects which city's castle to its old town?

Charles Bridge – the Most Beautiful Gothic Structure in the Czech Republic | Places To See In Your Lifetime Charles Bridge – the Most Beautiful Gothic Structure in the Czech Republic Tweet The Charles Bridge, Prague, The Czech Republic. One of the most famous historic bridges in the world and Europe, the Charles Bridge crosses the Vltava river in the heart of the city. Commissioned by King Charles IV in the 14th century, the constructions finished in the 15th century. It is believed that king himself laid the first stone. The Charles Bridge, which is 621 m long, is claimed to be one of the most beautiful Gothic buildings in the world. Moreover, it is famous for the 30 Baroque statues, depicting saints, that are situated on the balustrade. The bridge connects Prague Castle with the Old Town and is considered to be one of the most romantic places in the city, visited by thousands of tourists every day. Why to go there? Historic architecture, the most famous bridge, the most popular site in Prague. When to go there?


The Hiram Bingham luxury train has what magnificent location as its destination?

Hiram Bingham Deluxe Train Cuzco to Machu Picchu Itineraries, fares and reserve online - Train tickets to Machu Picchu At around noon, on July 23, 1911, an explorer named Hiram Bingham climbed up a steep hill and stumbled onto Machu Picchu Inca City , uncovering what had been up until that moment, the Incas' best kept secret. The World was stunned by his discovery. PeruRail's luxury train service between Cuzco and Machu Picchu , is named after the American explorer who discovered the stunning ruins of the ancient citadel.   The train leaves from Cuzco in the morning taking a spectacular journey through a changing landscape while guests enjoy breakfast. After the steep climb out of Cuzco, the train descends into the Sacred Valley of the Incas , passing lush fields and colorful villages in the foothills of the Andes.   From there, the journey is highlighted by wonderful vistas of the mountains and the beautiful Urubamba River which runs through the Sacred Valley. On arrival in the town of Aguas Calientes at the foot of Machu Picchu, guests are taken by bus to Machu Picchu Sanctuary Lodge for lunch, which overlooks the ancient citadel. A private guided tour of the citadel follows before the return transfer to the station in the early evening. A sumptuous dinner is served on the train during the 3½ hour journey back to Cuzco.   For many visitors, the journey to Machu Picchu is a once-in-a-lifetime experience. Taking the Hiram Bingham means passengers can focus their attention and energy on what matters most, content in the knowledge that the logistical details of the day's trip have been taken care of by PeruRail.   "The best train of the World" (Condé Nast Traveller UK - Sep. 2011)     Life on Board The distinctive blue and gold carriages of the Hiram Bingham are warm and inviting with elegant interior upholstery. The train, consisting of 2 dining cars, a bar car and a kitchen car, can carry up to 84 passengers. The general style of the carriages is in line with those on PeruRail's ' Andean Explorer ' train, which operates between Cuzco and Lake Titicaca in Southern Peru, and reflect the luxury of the 1920s Pullman era.   The Hiram Bingham departs Cuzco at 9 am which gives a more leisurely start to the day than the traditional 6 am departures of other services. Brunch is served on board the train whilst travelers enjoy the spectacular scenery unfolding before them from the large windows. The arrival at Machu Picchu at 12:30 pm gives passengers the advantage of entering the Sanctuary at an hour when the majority of the visitors are already beginning to leave for their journey back to Cuzco. This not only gives the opportunity to experience the ancient citadel at Machu Picchu in relative solitude, but also with a longer period of time there, and passengers only return to the train as the sun goes down.   Once back on board for a 17:50 hrs departure, pre-dinner cocktails are served in the bar accompanied by live entertainment before passengers enjoy a 4-course, à la carte dinner, in the dining cars. The train pulls into Poroy station in Cuzco at 21:16 hrs.     JOURNEY The train leaves from Poroy in the morning, taking a spectacular journey through a changing landscape while guests enjoy breakfast. After departing Poroy and going through Cachimayo, the train descends to the plateau of Anta, a patchwork landscape of typical Andean crops and passes lush fields and colorful villages in the foothills of the Andes.   Far to the left, just below the horizon, the massive agricultural terraces of Jaquijahuana can be seen, close to the village of Zurite. Sadly, these great terraces are all that remain today of what was once a major Inca city, lost forever during the first years after the Spanish conquest.   Beyond the town of Huarocondo the great plain narrows dramatically as the track enters a deep gorge carved by the rushing Pomatales River down which the railway, too, is funneled until it meets the Urubamba River, which runs through the beautiful Sacred Valley.   The train passes through extensive areas of terracing dotted with the r


The 2000-yr old Banaue rice terraces built largely by hand in the Ifugao mountains that cover 4000 square miles are in which country?

Banaue Rice Terraces, Philippines | Backpacking Asia Travel Guide videos below are provided by YouTube under copyright of their owners. Wikipedia -     Banaue Rice Terraces A pre-Hispanic indigenous Ifugao village The Banaue Rice Terraces (Tagalog: Hagdan-hagdang Palayan ng Banawe) are 2000-year old terraces that were carved into the mountains of Ifugao in the Philippines by ancestors of the indigenous people. The Rice Terraces are commonly referred to by Filipinos as the "Eighth Wonder of the World". It is commonly thought that the terraces were built with minimal equipment, largely by hand. The terraces are located approximately 1500 meters (5000 ft) above sea level and cover 10,360 square kilometers (about 4000 square miles) of mountainside. They are fed by an ancient irrigation system from the rainforests above the terraces. It is said that if the steps are put end to end it would encircle half the globe.The Banaue Terraces are part of the Rice Terraces of the Philippine Cordilleras, ancient sprawling man-made structures from 2,000 to 6,000 years old. They are found in the provinces of Kalinga, Apayao, Benguet, Mountain Province and Ifugao, and are a UNESCO World Heritage Site. ... read more provided by Wikipedia are under Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License Wikitravel - Banaue Rice terraces at Cambolo near Banaue Banaue is a town on the Cordillera mountain range in the north of the island of Luzon, in the Philippines. It is mainly visited for its stunning rice terraces, which are a UNESCO World Heritage site. Sometimes called the "Eighth Wonder of the World", the 2000 years old Banaue rice terraces are a UNESCO World Heritage  site, and while many are still in use today, the outer rims are showing signs of deterioration. They were created by the Ifugao (local native people), in a massive engineering project to cover the sides of the valleys (probably 200 meters from floor to rim) for several miles, irrigated by means of mountain streams and springs that have been tapped and channelled into canals that run downhill through the rice terraces. provided by Wikitravel under Creative Commons       Attribution-ShareAlike License Research Center Not Enough information on travelling to     Banaue Rice Terraces? Want to know more? Dive into endless sources the internet     provides.


Of the twenty two members of the Arab league, only three maintain diplomatic relations with Israel. They are Egypt, Palestine and what other country?

Israeli-Palestinian Crisis Guide: Transcript - Council on Foreign Relations Crisis Guide: The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict Return to the interactive media player for the Crisis Guide. Video Overview From its beginnings, the Israeli-Palestinian conflict has been more than a local fight between two groups who want the same piece of land. It has confounded the expectations of the great powers trying to resolve it and created unintended consequences that have had a substantial impact beyond the region. Arguably no conflict on earth combines so complex a mixture of religious fervor, national aspirations, historical and economic grievances, territorial rivalry, and geopolitical impact. For Palestinians, and for Arabs and Muslims around the world, the conflict with Israel is viewed through a prism of anger at past humiliations - the bloody crusades of medieval times, centuries of domination of Jerusalem and the Arab world by European colonialists, and a belief that predominantly Muslim Palestinians have been forced to pay with their homeland for the sins of Europeans during the Holocaust. For Israelis, and for the global Jewish diaspora, the conflict's narrative grows out of centuries of anti-semitism and abuse at the hands of Christians and Muslims alike. From 11th century pogroms against Jews in North Africa, the Spanish Inquisition of the middle ages, to the Holocaust during World War Two, Jews remained outsiders in the lands of their birth. In the nineteenth century, Jewish intellectuals founded the Zionist movement with the intention of establishing a national homeland for Jews, and the land around the holy city of Jerusalem was a natural point of focus. The seeds of the conflict were already sown when the British government was given a mandate to rule Palestine in the carve-up of the Ottoman Empire after World War One. As part of that mandate was a commitment, the Balfour Declaration, to Jewish national home in the territory. Arabs cite a competing pledge - made by British officers eager to foment the 1916 Arab revolt against Ottoman rule during World War One - to create an Arab state on the same land. The conflict between Zionist Jews and Arabs - only later would they be Israelis and Palestinians - was simmering and ready to come to a boil. Starting in 1920 and for the next quarter of a century the British would face riots and uprisings, first from the Arab side and then from the Jewish side. The rise of the Nazis to power prior to World War Two accelerated Jewish emigration to Palestine, though Britain tried to prevent this migration. The Holocaust in Europe, and the pro-Nazi Grand Mufti of Jerusalem who spoke for many of Palestine's Arabs during the Mandate years, also radicalized some groups. A determination 'never again' to be herded into death camps led to extreme measures in support of an independent Jewish homeland, most notoriously the 1946 bombing of British military headquarters at Jerusalem's King David Hotel. Unable and unwilling to continue governing a territory in which it was under fire from both sides, the British announced in early 1947 they would withdraw from Palestine. The issue of what to do next became an early test for the newly-created United Nations. In November 1947, the U.N. agreed to a partition plan for the territory that was accepted by the leadership of mainstream Zionist groups. But it was rejected by the main Arab leaders, some Jews and the British. In early 1948, Palestine descended into civil war. On May 14, 1948 the day before the British mandate ended, Israel declared its independence. Though Britain abstained, Israel was quickly recognized by the United States, France, and the Soviet Union. The Arab nations, however, attacked, invading from multiple directions. The Israelis defended themselves, and mounted a series of counter-offensives to regain territory lost in the initial Arab invasion. When a U.N. brokered cease-fire ended the fighting, Israel held about 50 percent more territory than the U.N. partition plan had originally envisioned, though Egypt held the Gaza Strip and Jordan


A rock called Heel Stone that measures 16 feet above the ground and whose previous names include Friar's Heel and Sun-stone lies outside the main entrance to what monument?

Stonehenge – Iconic Britain | Belfast Child Stonehenge – Iconic Britain Stonehenge   Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument in Wiltshire , England , 2 miles (3 km) west of Amesbury and 8 miles (13 km) north of Salisbury . Stonehenge’s ring of standing stones are set within earthworks in the middle of the most dense complex of Neolithic and Bronze Age monuments in England, including several hundred burial mounds . Archaeologists believe it was constructed from 3000 BC to 2000 BC. The surrounding circular earth bank and ditch, which constitute the earliest phase of the monument, have been dated to about 3100 BC. Radiocarbon dating suggests that the first bluestones were raised between 2400 and 2200 BC,  although they may have been at the site as early as 3000 BC. ———————– ———————– Stonehenge has been a legally protected Scheduled Ancient Monument since 1882 when legislation to protect historic monuments was first successfully introduced in Britain. The site and its surroundings were added to UNESCO ‘s list of World Heritage Sites in 1986. Stonehenge is owned by the Crown and managed by English Heritage ; the surrounding land is owned by the National Trust . Stonehenge could have been a burial ground from its earliest beginnings. Deposits containing human bone date from as early as 3000 BC, when the ditch and bank were first dug, and continued for at least another five hundred years.   Etymology The Oxford English Dictionary cites Ælfric ‘s tenth-century glossary, in which henge-cliff is given the meaning “precipice”, or stone, thus the stanenges or Stanheng “not far from Salisbury” recorded by eleventh-century writers are “supported stones”. William Stukeley in 1740 notes, “Pendulous rocks are now called henges in Yorkshire…I doubt not, Stonehenge in Saxon signifies the hanging stones.” Christopher Chippindale ‘s Stonehenge Complete gives the derivation of the name Stonehenge as coming from the Old English words stān meaning “stone”, and either hencg meaning “ hinge ” (because the stone lintels hinge on the upright stones) or hen(c)en meaning “ hang ” or “ gallows ” or “instrument of torture” (though elsewhere in his book, Chippindale cites the “suspended stones” etymology). Like Stonehenge’s trilithons , medieval gallows consisted of two uprights with a lintel joining them, rather than the inverted L-shape more familiar today. The “henge” portion has given its name to a class of monuments known as henges . Archaeologists define henges as earthworks consisting of a circular banked enclosure with an internal ditch. As often happens in archaeological terminology, this is a holdover from antiquarian use, and Stonehenge is not truly a henge site as its bank is inside its ditch. Despite being contemporary with true Neolithic henges and stone circles , Stonehenge is in many ways atypical—for example, at more than 7.3 metres (24 ft) tall, its extant trilithons supporting lintels held in place with mortise and tenon joints, make it unique.   —————— Early history Plan of Stonehenge in 2004. After Cleal et al. and Pitts. Italicised numbers in the text refer to the labels on this plan. Trilithon lintels omitted for clarity. Holes that no longer, or never, contained stones are shown as open circles. Stones visible today are shown coloured Mike Parker Pearson , leader of the Stonehenge Riverside Project based at Durrington Walls , noted that Stonehenge appears to have been associated with burial from the earliest period of its existence: Stonehenge was a place of burial from its beginning to its zenith in the mid third millennium B.C. The cremation burial dating to Stonehenge’s sarsen stones phase is likely just one of many from this later period of the monument’s use and demonstrates that it was still very much a domain of the dead. — Mike Parker Pearson Stonehenge evolved in several construction phases spanning at least 1500 years. There is evidence of large-scale construction on and around the monument that perhaps extends the landscape’s time frame to 6500 years. Dating and understanding the various phases of activity is complicated


Tourists to the town of Oświęcim in Poland are most likely headed to see what?

Auschwitz travel guide - Wikitravel 8 Respect Auschwitz [1] is the generic name given to the cluster of concentration, labour and extermination camps built by the Germans during the Second World War and located outside the town of Oswiecim (Polish Oświęcim) in southern Poland, some 60 km from Krakow . The camps have become a place of pilgrimage for survivors, their families and all who wish to travel to remember the Holocaust. Understand[ edit ] Main gate of Auschwitz I concentration camp Although not the only (or, indeed, the first) German concentration and extermination camp, Auschwitz has become a widespread symbol of terror, genocide and the Holocaust in the global consciousness. A concentration camp was established by the Nazis in the suburbs of the Polish city of Oswiecim which - like the rest of Poland - was occupied by the Germans from the beginning of the Second World War (1939-1945). The name of the city of Oswiecim was changed ('Germanized') to Auschwitz, which became the name of the camp as well. The camp was continually expanded over the next 5 years and ultimately consisted of 3 main parts: Auschwitz I, Auschwitz II-Birkenau, and Auschwitz III-Monowitz. Auschwitz also had over 40 sub-camps in the neighboring cities and in the surrounding area. Initially, only Poles and Jews were imprisoned and died in the camp. Subsequently, Soviet prisoners of war ('POWs'), gypsies, and prisoners of other nationalities and minorities were also incarcerated there. From 1942 onwards, the camp became the site of one of the greatest mass murders in the history of humanity, committed against the European Jews as part of Hitler's plan for the complete destruction of that people ('the Final Solution'). The vast majority of the Jewish men, women and children deported from their homes all over occupied Europe to Auschwitz were sent immediately to their deaths in the Birkenau gas chambers upon arrival, usually trained in in overcrowded cattle wagons. Their bodies were afterwards cremated in industrial furnaces in the crematoria. At the end of the war, in an effort to remove the traces of the crimes they had committed, the SS began dismantling and razing the gas chambers, crematoria, and other buildings, as well as burning documents. Prisoners capable of marching were evacuated into the depths of the German Reich. Those who remained behind in the camp were liberated by Red Army soldiers on 27 January 1945. A 2 July 1947 Act of the post-war Polish Parliament established the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum on the grounds of the two extant parts of the camp, Auschwitz I and Auschwitz II-Birkenau. Get in[ edit ] There are quite frequent and inexpensive buses (13zl each way online or 14zl in person - Lajkonik ) or minibuses (8zl each way - depart from the basement level of the main bus station) to and from the main bus station in Krakow , or guided tours are available from most hotels or tourist information centres. The bus takes about one and a half hours - it is usually busy and stops locally along the way. The mini buses run every 20 minutes during the morning hours. They return from Auschwitz at 13:16, 15.36, &16.01 as of October 2012. A larger bus also leaves from Auschwitz at 14:20, 15:15, 16:00, 16:30, 17:00, 17:30, 18:30 and 19:30 (again as of March 26th, 2015). The larger bus leaves from the museum area, while the mini bus leaves from across the street from where you are let off. The minibus can be very crowded and won't manage to fit everyone at the busstop. There is a bus connection with Katowice city too, the buses leave Katowice from Plac Korfantego and arrive at the Oswiecim bus stop, from which one can catch a bus to Auschwitz. the ride takes and hour. Also, trains regularly run from Krakow to Oswiecim, you can purchase a one way ticket for 9,5 zl. There is a shuttle bus between Auschwitz and Birkenau. It is free and goes every half hour (from Auschwitz to Birkenau it leaves on the hour at half hourly intervals and going the opposite way it is 15 minutes of the hour at half hourly intervals - please check the timetable at


When the pioneering English settler John Smith explored the coastline of the region north of Virginia in 1614, what did he call the area?

Ri History - Rhode Island - Nellie M. Gorbea Nellie M. Gorbea Ri History Rhode Island History The first mention of the name Rhode Island or any of its variations in connection with Narragansett Bay is in the letter of Giovanni da Verrazzano, the explorer, dated July 8, 1524, in which he refers to an island near the mouth of Narragansett Bay, and likens the island to the Island of Rhodes in the Aegean Sea. The name was first officially applied to the island on March 13, 1644 in these words: “Aquethneck shall be henceforth called the Ile of Rods or Rhod-Island.” The name “Isle of Rodes” is found used in a legal document as late as 1646. In 1663 the name “Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations” was adopted in the Royal Charter granted by King Charles II of England. A few interesting facts concerning Rhode Island government Rhode Island was the first of the thirteen colonies to declare its independence from England (May 4, 1776) and the last of the thirteen to ratify the U.S. Constitution (May 29, 1790). Rhode Island was governed under a Royal Charter, granted by King Charles II in 1663, for 180 years. Rhode has been governed under its Constitution since 1843. Rhode Island is the only state that still celebrates Victory Day (the end of WWII) as an official state holiday. The metal from which the Independent Man atop the Rhode Island State House was cast came from the breaking up of a statue of Simon Bolivar, which once stood in New York's Central Park. Rhode Island Governor Benedict Arnold, the first Governor elected under the Royal Charter in November, 1663, was the great grandfather of the infamous Revolutionary War figure, Benedict Arnold. + Early History Indigenous people, mistakenly named "Indians" by Columbus, were the first inhabitants of present-day Rhode Island. European contacts with Rhode Island and its coastline have been claimed for several explorers, including medieval Irish adventurers, Norsemen, Portuguese navigator Miguel Corte-Real, and Italian navigator Giovanni Verrazano. Sailing to Rhode Island in 1524, Verrazano "discovered an island in the form of a triangle, distant from the mainland ten leagues, about the bigness of the (Greek) Island of Rhodes," which he named Luisa after the Queen Mother of France. This was Block Island. Roger Williams and other early settlers thought that Verrazano was referring to Aquidneck Island and changed that island's native name to Rhode Island. In this way, Verrazano inadvertently gave the state part of its official name. No other significant recorded visits were made to Rhode Island until 1614, when English explorer John Smith charted the New England coast and Dutch mariner Adriaen Block visited Block Island, naming it for himself. Beginning in 1620, settlers from Plymouth Colony and Massachusetts Bay ventured into the region to trade with native tribes. In 1635, Rhode Island's first European settler, an eccentric Anglican clergyman named William Blackstone, arrived and built a home near Lonsdale on the banks of the Blackstone River. At the time, Rhode Island was inhabited by several native tribes. The largest of these were the Narragansetts, occupying an area along Narragansett Bay from Warwick to South Kingstown. Their population - including ; the Niantics, a related tribe - has been estimated at about seven thousand when the first Europeans arrived. The northwest comer of the state was home to the Nipmucks, while the Wampanoags held territory within Providence and Warwick and may have held islands in Narragansett Bay. Two sub-tribes also lived in the Warwick area, the Cowesetts and the Shawomets. Niantics populated much of the towns of Charlestown and Westerly. The Pequots, a Connecticut tribe, arrived in 1632 to battle the Narragansetts for control of an area east of the Pawcatuck River in Westerly and Hopkinton. These people subsisted on farming, fishing, and hunting and lived in compact villages composed of families who shared a kin relationship. These villages were led by sub-sachems or petty sachems. Ultimate governmental authority for the Narragansetts


If all the languages of the world are listed by the highest number of speakers, what is the first name that is not an official language of the UN?

Linguistics 001 -- Languages of the World TOTAL 6,703 The 2005 edition lists 6,912 living languages -- this is not because 209 languages have been created in the past 9 years, but because of a combination of a more complete inventory and some decisions about how many speech communities to distinguish as "languages". In terms of number of speakers, we see a range from Mandarin      Chinese , with 885 million native speakers in 12 countries, down to      languages like Coos (in Southern Oregon) with 1 or 2 speakers. A graphical representation      of this distribution of sizes can be seen in the figure below, which plots      the number of languages with N or more speakers, for N from one to one      billion. As of the 1999 revision, Ethnologue assigns three-letter "language     codes" to 6783 "languages", for 6059 of which an estimate     of number of speakers is given. (In some cases, the languages without     a speaker-count estimate are extinct; in other cases, there are no "mother-tongue     speakers"; and in some cases, the number of speakers is unknown). Here's a table with some of the data from this plot. I've included all     the powers of 10, along with a few familiar languages to illustrate various     parts of the range: Number of speakers S 100,000,000 8 Many of the 6,000-odd "living" languages cited in Ethnologue     are endangered or nearly extinct. Those represented in the left half of     the graph above, with 10,000 or fewer speakers, are especially vulnerable.     Roughly half of the world's languages are moribund, in the sense that     new generations of children are not being raised to speak them. Within     a century, it is likely that the number of living languages will be cut     at least in half, and may well be fewer than 1,000. Thus the current rate     of extinction for languages is much greater than the rate of extinction     for biological species. Most people believe that this loss of linguistic     and cultural diversity is a bad thing. Language preservation is difficult,     but there are some success stories. For languages that can't be saved,     it is still possible to document them for scientific purposes and for     the sake of future generations who might want to study or even revive     them. For further discussion, see the web sites of the Endangered     Language Fund , the Foundation for     Endangered Languages and the International     Clearing House for Endangered Languages , or this recent     article from Scientific American. Looking at the other end of the distribution, the "top 20" languages in terms of number of native speakers (again from the 1996 edition     of Ethnologue) are: Rank Urdu 57 All of these counts are subject to question. One may question the census     figures and also (especially in multilingual cases) the question of who     counts as a speaker of which language. For instance, the 1996 edition     of Ethnologue cites 266 million native speakers of Spanish, with 352 million     including second language speakers. The 1999 revisions increase the number     of native speakers of Spanish to 332 million, moving Spanish past English     into second place. This does not represent a 25% population increase in     3 years, nor even a 25% increase in available census data, but rather     (apparently) a revision in who is counted as a Spanish speaker. Another set of questions have to do with what counts as a language. For     instance, you may be surprised to see Arabic -- certainly one of the world's     major languages -- missing entirely from this list of the "top twenty." In fact, Arabic (in all its varieties) has 202 million speakers world-wide,     and with this count would be #4 on the list above. However, Ethnologue     considers the local colloquial varieties of Arabic to be separate languages,     and the largest single colloquial is Egyptian, wi


In the list of 25 countries ordered by the highest number of Spanish speakers, what is the only name that is not from the western hemisphere?

List of Spanish-speaking Countries by Population. Map. Spanish in the World. Figures.     * In the 2006 census, 44.3 million people of the U.S. population were of Hispanic heritage; 34 million people, 12.2 per cent, of the population older than 5 years speak Spanish at home. In the U.S., Spanish has a long history in the United States (many southern states were part of Mexico and Spain) and it recently has been revitalized by much immigration from Latin America. Spanish is the most widely taught foreign language in the country. Although the U.S. has no formally designated "official languages", Spanish is formally recognized at the state level, beside English; in the U.S. state of New Mexico 30 per cent of the population speak it. Spanish is the dominant spoken language in Puerto Rico. In total, the U.S. has the world's fifth-largest Spanish-speaking population. ** Significant numbers of the populations of these countries speak Spanish Spanish was the original official language of the The Phlippines for more than three centuries, and became the lingua franca of the Philippines in the 19th and early 20th centuries. Spanish was the language of the Philippine Revolution, and the 1899 Malolos Constitution proclaimed it as the official language. However, Spanish was spoken by a total of 60% of the population in the early 1900's as a first, second or third language. Following the American occupation of the Philippines, its use declined after 1940. Currently, only a few Mestizos of Spanish or Hispanic origin speak it as their first language, although a few others use it together with Filipino and English.


What is the longest country in the world as measured in the north-south direction?

Latitude Geography Overview By Amanda Briney Updated July 25, 2016. Latitude is the angular distance of any point on Earth measured north or south of the equator in degrees, minutes and seconds. The equator is a line going around Earth and is halfway between the North and South Poles , it is given a latitude of 0°. Values increase north of the equator and are considered positive and values south of the equator decrease and are sometimes considered negative or have south attached to them. For example, if a latitude of 30°N was given, this would mean that it was north of the equator. The latitude -30° or 30°S is a location south of the equator. On a map, these are the lines running horizontally from east-west. Latitude lines are also sometimes called parallels because they are parallel and equidistant from each other. Each degree of latitude is about 69 miles (111 km) apart. The degree measure of latitude is the name of the angle from the equator while the parallel names the actual line along which degree points are measured. continue reading below our video Latitude and Longitude For example, 45°N latitude is the angle of latitude between the equator and the 45th parallel (it is also halfway between the equator and the North Pole). The 45th parallel is the line along which all latitudinal values are 45°. The line is also parallel to the 46th and 44th parallels. Like the equator, parallels are also considered circles of latitude or lines that circle the entire Earth. Since the equator divides the Earth into two equal halves and its center coincides with that of the Earth, it is the only line of latitude that is a great circle while all other parallels are small circles. Development of Latitudinal Measurements Since ancient times, people have tried to come up with reliable systems with which to measure their location on Earth. For centuries, both Greek and Chinese scientists attempted several different methods but a reliable one did not develop until the ancient Greek geographer, astronomer and mathematician, Ptolemy , created a grid system for the Earth. To do this, he divided a circle into 360°. Each degree comprised 60 minutes (60') and each minute comprised 60 seconds (60''). He then applied this method to Earth's surface and located places with degrees, minutes and seconds and published the coordinates in his book Geography. Although this was the best attempt at defining the location of places on Earth at the time, the precise length of a degree of latitude was unresolved for around 17 centuries. In the middle ages, the system was finally fully developed and implemented with a degree being 69 miles (111 km) and with coordinates being written in degrees with the symbol °. Minutes and seconds are written with ', and '', respectively. Measuring Latitude Today, latitude is still measured in degrees, minutes and seconds. A degree of latitude is still around 69 miles (111 km) while a minute is approximately 1.15 miles (1.85 km). A second of latitude is just over 100 feet (30 m). Paris, France for example, has a coordinate of 48°51'24''N. The 48° indicates that it lies near the 48th parallel while the minutes and seconds indicate just how close it is to that line. The N shows that it is north of the equator. In addition to degrees, minutes and seconds, latitude can also be measured using decimal degrees . Paris' location in this format looks like, 48.856°. Both formats are correct, although degrees, minutes and seconds is the most common format for latitude. Both however, can be converted between each other and allow people to locate places on Earth to within inches. One nautical mile , a mile type used by sailors and navigators in the shipping and aviation industries, represents one minute of latitude. Parallels of latitude are approximately 60 nautical (nm) apart. Finally, areas described as having low latitude are those with lower coordinates or are closer to the equator while those with high latitudes have high coordinates and are far. For example, the Arctic Circle, which has a high latitude is at 66°32'N. Bogota, Columb


What region in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region is the site of China's nuclear weapons tests?

Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of China - Main Menu - Introduction Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region 1980 AD, construction of the two top-secret US lectronic signal (SIGINT) monitoring sites in Xinjiang, one at Qitai and the other Korla These listening posts were manned by Chinese Nationals trained by the US Government to monitoring Soviet missile tests and other communications, electronic signals that the americans were unable to aquire after the Iranian revolutionaries closed down Tracksman 1 and 2 in Iran. The Top-Secret listening Stations in Qitai and Korla apparently continued their electronic spying operations until the end of the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan in 1989 AD. Construction and opening of the Karakoram Road or Highway, leading directly from Kasghar in Xinjiang to the Capital of Pakistan at Islamabad, traversing some of the highest mountain passes in the world. Capital of Xinjiang AR - Urumqi Surface Area / Size - 1,660,001 square kilometers (640,930 sq mi) Population - 26 Million (2006 AD) - Stabile Airports Taklamakan Desert Yu Men Pass Overview Map of the very large expanse of the Xinjiang-Uygur Autonomous Region of China (P.R.C.) and surrounding area's. Click Map Image for Full Sized Version. neighboring nations by high mountain ranges famous from Chinese and World history. Neighboring nations and territories of Xinjiang are many. The neighboring nations of Xinjiang are in clockwise around order; the Jammu & Kashmir Regions of India (disputed) in the South-West,  the countries of Afghanistan and Tajikistan in the West, Kyrgyzstan to the North-West, Kazakhstan to the North-North-West, a narrow border with the Russian Federation in the North, and finally the Republic of Mongolia to the North and North-East. Neighboring Chinese Territories are Inner-Mongolia Autonomous Region to the North-East, the narrow strip of Gansu Province in the East, Qinghai Province to the South-West and finally Tibet Autonomous Region of China to the South. Known as the Western Territory (Xin Jiang) since the earliest periods of the Han Dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD) , when Han China first started its opening and exploration of the Silk Road paths in Central Altai   Mountains Overview Map 2 - Schematic Map of Xinjiang Autonomous Region and surrounding area's. Click for Full Sized Version. Gobi Desert Ngoring Hu Wei River In the 1950's, Xinjiang Uygur became the scene of large scale and secretive military works. Apart from the task of guarding the border and strenghtening infra-structure for the Peoples Liberation Army, the main purpose of the military activities in these far western region was the building and developing of a (almost) home-grown Chinese Nuclear program. During the later stages of this development, the remote strecthes of the Taklamakan Desert on the border between Gansu , Inner-Mongolia Autonomous Region and Xinjiang Autonomous Region were chosen as the best location for nuclear testing and related secretive military activity. The first Chinese nuclear-weapons test site was located at Lop Nor , where in the 1960's China's first crude nuclear device was exploded. Lop Nor is situated near the entrance to the historic Hexi corridor running down from the High North near Lop Nur and Dunhuang , wedging between two mountain ridges and bending around the Heights of the Qinghai Plateaux to descend down and end at Lanzhou . This section is dry and arid and often windy, and consist of barren graveled lands and salt lakes. Rivers, formed by melting waters from nearby mountains cut across the plain, but waters rapidly flow downstream to end up in the Yellow River (Huang He) near Lanzhou . China Report - Map o/t Taklamakan Desert & Tarim River Basin A Satellite Image Map of the entire Taklamakan Desert and the Tarim River Basin in Xinjiang-Autonomous Region of Western China. Map gives explanation and backgrounds to Local Geography, the Flow of the Tarim River from the Pamir Mountains in the West to Lop Nur (Dry) in the East, ancient Oasis Cities of the Tarim Basin and Taklamakan Desert, the North and South Routes of the Sil


Marangu, Rongai, Lemosho, Shira, Umbwe and Machame are the six official trekking routes for what 'uplifting' activity?

About Mount Kilimanjaro - Kilimanjaro Trekking Club About Mount Kilimanjaro we will get back to you asap Your Nameyour full name Call + 4746353182 OR Book Online About Mount Kilimanjaro Mount Kilimanjaro is the highest mountain in Africa and the World’s highest free-standing structure at an altitude of 5896 meters (19,336 feet) above the sea level. Hiking on the rooftop of Africa is the adventure of a lifetime, and anyone who is physically fit can scale this snow-capped mountain.It is only 200 miles from the equator. Kilimanjaro is located inside the Kilimanjaro National Park outside of Moshi town in a beautiful accessible village of Marangu where the headquarter of the park is located.To accomplishyour dreaam of reaching the roof of Africa,there are different routes to follow.These routes includes Marangu route, Machame route, Rongai route, Lemosho route, Umbwe route, Shira route and Mweka route which is used for descent only. Mount Kilimanjaro is not only the highest free standing peak in the world but also highest accessible point. The chagga who inhabit the area of the mountain hasnâ€™t yet managed to give the meaning of the word Kilimanjaro with the exception of kipoo (now known as Kibo) which is one the 3 peaks of the mountain. The vegetation of Mount Kilimanjaro varies accordingly ranging from from tropics to the Arctic. At the level of 2700 m the cultivated foot slopes give way to lush montane forest, inhabited by leopard, buffalo, elephant, antelope and other primates. As you ascend the moorland zone show up where a cover of giant heather is studded with other worldly giant lobelias. Above 3900m, the zone changes to alpine desert which support little life to the fauna and flora.The final vegetation is of winter wonderland of ice and snow and the magnificent beauty of the roof of the Africa. Unlike other snow caped Mountains in the world, Mount Kilimanjaro isnâ€™t a technical climbing and need less personal climbing gear on trekking. Walking stick, proper clothing, sun glass, enough drinking water and determination are the key to a successfully Kilimanjaro climber.To successfully conquer the mountain you have to who prepares yourself properly before attempting the climb,even though prior mountain climbing experience is required.Our local guides are always on hand to offer advise and assistance to all our climbers. Mount Kilimanjaro is can be climbed in five days using Marangu route, but for those who wants to make a record they can climb in less days provided that they have payed for a minimum of five days. Climbing Kilimanjaro is a breathtaking activity and an extra day for acclimatization is recommended. An Acclimatization day gives a climber more chance to reach on the roof of Africa as this allows you to experience the climatic changes gradually, which improves your chances of summiting.An extra day on Marangu route is recommended while for Machame route 7 days should be considered to maximize chances of reaching uhuru peak which is the highest point of mount Kilimanjaro. The team which will take you to the mountain will comprise a cook(s), mountain guide and porters. The allocation of the crew is determined by the size of the group.For every 2 climbers one guide and his assistant will be allocated,together with a cook and porters.For every climber 2-3 porters are allocated if the route is Marangu,while for the camping routes such as Machame 4-5 porters are allocated.Porters will carry the luggage of the climber which should not exceed 20kgs.There will also be porters carrying other equipment such as, cooking facilities,dining tent,chairs,bathroom,toilet and sleeping tents depending on the route selected.On camping routes you carry more equipment compared to Marangu route which has some facilities such huts,toilets and kitchen provided by the park. Accommodation on all the official routes on mount Kilimanjaro is on camping tents with exception of Marangu route on which you sleep on huts accommodation, you share this accommodation with 4-6 climbers however on the camping routes you have private tents for sing


The Propylaea, which has now come to mean any gateway, was originally an entrance to what magnificent ancient construction?

Preservation Arts High School Curriculum Jump to: -- Modules -- Readings -- Web Links -- Back to Benchmarks Back to the Main Page This site has been chosen as a benchmark because it embodies the ideals of Ancient Greek society and represents the apotheosis of Classical Greek artistic and architectural perfection. The Parthenon is located atop the Acropolis, the highest summit and sacred rock in Athens, Greece. (Acropolis means 'high city,' and the limestone outcropping was originally the site of a fortress.) Buildings on the Acropolis include the Parthenon; the Temple of Athena Nike; the Erechtheum (an Ionic temple); and the Propylaea (the entrance gateway). Construction of the Parthenon began in 447-446 BC and was completed in 438 BC. The architects were Ictinus and Calli crates; Pheidias was the sculptor of the elaborate and extensive sculptural groupings. Constructed as a temple to the goddess Athena, the Parthenon is built primarily in the Doric order with some Ionic elements, and is considered the best physical embodiment of the mathematical and structural principles of the Doric order. The political leader Pericles led the campaign to build the Parthenon as a monument to the city's triumph over the Persians; as a symbol of Athens' supremacy, wealth, and beauty; and as an offering to the goddess Athena. It was under his rule that construction of the temple began. The Parthenon is constructed of marble quarried from Mount Pentelicon and with the exception of the wooden roof structure, the building including the roof tiles, was entirely made of marble. Note that the Parthenon is actually the second Parthenon. Construction on an earlier building had begun before 480 BC when the city was attacked and sacked by the Persians. The extant Parthenon is built on the foundations of the older Parthenon.       The Parthenon is a Greek temple and displays architectural elements that are typical of Greek Doric-order architecture, as well as elements that are atypical. Typical of a Greek Temple is the screen of massive Doric columns that surrounds the building. A Doric column is heavy and robust. It has no base and sits flush on the temple floor/top step, known as the stylobate. A Doric capital (topmost part of the column) is rather simple, and is said to resemble a pillow or cushion. The column's shaft (middle part) is carved into deep flutes that come to a point. At the Parthenon, the columns are 34' 3" high. At their base, the diameter of each column is 6' 3". Like all Doric columns, those at the Parthenon taper slightly towards the top.      The three main types of columns used in Greek temples and other public buildings are Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The truest and most basic difference among the orders has to do with proportions (Doric columns, for example, being thicker and shorter, Ionic columns taller and slimmer). As a shortcut, the orders may be distinguished most easily by their capitals (the tops of the columns). As you can see from the following examples, the Doric capital has the simplest design; the Ionic has the curlicues called volutes, and the Corinthian has the acanthus leaves: A Greek temple usually sits atop a platform that is composed of three steps or levels. The Parthenon's stylobate is 101' 4" wide and 228' 1" long.       The screen of columns, or peristyle, surrounded the building completely. When a single row of columns surrounds a Greek Temple, the temple is called peripteral. When the temple is surrounded by a double row of columns, it is dipteral. On mainland Greece, peripteral temples were far more common. The Parthenon is peripteral. In most cases, the temple would have six columns at the front and rear of the building, although the Parthenon has eight.      Originally, an entablature with a pediment (part of the roofing system) topped the peristyle. The roof itself consisted of wooden structural members and marble tiles to cover and enclose the space. The roof was sloped, resulting in a triangular shape at the front and rear ends. When a roof forms a triangular shape, it is called a gable, and


What city that is home to Africa's tallest building (the Carlton Centre) is the largest city in the world not on a lake, navigable river or by the coast?

Fareshoppe :: Johannesburg Timing: Open Seven Days from 9:00 AM to 11:00 PM Johannesburg Johannesburg is the capital of Gauteng Provence. This is the wealthiest province in South Africa. Its the largest city in the country; and is endearingly known to locals as Joburg, Jozi or Egoli (place of Gold). It was founded in 1886 and it is the financial capital of South Africa. Flying into the city you will land in the Johannesburg International Airport, which is South Africa's largest and busiest airport. Over 13 million people make this city their home. With 10 million trees across the city landscape it is the largest urban forest in the world. Johannesburg lies on the southern slopes of the Witwatersrand, in the Transvaal, which is the northeastern region of South Africa. It is thirty miles south-southwest of Pretoria. A mining town founded in 1886 when gold was discovered on a white-settlers farm - Johannesburg became the hub of South African gold mining through World War II, and an important industrial, as well as financial centre thereafter. Johannesburg represents the spirit of South Africa, and in some ways a visit to the country is not complete without an introduction to the city. Johannesburg is the largest city in the world not situated on a lake, navigable river or by the coast (the only reason that it was born was because of gold). It is home to Africa's tallest building, the Carlton Centre. Johannesburg is an African city of note. Johannesburg is characterised by contradiction and an apparent seamless combination of irreconcilable differences. Johannesburg is a booming, happening city and the emphasis is on making money - whether in business or on the streets - and has been since its beginnings when the world's richest gold fields were discovered in Johannesburg during the 1880s. Johannesburg is South Africa's largest and most vibrant city. It offers the tourist a lot to choose from including recreational facilities, historical sites, nature escapes, botanical gardens, mountain trails, and vibrant wildlife. Johannesburg enjoys a very favourable climate, dry and sunny all year round. Between October and April the city experiences heavy afternoon thunderstorms with downpours of rain that disappear as quickly as they arrive. Winter days are only slightly cooler than the pleasant summer average temperatures, but it can become frosty on winter nights. Places to Visit in Johannesburg: » Gold Reef City » Montecasino


The name of what able-bodied ethnic group from the mountain regions of Nepal means 'people of the east' in Tibetan?

Ethnic Group Of Nepal: Thakali, Gurung : Ethnically diverse society. [ Temprate ] [ Alpine ] [ Sub Tropical ] Temprate: THAKALI - The origin of Thakali is Thok Khola,    the Thakalis originate from the Kali Gandaki Gorge and, like many Nepali groups, have been subject to both Hindu and Buddhist influences, a high valley in central Nepal along the Muktinath region. They have Mongolian features, a fair complexion and narrow eyes. Thakalis are divided into three major groups: Marphali, Thakali and Tamang. Hirachan, Lalchan, Juwarchan, Pannachan comes under Marphali. Gauchan, Tulachan, Sherchan and Bhattacan comes under Tamang. Their religion is a mixture of Buddhism, Hinduism and Jhankrism. They are known for their hospitality, good salesmanship, and cleanliness. Adept entrepreneurs, they have cashed in on the trekking boom and have established little hotels all along the Annapurna Circuit and have also extended their influence to other parts of the country. Before Nepal was opened up to tourism, their economy was dominated by subsistence farming and, in the Kali Gandaki area, by salt trading. NEWARS - Newars are mainly settled in Kathmandu Valley and in major trading centers throughout the kingdom. They have Mongolian features and their own language and script, Newari, believed to have its origin from Tibeto-Burmans. Hinduism and Buddhism are their main religions. They have complex social systems and practices and are comprised of many castes. Trade and farming are their main occupations. GURUNGS - The Gurungs also originate from the central and western parts of Nepal, though they have tended to inhabit higher areas adopting a lifestyle of sedentary agriculture and nomadic pastorals. Like the Magars, Gurungs have been well represented in Gurkha units. They are predominantly Buddhist, though small Hindu and Shamanist communities exist. In recent years, may Magars become involved in the hotel business, especially in the Pokhara region. MAGARS - The Magars originate in the western and central areas of Nepal, though are found in scattered communities throughout the country. In Tibetan language Tamang means horse traders. It is believed that they originally came from Tibet.The majority of Tamangs live in the hills surrounding Kathmandu Valley. Their social practices and customs are based on Buddhism and they have their own language, Tamang. They work mainly as farmers, labours and as porters. They may be of either Hindu or Buddhist faith. Traditionally hill farmers inhabiting the lower slopes, they are also known for their fighting abilities and many have been recruited into Gurkha regiments of the British and Indian armies. It is thought to be a strong cultural bond between Magars and Gurungs. KIRANTIS - The Kirantis are comprised of Rais and Limbus and are the oldest known peoples of Nepal. They live in the eastern hills of Nepal, the Rais being concentrated in the Solu Khumbu, Dudh Kosi and Arun Valley, while the Limbus are at the east of Arun Valley, in the Katchanjunga region and also extend into Northern parts of West Bengal in India. They are decendents of the Kirati's who first formed the kingdom in the Kathmandu Valley. They now mainly live in far eastern Nepal. Kirati people are well known for their courage and bravery and are often recruited into armies abroad like the more famous Gurkhas. The religious text of Limbu is the Mundhum. Both groups have supplied recruits to Gurkha regiments an reference is made to their fighting spirit in the Hindu epic Mahabharata. Of Mongoloid features, both have Tibeti-Burmese languages. The religion of the Limbus incorporates elements of Buddhism and Shamanism, while that of the Rais is more influenced by Hinduism. BRAHMIN AND CHHETRIS: Two large groups distributed in scattered patterns all over the country, which are considered the two highest castes in Nepal. They have sharp Indo-Aryan features and an olive complexion. Brahmins are believed to have migrated from India while Chhetris are from the present day Khasa people from Khasi. These people follow Hinduism as their main rel


What region of China that has a border checkpoint called Posto Fronteiriço das Portas do Cerco ('Frontier Post of the Border Gate' in Portuguese) is both the first and last European colony in that country?

The Newsletter 64 Summer 2013 by International Institute for Asian Studies - issuu issuu The Newsletter | No.64 | Summer 2013 Leonardus Joseph (Leo) Eland, painter of ‘Mooi Indie’ Louis Zweers Cambodian bronze Dick van der Meij A pavilion for Asian art in the new Rijksmuseum Amsterdam The Study page 8-9 Encouraging knowledge and enhancing the study of Asia 64 The Venetian Macao Resort Hotel Foyer. Image reproduced under a creative commons license courtesy of flickr.com The ongoing story of Macao Heaven’s authority THE FOCUS Ordained by poet W. H. Auden in the 1930s as a city where “nothing serious could ever happen”, and whose citizens were described only thirty years ago as “among the most unrepresented, forgotten people in Asia”, Macao is now experiencing a remarkable resurgence. In this edition of the Focus, guest editor Tim Simpson outlines the Macao of yesterday, today and the future. 2 | The Newsletter | No.64 | Summer 2013 Contents 3 From the Director 3 Books and Accolades  Paul van der Velde, ICAS Secretary  THE STUDY 4-5 Norodom Sihanouk and the political agenda  of Cambodian music, 1955–1970  LinDa Saphan  6-7 The painter Willem Imandt revisited  Paul van der Velde  8-9 Leonardus Joseph (Leo) Eland, painter of ‘Mooi Indie’  Louis Zweers  10-11 Epigraphic restorations of Timurid architectural heritage  Elena Paskaleva  12-13 Reviving traditions and creating futures  William Noseworthy  12-13 Reexamining human rights discourse after the Jewish  and the Chinese Holocausts  Sinkwan Cheng  14-15 Exploring inclusive Chineseness: neighbourhoods  Special feature page: The Opinion  Wim Haagdorens  16 Indian federalism: the need to look beyond  coalition politics  Special feature page: The Opinion  Tridivesh Singh Maini 28 ICAS Book Prize 2013 Shortlists  Special ICAS feature page THE REVIEW 17 New for review  18 Festive festschrift  Niels Mulder  18-19 Monograph of a Nepalese town  Sjoerd Zanen  20 Walking on the edge: explorers in China’s borderlands  Jared Phillips  37 Sikhism  Karuna Sharma  38 Between two worlds: women from pesantren  appropriating private and public spaces  Hanny Savitri Hartono  39 Cambodian bronze  Dick van der Meij  40 Consuming empire in wartime Japan  Torsten Weber  41 China experiments  Junpeng Li THE NETWORK 42-44 News from Asia  46 IIAS new publications 47-49 Announcements  50 IIAS reports  51 IIAS outreach  52 Reframing my memory of visiting IIAS  Special feature page: The Alumnus  Dennis Cheng  53 IIAS research projects 54-55 IIAS fellows Pages 21-23 Guest editor Tim Simpson introduces the ongoing story of Macao, the first (and ultimately, the last) European territory in Asia. The tiny city has effectively bookended the global era of the last half millennia, starting with the Portuguese claiming it in 1557, and now continuing to play a rather remarkable role in the circulations of subjects, cultures, and capital. Pages 24-25 Werner Breitung’s geographical contribution highlights the territorial ambiguity of Macao. There is a lack of clear historical records regarding the exact administrative agreement forged between the Chinese and Portuguese in relation to Macao, and the territory never clearly belonged exclusively to one or the other power. Pages 26-27 Cathryn Clayton comments on the unique form of shared sovereignty through which both Portugal and China extended limited authority over different dimensions of Macao and its population. Clayton refers to it as Macao’s ‘sort-of sovereignty’. Pages 30-31 Macao has long been known for tolerating vices forbidden in surrounding territories. Its liminal identity proved useful to various actors; Britain was one such actor with an interest in the enclave – discussed here by historian Rogerio Puga. THE FOCUS 21-36 The ongoing story of Macao   Tim Simpson Guest Editor The Focus The ongoing story of Macao THE PORTRAIT 56 A pavilion for Asian art in the new Rijksmuseum,  Amsterdam  Menno Fitski, Anna Slaczka & William Southworth Pages 32-3


The visa that makes travel easy within twenty-six countries of Europe takes its name from an agreement signed in 1985 in what city of Luxembourg?

Europe travel guide - Wikitravel Top cities[ edit ] How do you choose a few cities to represent a continent full of deep history and profound culture? This will change over time; but here's our "top ten": Amsterdam — canals, Rembrandt, hashish and red lanterns, the epicentre of liberal attitudes Athens - the Acropolis, ancient temples, medieval churches, early modern neoclassical mansions; the birthplace of Western civilization with a history of 3,400 years Barcelona — Gaudi's cosmopolitan home on Mediterranean coast Berlin — the capital of reunited Germany since 1990, it was divided by force for 45 years during the Cold War and has emerged as a international cultural centre and an area of rapid development since the fall of the Berlin Wall Istanbul — the only major city to span two continents and a fascinating melting pot of East and West London — Britain's vibrant capital, a true 'global city' Moscow — Europe's largest city is famous for its nightlife and the iconic Kremlin Paris — the capital of romance (and France) on the banks of the Seine Prague — magical city with its renowned bridges spanning the Vltava River Rome — the eternal city of seven hills and two thousand seven hundred years of history Other notable destinations[ edit ] Alhambra — part fortress, part palace, part garden, and part government city, a stunning mediaeval complex overlooking the city of Granada in Spain Alps — very popular mountain range for skiing/snowboarding and mountaineering, with Mont Blanc as its highest peak Cinque Terre — a gorgeous national park, which connects five picturesque villages in Italy Białowieża National Park in Poland — the last and largest remaining parts of the immense primeval forest that once spread across the European Plain Blue Lagoon — amazing geothermal spa with the water temperature around 40°C all year round, even in Iceland 's freezing conditions Meteora — six Greek Orthodox monasteries built on natural sandstone rock pillars Neuschwanstein Castle — the well-known fairy-tale castle in the Bavarian Alps in Bavaria Plitvice National Park — beautiful turquoise-coloured lakes surrounded by a large forest complex in Croatia Stonehenge — the well-known Neolithic and Bronze Age stone monument located on Salisbury Plain, England History[ edit ] Florence, the birthplace of the Renaissance with an astonishing cultural heritage The earliest concrete signs of written European culture can be found in Hellenic Greece . Homer (c. 800 BC), Hesiod (753 BC) and Kallinos (728 BC) are three of the oldest poets in Europe. The Romans believed that their city was founded in 753 BC, while modern archaeologists and historians believe that the area of modern day Rome has been inhabited since at least 1000 to 800 BC. From 300 AD Christianity in Europe started to spread. Around 500 the Roman Empire collapsed, with France at that time coming under the rule of the Merovingians, Spain coming under occupation from North African Berber Muslims and other countries essentially invaded by various barbarian groups. In 714, the Carolingian empire was founded and lasted until 911 occupying large parts of Western Europe. The period after this date is often called the high-middle ages and lasted until around 1300 which saw a shift to urbanisation across Europe, initiating in Western Europe, and gave rise to universities. This was followed by the late middle ages which ended around 1500, giving birth to a period of European history normally referred to as the Renaissance or the re-birth. The people of this period actively rediscovered classical Greco-Roman culture and it was followed by a reformation of Christianity, with the rise of new sects in Europe, most notably Protestantism. Between 1492 and 1972 many European nations (like Great Britain , Spain , Portugal , Russia , France and the Netherlands ) ruled or had ruled over most of the known world, with the exception of parts of Asia , Japan , Thailand and Tibet ) and Antarctica . The European Union Europe, prior to the conclusion of World War II, was a region ravaged by large-scale "total war". Nat


Mashair Railway that opened in 2010 connecting the sites of Mina, Muzdalifah and Mount Arafat serves the visitors of what city?

Gulf Construction Online - Growth driven by the faithful<!--lead2--><!--top2--> Makkah and Madinah Growth driven by the faithful Makkah and Madinah face a daunting task in accommodating the soaring number of pilgrims to these holy cities. However, a large number of new and expansion projects are being implemented to meet this challenge, says a Jones Lang LaSalle report. December 2010 MAKKAH and Madinah are on a path of complete transformation as construction takes place on an awe-inspiring scale to accommodate the ever-increasing number of pilgrims to these most sacred sites of Islam. Located approximately 425 km apart, these cities are relatively small by global standards, but their importance far outweighs their size on account of their position as the two holiest cities of Islam. The opportunity to visit Makkah and Madinah for either Hajj or Umrah is a highlight for the world’s 1.8 billion Muslims. Umrah attracts the most visitors (around 5.3 million in 2008). The global growth in the Muslim population  and the declining cost of international travel have been the main drivers for the increased number of religious tourists (pilgrims) performing Hajj and Umrah in recent years. The growth in Hajj and Umrah visitors is currently constrained by a number of infrastructure issues, including lodging capacity in Makkah and Madinah, transportation bottlenecks and government regulations regarding visas. However, a number of major initiatives are under way to alleviate the current infrastructure constraints and allow the holy cities to efficiently accommodate a larger number of pilgrims. Among such efforts that have borne fruit is the launch of the railway between Makkah and Madinah. The Mashair Railway, as it is also called, rolled out last month (on November 14), a day before Hajj, to serve pilgrims (see separate article). These holy cities are unique real estate markets in the Middle East and North Africa (Mena) region in that they are constrained more by supply and capacity and not demand, which is effectively unlimited, according to a report by Jones Lang LaSalle, a renowned global real estate investment and advisory firm and the largest in the Middle East. The report – the first of its kind on the real estate sector of Makkah and Madinah – sheds light on the potential these two cities have in the religious tourism industry, especially in the hospitality sector. Chiheb Ben-Mahmoud, senior vice-president at Jones Lang LaSalle Hotels, comments: “We have seen regionally that, attention is being directed towards the holy cities and it has become essential to report on the major development plans being undertaken there. The Saudi government in particular has taken great strides to capitalise on the real estate in the both cities to be better able to accommodate a larger volume of pilgrims.” The report states that given the significant movement associated with the Hajj, the prime constraint is imposed by the ground transport system rather than broader airport/seaport capacities or the ability to provide sufficient lodging capacity. The total visitors (Hajj plus Umrah) have increased from 5.3 million to 7.7 million over the past five years. These numbers are expected to further swell to 13.75 million by 2019, according to the analysis. “The increased number of pilgrims will provide significant opportunities for additional hotel rooms (a total of 82,000) in both Makkah and Madinah,” says Ben-Mahmoud. According to him, infrastructure is the key to increasing religious tourism in these cities. Although land ownership in the holy cities is limited to Saudi entities, there has been significant GCC and other foreign investment attracted to these markets in the form of joint venture agreements with Saudi entities. A large number of initiatives are under way to alleviate the current infrastructure constraints to efficiently accommodate a larger number of pilgrims. These include: King Abdulaziz International Airport: Improvements are also being made to the existing Hajj terminal at the King Abdulaziz International Airport, Jeddah, to impro


The Maasai Mara National Reserve in Kenya is contiguous with what famed national park of Tanzania?

Maasai Mara Game Reserve | Masai Mara National Reserve | Kenya Masai              Mara Game Reserve — Kenya Masai              Mara National Reserve View              Rates, Discounted Prices - Book & Save Now! Masai              Mara National Reserve is one of the best known              and most popular reserves in the whole of Africa. It              is Kenya's finest wildlife reserve. Everything about              this reserve is outstanding. Seasoned safari travelers,              travel writers, documentary makers and researchers often              admit that the Masai Mara is one of their favorite places.   So               why is that? Perhaps it is because of the 'big skies',               the open savannahs, the romance of films like 'Out               of Africa' and certainly because of the annual wildebeest               migration, the density of game, the variety of bird               life and the chance of a hot air balloon ride.   South               Western Kenya is the heartland of the Maasai. The               Maasai are strongly independent people who still value               tradition and ritual as an integral part of their               everyday lives. They regard themselves not just as               residents of this area but that they are as much a               part of the life of the land as the land is part of               their lives.   Traditionally,               the Maasai rarely hunt and living alongside wildlife               in harmony is an important part of their beliefs.               This unique co-existence of man and wildlife makes               this Maasai land one of the world’s most unique               wilderness regions.   At               the heart of these lands is the Maasai Mara Game Reserve,               widely considered to be Africa’s greatest wildlife               reserve. The Mara comprises200 sq miles of open plains,               woodlands and riverine forest. Contiguous with the               plains of the Serengeti, the Mara is home to a breathtaking               array of life. The vast grassland plains are scattered               with herds of Zebra, Giraffe, Gazelle, and Topi.   The               Acacia forests abound with Bird life and Monkeys.               Elephants and Buffalo wallow in the wide Musiara Swamp.               The Mara and Talek rivers are brimming with Hippos               and Crocodiles. Each year the Mara plays host to the               world’s greatest natural spectacle, the Great               Wildebeest Migration from the Serengeti.   From               July to October, the promise of rain and fresh life               giving grass in the north brings more than 1.3 million               Wildebeest together into a single massive herd. They               pour across the border into the Mara, making a spectacular               entrance in a surging column of life that stretches               from horizon to horizon.   At               the Mara River they mass together on the banks before               finally plunging forward through the raging waters,               creating frenzy as they fight against swift currents               and waiting crocodiles. The wildebeest bring new life               to the Mara, not just through their cycle of regeneration               of the grasslands, but for t


What second-most populous nation in Africa is also the most populous landlocked nation in the world?

UN: India to be world's most populous country by 2028 - BBC News BBC News UN: India to be world's most populous country by 2028 14 June 2013 Close share panel Image caption India's population is forecast to continue to grow until 2050, according to the United Nations India looks set to overtake China as the world's most populous country from 2028, according to the United Nations. At that point, both nations will number 1.45 billion people. Subsequently India's population will continue to grow until the middle of the century, while China's slowly declines. The UN also estimates that the current global population of 7.2 billion will reach 9.6 billion by 2050. That is a faster rate of growth than previously estimated. The population growth will be mainly in developing countries, particularly in Africa, the UN says. The world's 49 least developed countries are projected to double in size from around 900 million people in 2013 to 1.8 billion in 2050, whereas the population of developed regions will remain largely unchanged. The UN said the reason for the increase in its projection is largely new information on fertility levels in certain high birth rate countries. Nigerian growth Large developing countries, such as China, India and Brazil, have seen a rapid fall in the average number of children per woman, but in other nations, such as Nigeria, Niger, Ethiopia and Uganda, fertility levels remain high. Nigeria's population is expected to exceed that of the US by the middle of the century, and could start to rival China's by 2100. China's population is expected to start decreasing after 2030. "Although population growth has slowed for the world as a whole, this report reminds us that some developing countries, especially in Africa, are still growing rapidly," commented Wu Hongbo, the UN's Under-Secretary-General for Economic and Social Affairs. The United Nations publishes an assessment of past, current and future population trends every two years, in a recurrent series known as the World Population Prospects . Researchers have used data for 233 countries and areas to produce Friday's report.


The Wagah border often called the 'Berlin wall of Asia' is the only road border crossing between what two countries?

Wagah - Attari Border Closing ceremony by India & Pakistan - YouTube Wagah - Attari Border Closing ceremony by India & Pakistan Want to watch this again later? Sign in to add this video to a playlist. Need to report the video? Sign in to report inappropriate content. The interactive transcript could not be loaded. Loading... Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Uploaded on Feb 28, 2010 Wagah (Punjabi: ਵਾਘਾ, Hindi: वाघा, Urdu: واہگہ) is the only road border crossing between India and Pakistan, and lies on the Grand Trunk Road between the cities of Amritsar, India and Lahore, Pakistan. Wagah itself is a village through which the controversial Radcliffe Line was drawn. The village was divided by independence in 1947. Today, the eastern half of the village remains in India whilst the western half is in Pakistan. The Wagah border, often called the "Berlin wall of Asia", is a ceremonial border on the IndiaPakistan Border where each evening there is a retreat ceremony called 'lowering of the flags'. At that time there is a very energetic and thrilling parade by the Border Security Force (B.S.F) of India and the Pakistan Rangers soldiers. It may appear slightly aggressive and even hostile to foreigners. Troops of each country put on quite an entertaining show in their uniforms with their colorful turbans. Border officials from the two countries sometimes walk over to the offices on the other side for day to day affairs. The happenings at this border post have been a barometer of the India-Pakistan relations over the years. Samjhauta Express, the train service between Lahore and Delhi, plies twice a week from Attari railway station, 5 km from Wagah. The National Highway 1 of India starts from Wagah Border, and is the transit point for the DelhiLahore Bus service operating within the Punjab between Amritsar and Lahore, which was started in 2004 as relations between the two countries improved. During British rule the village was part of the Lahore Division of British Punjab. In 1947 the division, like the village, was split between India and Pakistan. Porters carrying goods across Wagah border For the past 60 years since independence in 1947, porters have been carrying goods across the Wagah border, which had been the only road link between the two nations, before the opening of Aman Setu in Kashmir for the start of the SrinagarMuzaffarabad Bus in 1999. On August 1415, 2001, the respective Independence days of Pakistan and India, the candle-lighting ceremony at the Wagah border, in which 40,000 Pakistani citizens and 15,000 Indian citizens took part, was seen as a reflection of the changing public mood over India-Pakistan reconciliation; such candlelight vigils and the yearly 'Midnight Peace Festivals' were also reported in subsequent years. There have been many calls for the opening up of Wagah border to promote Indo-Pak trade through increased transport between India and Pakistan. In March 2005, a delegation of the Indian Border Security Force met the Pakistan Rangers at the Wagah border to discuss the border issue after three years since the 20012002 IndiaPakistan standoff. In May 2005, Pakistan allowed the import of five specified food items, free of tax via Wagah border to tide over shortages in the domestic market; eventually, in an unprecedented move, on 1 October 2006, trucks carrying goods crossed the Wagah border for the first time since the independence of Pakistan and India over 60 years ago. The 1,400 Pakistani and 1,300 Indian porters employed till then were employed in unloading lorries and trucks, with this the bi-lateral arrangement which accounted for $1.3 billion (£650 million) a year in trade in 2007 and was expected to exceed $10 billion by 2010. The trade has further improved since then through the Wagah post, despite the ups and downs of Indo-Pak relations. With over 8000 people visiting the border on an average day just on the Indian side, governments have started developing Wagah as a tourist destination, improving tourist and c


The design of what magnificent 12th century complex, the largest of its kind in the world, represents the home of the Gods in Hindu mythology?

1000+ images about Angkor Wat on Pinterest | Hindus, Khmer empire and Angkor wat cambodia Pinterest • The world’s catalog of ideas Angkor Wat 35 Pins115 Followers In 1860, missionaries came across ruins in the Cambodian jungle, discovering a lost city twice as large as Manhattan. Angkor Wat is a Hindu, then subsequently Buddhist, temple complex in Cambodia and the largest religious monument in the world. Angkor Wat is designed to represent Mount Meru, home of the devas in Hindu mythology. The modern name, Angkor Wat, means "Temple City" or "City of Temples" in Khmer.


The script of Thuluth, a variety of Islamic calligraphy, is seen on the flag of what country?

Thuluth font in Arabic Calligraphy – Madrasah Ummul Hasanaat tweet Thuluth (Arabic: ثلث “one-third”, Turkish: Sülüs) is a script variety of Islamic calligraphy, which made its first appearance in the 11th century CE (fourth century of the Hijrah). The straight angular forms of Kufic were replaced in the new script by curved and oblique lines. In Thuluth, one-third of each letter slopes, from which the name (meaning “a third” in Arabic) comes. It is a large and elegant, cursive script, used in medieval times on mosque decorations. Various calligraphic styles evolved from Thuluth through slight changes of form The greatest contributions to the evolution of the Thuluth script, occurred during Ottoman Empire in three successive steps that Ottoman Art Historians call “Calligraphical Revolutions”: ▪ The first “revolution” occurred in the 15th Century and was initiated by the Master Calligrapher Sheikh Hamdullah. ▪ The second revolution occurred as a result of the Ottoman Calligrapher Hâfız Osman in the 17th Century. ▪ Finally, Mehmed Şevkî Efendi in the late 19th Century, gave the script the distinctive shape it has today. ▪ The best known artist to write the Thuluth script at its zenith is said to be Mustafa Rakım Efendi, a painter who set a standard in Ottoman calligraphy which many believe has not been surpassed to this day. ▪ Thuluth was used to write the headings of surahs, Qur’anic chapters. Some of the oldest copies of the Qur’an were written in Thuluth. Later copies were written in a combination of Thuluth and either Naskhi or Muhaqqaq, while after the 15th century Naskhi came to be used exclusively. ▪ This font is much seen in Flag of Saudi Arabia where its text, Shahadatut Tawheed, is written in Thuluth. ▪ An important aspect of Thuluth script is the use of Harakat (“Hareke” in Turkish) for representing vowel sounds, and other marks that were created to beautify the script. The grammatical Harakat follows the normal rules for any Arabic script, but the ‘Art’ markings follow their own rules in relation to placement and grouping. One common grouping technique is to separate the marks written below letters from those written above. The stylistic rules allow for great creativity as to shape and orientation. Scripts developed from Thuluth ▪ Since its creation thuluth has given rise to a variety of script used in calligraphy, and allowed numerous modifications during its course of evolution. Jeli Thuluth was developed to be used in large panels, such as tombstone etc. Muhaqqaq calligraphy script was developed by widening the horizontal sections of the letters in Thuluth. Naskh script was also developed from thuluth, by introducing a number of modifications resulting in smaller size and greater delicacy. Tawqi is a modified and smaller version of Thuluth . ▪ Riq’a was probably derived from the Thuluth and Naskh styles, the later itself being originated from thuluth. 2010-04-10


What NATO country with a unique geographic position is the only one with no standing army? No navy either!

Countries without a Military | Military Wiki | Fandom powered by Wikia Countries without a Military Share Countries without regular military forces. This is a list of countries without armed forces . The term "country" is used in the sense of independent state; thus, it applies only to sovereign states and not dependencies ( i.e. , Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, Bermuda), whose defense is the responsibility of another country or an army alternative. The term " armed forces " refers to any government-sponsored defense used to further the domestic and foreign policies of their respective government. Some of the countries listed, such as Iceland and Monaco, have no armies, but still have a non-police military force . Many of the 21 countries listed here typically have had a long-standing agreement with a former occupying country ; one example is the agreement between Monaco and France, which has existed for at least 300 years . [1] The Marshall Islands , Federated States of Micronesia (FSM), and Palau have no say in their respective country's defense matters, and have little say in international relations. [2] [3] [4] For example, when the FSM negotiated a defensive agreement with the United States, it did so from a weak position because it had grown heavily dependent on American assistance. [5] Andorra has a small army, and can request defensive aid if necessary, while Iceland had a unique agreement with the United States that lasted until 2006, which required them to provide defense to Iceland when needed. [6] [7] The remaining countries are responsible for their own defense, and operate either without any armed forces, or with limited armed forces. Some of the countries, such as Costa Rica, Dominica, and Grenada, underwent a process of demilitarization . [8] [9] Other countries were formed without armed forces, such as Andorra over 700 years ago ; [7] the primary reason being that they were, or still are, under protection from another nation at their point of independence. All of the countries on this list are considered to be in a situation of "non-militarization." [10] Japan is not included in this list because, while the country may officially have no military according to its constitution, it does have the Japan Self-Defense Forces , a military force only used outside Japan for peacekeeping missions. Contents


Because of changes in the political geography of Africa in 2011, what is now the largest country in that continent?

The Colonization of Africa The Colonization of Africa Ehiedu E. G. Iweriebor – Hunter College Between the 1870s and 1900, Africa faced European imperialist aggression, diplomatic pressures, military invasions, and eventual conquest and colonization. At the same time, African societies put up various forms of resistance against the attempt to colonize their countries and impose foreign domination. By the early twentieth century, however, much of Africa, except Ethiopia and Liberia, had been colonized by European powers. The European imperialist push into Africa was motivated by three main factors, economic, political, and social. It developed in the nineteenth century following the collapse of the profitability of the slave trade, its abolition and suppression, as well as the expansion of the European capitalist Industrial Revolution. The imperatives of capitalist industrialization—including the demand for assured sources of raw materials, the search for guaranteed markets and profitable investment outlets—spurred the European scramble and the partition and eventual conquest of Africa. Thus the primary motivation for European intrusion was economic.   The Scramble for Africa But other factors played an important role in the process. The political impetus derived from the impact of inter-European power struggles and competition for preeminence. Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Portugal, and Spain were competing for power within European power politics. One way to demonstrate national preeminence was through the acquisition of territories around the world, including Africa. The social factor was the third major element. As a result of industrialization, major social problems grew in Europe: unemployment, poverty, homelessness, social displacement from rural areas, and so on. These social problems developed partly because not all people could be absorbed by the new capitalist industries. One way to resolve this problem was to acquire colonies and export this "surplus population." This led to the establishment of settler-colonies in Algeria, Tunisia, South Africa, Namibia, Angola, Mozambique, and central African areas like Zimbabwe and Zambia. Eventually the overriding economic factors led to the colonization of other parts of Africa. Thus it was the interplay of these economic, political, and social factors and forces that led to the scramble for Africa and the frenzied attempts by European commercial, military, and political agents to declare and establish a stake in different parts of the continent through inter-imperialist commercial competition, the declaration of exclusive claims to particular territories for trade, the imposition of tariffs against other European traders, and claims to exclusive control of waterways and commercial routes in different parts of Africa. This scramble was so intense that there were fears that it could lead to inter-imperialist conflicts and even wars. To prevent this, the German chancellor Otto von Bismarck convened a diplomatic summit of European powers in the late nineteenth century. This was the famous Berlin West African conference (more generally known as the Berlin Conference), held from November 1884 to February 1885. The conference produced a treaty known as the Berlin Act, with provisions to guide the conduct of the European inter-imperialist competition in Africa. Some of its major articles were as follows: The Principle of Notification (Notifying) other powers of a territorial annexation The Principle of Effective Occupation to validate the annexations Freedom of Trade in the Congo Basin Freedom of Navigation on the Niger and Congo Rivers Freedom of Trade to all nations Suppression of the Slave Trade by land and sea This treaty, drawn up without African participation, provided the basis for the subsequent partition, invasion, and colonization of Africa by various European powers.   The African Resistance The European imperialist designs and pressures of the late nineteenth century provoked African political and diplomatic responses and eventually military resistance. Du


The Kagera river that became known for carrying bodies from the Rwandan Genocide in 1994 is the largest single inflow into what body of water?

No Secret: The Rwandan Genocide - Paul Hartal No Secret: The Rwandan Genocide A remote source of the Nile, the Kagera River originates in Burundi. On its way to Lake Victoria it flows into a steep gorge along the natural border between Rwanda and Tanzania. the river cascades in a small waterfall that swells in the rainy season. As the Kagera sweeps down from the highlands it carries within its currents vast clusters of uprooted trees embedded in gigantic dollops of elephant grass. In the spring and summer of 1994 it was still much the same. However, this time also thousands of human corpses floated on the river. Rwanda and Burundi are two tiny African countries, each with a territory somewhat smaller than Belgium. Most of the population belong to Hutu tribes, who are traditionally crop growers. But beginning in the 1300s warrior herdsmen from the highlands of Ethiopia migrated to the region. They originally spoke Somali or Oromo, but in adopting the local Bantu language and settling among the Hutus, they became known as Tutsis. The German colonists favoured the Ethiopian look of the Tutsi minority. They employed them as overseers in the administration of Ruanda-Urundi, as the colony was called then. Then during the First World War Belgium took over governing the territory but continued to support the Tutsis as the ruling class. In 1919 Brussels received a mandate from the League of Nations to administer the colony. The Belgian colonists divided Tutsis and Hutus on the basis of cattle ownership, church documents, physical measurements as a god-like ruler and treated the Hutus with disdain as peasants. But the aristocratic Tutsi monarchy came to an end in 1959 when Belgium allowed holding King Kigeli V of Ruanda-Urundi was forced to go to exile and the majority Hutus assumed control of the government. These were turbulent times that deteriorated into wide spread communal violence. In 1962 two independent countries emerged from the former colony, Rwanda and Burundi. But the transition from colony to independence was not At the time that Rwanda became independent, Hutus comprised more than 80 percent of the country’s seven million people. Nevertheless, the Tutsi minority was reluctant to give up its privileged ruling status. were at each other’s throat in the power struggle In Rwanda hundreds of Tutsis were killed while thousands of others fled to neighbouring Burundi and Uganda. In the aftermath of the atrocities, President Grégoire Kayibanda made the Hutus the governing majority of the nation. Yet the leaders of the new regime did not choose a policy of national reconciliation. Instead, they opted for oppression and discrimination. They blamed the problems of Rwanda on the Tutsis. In the 1970s the Hutu-led military continued to murder Tutsis in Rwanda. They excluded the Tutsis the armed forces, even from schools and universities. Yet meanwhile Tutsis had their share in violent ethnic cleansing as well. In 1972, in response to a Hutu rebellion, the Tutsi controlled army in the Republic of Burundi killed over 100,000 Hutus. Similarly to Rwanda, over 80 percent of the population in Burundi consists of Hutu tribes. Harking back on the shame and humiliation of the past, the Hutu leadership in Rwanda intensified their hateful propaganda, against the tall, aristocratic Tutsi. They claimed that the Tutsis intended to restore a feudal system to enslave the Hutu population. They recruited writers and teachers to travel the country to raise Hutu pride and to create a pan-Hutu consciousness. They sowed the seeds of spite, unfurled the propaganda of hate and prepared the hurricane of genocide. However, in the neighbouring countries the Tutsi refugee Diaspora organized militia forces to overthrow the Hutu regime in Rwanda. In 1990 civil war broke out as the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) of the Tutsi minority invaded the country from Uganda. Then on April 6,1994, an airplane carrying the Hutu presidents Juvénal Habyarimana of Rwanda and Cyprien Ntaryamira of Burundi, and babies by the thousands in the streets, in churches, schools and in